1992 Summer Olympics Explained

Host City:Barcelona, Spain
Motto:Friends for Life
(Spanish: Amigos para siempre, Catalan: Amics per sempre)
Nations:169
Athletes:9,386 (6,663 men, 2,723 women)
Events:257 in 25 sports (34 disciplines)
Opening:25 July 1992
Closing:9 August 1992
Opened By:King Juan Carlos I[1]
Cauldron:Antonio Rebollo
Stadium:Estadi Olímpic de Montjuïc
Summer Prev:Seoul 1988
Summer Next:Atlanta 1996
Winter Prev:Albertville 1992
Winter Next:Lillehammer 1994

The 1992 Summer Olympics (Spanish; Castilian: Juegos Olímpicos de Verano de 1992, Catalan; Valencian: Jocs Olímpics d'estiu de 1992), officially the Games of the XXV Olympiad (Spanish; Castilian: Juegos de la XXV Olimpiada, Catalan; Valencian: Jocs de la XXV Olimpíada) and officially branded as Barcelona '92, were an international multi-sport event held from 25 July to 9 August 1992 in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. Beginning in 1994, the International Olympic Committee decided to hold the Summer and Winter Olympics in alternating even-numbered years. The 1992 Summer and Winter Olympics were the last games to be staged in the same year.[2] These games were the second and last two consecutive Olympic games to be held in Western Europe after the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville, France, held five months earlier.

The 1992 Summer Games were the first since the end of the Cold War, and the first unaffected by boycotts since the 1972 Summer Games.[3] 1992 was also the first year South Africa was re-invited to the Olympic Games by the International Olympic Committee, after a 32-year ban from participating in international sport due to apartheid.[4] The Unified Team (made up by the former Soviet republics without the Baltic states) topped the medal table, winning 45 gold and 112 overall medals.

Host city selection

Barcelona is the second-largest city in Spain and the capital of the autonomous community of Catalonia, and the hometown of then-IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch and the famous European club, FC Barcelona. The city was also a host for the 1982 FIFA World Cup. On 17 October 1986, Barcelona was selected to host the 1992 Summer Olympics over Amsterdam, Netherlands; Belgrade, Yugoslavia; Birmingham, United Kingdom; Brisbane, Australia; and Paris, France, during the 91st IOC Session in Lausanne, Switzerland.[5] New Delhi, India, had announced a bid for the games, but withdrew in March 1986.[6] With 85 out of 89 members of the IOC voting by secret ballot, Barcelona won a majority of 47 votes. Samaranch abstained from voting. In the same IOC meeting, Albertville, France, won the right to host the 1992 Winter Games. Paris and Brisbane would eventually be selected to host the 2024 and 2032 Summer Olympics respectively.[7]

Barcelona had previously bid for the 1936 Summer Olympics that were ultimately held in Berlin.

1992 Summer Olympics bidding results[8]
CityCountryRound
123
Barcelona Spain293747
Paris France192023
Belgrade13115
Brisbane Australia11910
Birmingham88—
Amsterdam Netherlands5——

Highlights

See also: 1992 Summer Olympics opening ceremony and 1992 Summer Olympics closing ceremony.

Records

See main article: World and Olympic records set at the 1992 Summer Olympics.

Venues

See main article: Venues of the 1992 Summer Olympics.

Medals awarded

See main article: List of 1992 Summer Olympics medal winners.

The 1992 Summer Olympic programme featured 257 events in the following 25 sports:

Demonstration sports

Participating National Olympic Committees

A total of 169 nations sent athletes to compete in the 1992 Summer Games.

With the dissolution of the Soviet Union, twelve of the fifteen new states chose to form a Unified Team, while the Baltic States of Estonia and Latvia sent their own teams for the first time since 1936, and Lithuania sent its own team for the first time since 1928. Bosnia-Herzegovina competed for the first time as an independent nation after its separation from Socialist Yugoslavia, and Namibia and the unified team of Yemen (previously North and South Yemen) also made their Olympic debuts. Croatia and Slovenia made their first Summer Olympic appearance at these games, having participated at the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville.

The 1992 Summer Olympics notably marked Germany competing as a unified team for the first time since 1964 and the first time since 1936 as a single nation following German reunification. South Africa returned to the Games for the first time in 32 years.

The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was banned due to UN sanctions, but individual Yugoslav athletes were allowed to take part as Independent Olympic Participants. Four then-existing National Olympic Committees did not send any athletes to compete: Afghanistan, Brunei, Liberia and Somalia.

Number of athletes by National Olympic Committee

9,356 athletes from 169 NOCs

IOC Letter CodeCountryAthletes
USA 545
EUN 475
GER 463
ESP 422
GBR 371
FRA 339
ITA 304
CAN 295
AUS 279
JPN 256
CHN 244
KOR 226
HUN 217
TCH 208
NED 201
POL 201
SWE 187
BRA 182
CUB 176
ROM 173
BUL 138
NZL 134
DEN 110
AUT 102
MEX 102
SUI 102
RSA 93
POR 90
FIN 88
ARG 84
NOR 83
EGY 75
PUR 71
GRE 70
BEL 68
PRK 64
IOP 58
IRL 58
NGR 55
IND 52
COL 49
KEN 49
LTU 47
THA 46
MAR 44
INA 42
TUR 41
CRO 39
HKG 38
EST 37
IRI 36
JAM 36
ALG 35
SLO 35
GHA 34
LAT 34
MGL 33
DOM 32
KUW 32
TPE 31
ISR 30
ANG 28
QAT 28
ISL 27
PAK 27
PAR 27
MAS 26
PHI 26
VEN 26
ISV 25
GUM 22
BER 20
ETH 20
SEN 20
ZIM 19
FIJ 18
BAR 17
CYP 17
SMR 17
ZAI 17
CRC 16
PER 16
URU 16
CAF 15
BAH 14
GUA 14
SIN 14
ANT 13
BOL 13
ECU 13
CIV 13
MAD 13
MRI 13
PNG 13
TUN 13
UAE 13
CHI 12
LIB 12
SEY 11
SLE 11
SRI 11
BRN 10
BIZ 10
BIH 10
CAY 10
HON 10
RWA 10
KSA 9
TAN 9
ZAM 9
AND 8
CMR 8
DJI 8
GUI 8
IRQ 8
NCA 8
SYR 8
UGA 8
YEM 8
ALB 7
CGO 7
GEQ 7
HAI 7
LIE 7
MDV 7
TRI 7
VIE 7
BAN 6
BEN 6
BHU 6
BOT 6
CHA 6
GUY 6
LAO 6
LES 6
LUX 6
MLT 6
MTN 6
MOZ 6
NAM 6
VIN 6
SUD 6
SWZ 6
TOG 6
VAN 6
ARU 5
GAB 5
GAM 5
LBA 5
MLI 5
OMA 5
PAN 5
TGA 5
WSM 5
IVB 4
BUR 4
ESA 4
GRN 4
JOR 4
MAW 4
MYA 4
AHO 4
ASA 3
NIG 3
COK 2
MON 2
NEP 2
SOL 1

Calendar

All times are in Central European Summer Time (UTC+2)

OCOpening ceremony●Event competitions1Gold medal eventsCCClosing ceremony
style=width:18%; colspan=2 rowspan=2July/August 1992JulyAuguststyle=width:6%; rowspan=2Events
style=width:4%;24th
Fri		style=width:4%;25th
Sat		style=width:4%;26th
Sun		style=width:4%;27th
Mon		style=width:4%;28th
Tue		style=width:4%;29th
Wed		style=width:4%;30th
Thu		style=width:4%;31st
Fri		style=width:4%;1st
Sat		style=width:4%;2nd
Sun		style=width:4%;3rd
Mon		style=width:4%;4th
Tue		style=width:4%;5th
Wed		style=width:4%;6th
Thu		style=width:4%;7th
Fri		style=width:4%;8th
Sat		style=width:4%;9th
Sun
CeremoniesOC CC
Aquatics Diving<--24-->●<--27-->1<-- 28 -->●<-- 29 -->1<--30-->●<--2-->1<--3-->1<--4 -->1<--5-->39
Swimming<--24-->4<--27-->5<-- 28 -->5<-- 29 -->5<--30-->6<--31-->6<--1-->
<--24-->●<--3-->●<--4 -->●<--6-->1<--7-->1<--8-->
Water polo<--24-->●<--2-->●<--3-->●<--4 -->●<--6-->●<--7-->●<--9-->1
Archery<--24-->●<--1-->●<--2-->1<--3-->1<--4 -->2<--5-->4
Athletics<--24-->2<--1-->4<--2-->4<--3-->6<--4 -->5<--6-->6<--7-->6<--8-->9<--9-->143
Badminton<--24-->●<-- 29 -->●<--30-->●<--31-->●<--1-->●<--2-->●<--3-->●<--4 -->4<--5-->4
Baseball<--24-->●<--27-->●<-- 28 -->●<-- 29 -->●<--30-->●<--1-->●<--2-->●<--3-->●<--5-->1<--6-->1
Basketball<--24-->●<--27-->●<-- 28 -->●<--30-->●<--31-->●<--1-->●<--2-->●<--3-->●<--4 -->●<--5-->●<--6-->●<--7-->1<--8-->1<--9-->2
Boxing<--24-->●<--27-->●<-- 28 -->●<-- 29 -->●<--30-->●<--31-->●<--1-->●<--2-->●<--3-->●<--4 -->●<--5-->●<--7-->●<--8-->6<--9-->612
align=left rowspan=2Canoeing Slalom<--24-->2<--2-->2<--3-->16
Sprint<--24-->●<--4 -->●<--5-->●<--6-->●<--7-->6<--8-->6<--9-->
align=left rowspan=2Cycling Road cycling<--24-->2<--27-->1<--3-->10
Track cycling<--24-->1<-- 28 -->●<-- 29 -->1<--30-->●<--31-->5<--1-->
Equestrian<--24-->●<-- 29 -->●<--30-->2<--31-->●<--1-->1<--3-->1<--5-->1<--6-->●<--7-->●<--8-->16
Fencing<--24-->1<--31-->1<--1-->1<--2-->1<--3-->●<--4 -->1<--5-->1<--6-->1<--7-->1<--8-->8
Field hockey<--24-->●<--27-->●<-- 28 -->●<-- 29 -->●<--30-->●<--31-->●<--2-->●<--3-->●<--4 -->●<--5-->●<--6-->●<--7-->1<--8-->1<--9-->2
Football<--24-->●<--25-->●<--27-->●<-- 28 -->●<-- 29 -->●<--30-->●<--31-->●<--2-->●<--3-->●<--6-->●<--8-->1<--9-->1
align=left rowspan=2Gymnastics Artistic<--24-->1<-- 29 -->1<--30-->1<--31-->1<--1-->4<--2-->6<--3-->15
<--24-->●<--7-->1<--9-->
Handball<--24-->●<-- 28 -->●<--30-->●<--31-->●<--1-->●<--2-->●<--3-->●<--4 -->●<--5-->●<--7-->●<--8-->2<--9-->2
Judo<--24-->2<-- 28 -->2<-- 29 -->2<--30-->2<--31-->2<--1-->2<--2-->2<--3-->14
Modern pentathlon<--24-->●<--27-->●<-- 28 -->●<-- 29 -->2<--30-->2
Rowing<--24-->●<-- 28 -->●<-- 29 -->●<--30-->●<--31-->●<--1-->7<--2-->7<--3-->14
Sailing<--24-->●<-- 28 -->●<-- 29 -->●<--30-->●<--31-->●<--2-->2<--3-->7<--4 -->1<--5-->10
Shooting<--24-->2<--27-->2<-- 28 -->2<-- 29 -->1<--30-->2<--31-->2<--1-->1<--2-->1<--3-->13
Table tennis<--24-->●<-- 29 -->●<--30-->●<--31-->●<--1-->●<--2-->●<--3-->1<--4 -->1<--5-->1<--6-->1<--7-->4
Tennis<--24-->●<-- 29 -->●<--30-->●<--31-->●<--1-->●<--2-->●<--3-->●<--4 -->●<--5-->●<--6-->●<--7-->2<--8-->2<--9-->4
Volleyball<--24-->●<--27-->●<-- 29 -->●<--30-->●<--31-->●<--1-->●<--2-->●<--3-->●<--4 -->●<--5-->●<--6-->●<--7-->●<--8-->1<--9-->12
Weightlifting<--24-->1<--27-->1<-- 28 -->1<-- 29 -->1<--30-->1<--1-->1<--2-->2<--3-->1<--4 -->9
Wrestling<--24-->●<--27-->●<-- 28 -->3<-- 29 -->3<--30-->4<--31-->●<--4 -->●<--5-->3<--6-->3<--7-->4<--8-->20
Daily medal events 9 12 14 17 19 19 22 30 18 11 12 12 22 30 10 257
Cumulative total 9 21 35 52 71 90 112 142 160 171 183 195 217 247 257
July/August 1992style=width:4%;24th
Fri		style=width:4%;25th
Sat		style=width:4%;26th
Sun		style=width:4%;27th
Mon		style=width:4%;28th
Tue		style=width:4%;29th
Wed		style=width:4%;30th
Thu		style=width:4%;31st
Fri		style=width:4%;1st
Sat		style=width:4%;2nd
Sun		style=width:4%;3rd
Mon		style=width:4%;4th
Tue		style=width:4%;5th
Wed		style=width:4%;6th
Thu		style=width:4%;7th
Fri		style=width:4%;8th
Sat		style=width:4%;9th
Sun		Total events
JulyAugust

Medal table

See main article: 1992 Summer Olympics medal table. The following table reflects the top ten nations in terms of total medals won at the 1992 Games (the host nation is highlighted).

Broadcasting

International signal

In order to guarantee that the international signal was produced objectively and impartially, for the first time in Olympic history, a host broadcaster was expressly created for each of the 1992 Olympic Games instead of delegating responsibility to a national host broadcaster. The Albertville Organizing Committee created the Organisme de radio télévision olympique '92 (ORTO'92) for the Winter Olympics and the Barcelona Organizing Committee created the Ràdio Televisió Olímpica '92 (RTO'92) for the Summer Olympics.

RTO'92 managed the staff and the production and technical resources hired to Radiotelevisión Española (RTVE), the Corporació Catalana de Ràdio i Televisió (CCRTV) and the European Broadcasting Union (EBU). With a workforce of 3,083 people, a permanent radio and television installation at the Olympic Stadium and Palau Sant Jordi, and over 50 mobile units for other venues, RTO'92 provided live coverage of all Summer Olympic sports for the first time ever –except for a few preliminary events–, some 2,800 hours of live television footage, to its international rights-holders. The International Broadcast Centre (IBC) was located at the exhibition halls of Fira de Barcelona in Montjuïc.[18]

NHK and Panasonic developed the 1/2" DX digital system used to record the Games digitally for the first time. Also new were the underwater camera dolly on a track at the bottom of the swimming pool, the underwater microcameras at the bottom of the water polo pool, the periscope camera capable of transmit shots from below and above the water, the overhead camera dolly on a track along the canopy of the Olympic Stadium for the high zenithal shot of the athletics track, the stabilized optic gyro-zoom cameras, the super slow motion PAL camera and the microcamera on the high jump bar.[18]

Personalized coverage

To cover the Games, major international broadcasting unions such as the Asia-Pacific Broadcasting Union (ABU), the European Broadcasting Union (EBU), the International Radio and Television Organisation (OIRT), the Organización de Televisión Iberoamericana (OTI), the Arab States Broadcasting Union (ASBU), the Caribbean Broadcasting Union (CBU) and the Union of African National Television and Radio Organizations (URTNA), secured the rights for their member broadcasters in their countries. In other countries, broadcast networks secured the rights directly or pooled to secure the rights. The Games were covered by the following television and radio broadcasters:[19]

TerritoryTelevisionRadio
AlgeriaENTV
Argentina
AustraliaSeven NetworkABC
AustriaORFORF
Belarusbtv
Belgium
Brazil
BulgariaBNT
Canada
Chile
ChinaCCTVCPBS
ColombiaCanal A
CroatiaHRTHRT
CubaICRTICRT
CyprusCyBC
ČSTCzechoslovak Radio
DenmarkDRDR
EgyptERTUERTU
EstoniaETV
FinlandYleYle
France
Germany ARD
GreeceERTERT
Hong Kong
HungaryMTVMagyar Rádió
IcelandRÚVRÚV
IndiaDoordarshan
Indonesia Radio Republik Indonesia
Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting
IrelandRTÉRTÉ
IsraelIBAIBA
ItalyRAIRAI
Japan
JordanJRTV
LebanonTélé Liban
LibyaLJBC
LithuaniaLTV
LuxembourgRTLRTL
TDM
Malaysia RTM
MaltaMBA
MexicoTelevisa
MonacoRMCRMC
MongoliaMNB
MoroccoRTMRTM
NetherlandsNOSNOS
New ZealandTVNZRNZ
NorwayNRKNRK
PakistanPTVPBC
PhilippinesABS-CBN
PolandTVPPR S.A.
PortugalRTPRDP
Puerto RicoWIPR
RomaniaTVRRadio România
SingaporeSBC Channel 12
SloveniaRTVSLORTVSLO
South AfricaSABC
SpainTVE
SwedenSVTSR
Switzerland SRG SSR
Thailand
TunisiaERTT
TurkeyTRTTRT
United KingdomBBC One
United StatesNBC
Venevisión

HDTV coverage

The 1992 Winter and Summer Olympics were the first in which a comprehensive coverage in high-definition television (HDTV) was attempted. The European HDTV broadcast of the Summer Olympics was managed by the joint venture "Barcelona 1250" created by RTO'92, RTVE, Retevisión and PESA, with the financial support of the European Economic Community and a workforce of over 300 production and technical staff. A total of 225 hours and 45 minutes was broadcast in analog HD-MAC standard in 1,250 lines and, with commentary in five languages –Spanish, English, French, German and Italian– in addition to the non-commentary sound track, of eighteen different sports at seventeen venues, as well as the opening and closing ceremonies. Events from five venues were covered live –80% of the total broadcast time– and other events were recorded for a delayed broadcast. On-screen text and graphics were shown in HDTV for the first time ever. Nearly 700 viewing sites installed throughout Europe, including the fifty HDTV receivers installed in various pavilions at the Seville Universal Exposition, were able to receive the broadcast.[20]

For Japan, NHK also covered the 1992 Summer Olympics in HDTV in their own analog Hi-Vision system.[21]

Terrorism

The Basque nationalist group ETA attempted to disrupt the Barcelona Games with terrorist attacks. It was already feared beforehand that ETA would use the Olympics to gain publicity for their cause in front of a worldwide audience.[22] As the time of the Games approached,[23] ETA committed attacks in Barcelona and the Catalonia region as a whole, including the deadly 1991 Vic bombing.[24] [25] On 10 July 1992, the group offered a two-month truce covering the Olympics in exchange for negotiations, which the Spanish government rejected.[26] However, the Games went ahead successfully without an attack.[27]

Effect on the city

The celebration of the 1992 Olympic Games had an enormous impact on the urban culture and outward projection of Barcelona. The Games provided billions of dollars for infrastructure investments, which are considered to have improved the quality of life in the city, and its attraction for investment and tourism.[28] Barcelona became one of the most visited cities in Europe after Paris, London, and Rome.[29] [30]

Barcelona's nomination for the 1992 Summer Olympics sparked the implementation of an ambitious plan for urban transformation that had already been developed previously.[31] Barcelona was opened to the sea with the construction of the Olympic Village and Olympic Port in Poblenou. New centers were created, and modern sports facilities were built in the Olympic zones of Montjuïc, Diagonal, and Vall d'Hebron; hotels were also refurbished and new ones built. The construction of ring roads around the city helped to reduce traffic density, and El Prat airport was modernized and expanded with the opening of two new terminals.[32]

Cost and cost overrun

The Oxford Olympics Study[33] estimates the direct costs of the Barcelona 1992 Summer Olympics to be US$9.7 billion (expressed in 2015 U.S. dollars) with a cost overrun of 266%. This includes only sports-related costs, that is: (i) operational costs incurred by the organizing committee for the purpose of staging the Games, e.g., expenditures for technology, direct transportation, workforce, administration, security, catering, ceremonies, and medical services; and (ii) direct capital costs incurred by the host city and country or private investors to build the competition venues, the Olympic village, international broadcast center, media and press center, and similar structures required to host the Games. Costs excluded from the study are indirect capital and infrastructure costs, such as for road, rail, or airport infrastructure, or for hotel upgrades or other business investment incurred in preparation for the Games.[34]

The costs for Barcelona 1992 may be compared with those of London 2012, which cost US$15 billion with a cost overrun of 76%, and those of Rio 2016 which cost US$4.6 billion with a cost overrun of 51%. The average cost for the Summer Olympics since 1960 is US$5.2 billion, with an average cost overrun of 176%.

Songs and themes

There were two main musical themes for the 1992 Games. The first one was "Barcelona", a classical crossover song composed five years earlier by Freddie Mercury and Mike Moran; Mercury was an admirer of lyric soprano Montserrat Caballé, both recorded the official theme as a duet. Due to Mercury's death eight months earlier, the duo was unable to perform the song together during the opening ceremony. A recording of the song instead played over a travelogue of the city at the start of the opening ceremony, seconds before the official countdown.[35] [36] "Amigos Para Siempre" (Friends for Life) was the other musical theme and it was official theme song of the 1992 Summer Olympics. It was written by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Don Black, and sung by Sarah Brightman and José Carreras during the closing ceremonies.

Ryuichi Sakamoto composed and conducted some musical pieces at the opening ceremony musical score.[37] The Opening Olympic fanfare was composed by Angelo Badalamenti and with orchestrations by Joseph Turrin.

Mascot

See main article: Cobi and Petra. The official mascot was Cobi, a Catalan sheepdog in cubist style designed by Javier Mariscal.[38] He was widely featured in merchandising products and starred his own animated television series, The Cobi Troupe.[39]

Corporate image and identity

A renewal in Barcelona's image and corporate identity could be seen in the publication of posters, commemorative coins, stamps minted by the FNMT in Madrid, and the Barcelona 1992 Olympic Official Commemorative Medals, designed and struck in Barcelona.[40]

See also

External links

41.3642°N 2.1522°W

Notes and References

  1. Factsheet - Opening Ceremony of the Games of the Olympiad. live . International Olympic Committee. 9 October 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160814215458/https://stillmed.olympic.org/Documents/Reference_documents_Factsheets/Opening_ceremony_of_the_Games_of_the_Olympiad.pdf . 14 August 2016. 22 December 2018.
  2. Web site: Albertville 1992. www.olympic.org. 12 March 2010. https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20140107032344/http://www.olympic.org/content/error-pages/error404/?404;http://www.olympic.org:80/en/content/olympic-games/all-past-olympic-games/winter/albertville-1992/. 7 January 2014. live.
  3. Web site: Barcelona 1992 Summer Olympics | Olympic Videos, Photos, News . Olympic.org . 4 December 2011.
  4. News: OLYMPICS; an Era Ends, Another Begins: South Africa to Go to Olympics. The New York Times. 7 November 1991. Wren. Christopher S..
  5. Web site: IOC Vote History . Aldaver.com . 4 December 2011 . 25 May 2008 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080525070757/http://www.aldaver.com/votes.html . dead .
  6. Web site: Philip Barker: An Olympic passage to India 40 years ago . 6 October 2023 .
  7. Web site: Barcelona gets 1992 Summer Olympics . Archives . 18 October 1986 . Judith . Miller . The New York Times.
  8. Web site: Past Olympic Host City Election Results . https://web.archive.org/web/20110630134859/https://www.gamesbids.com/eng/past.html . 30 June 2011 . dead.
  9. News: Ciudad Olímpica: La parábola del suspiro . Olympic City: The parable of the sigh . . 27 July 1992 . 36 . es.
  10. News: Ceremonial hall of shame . . 15 September 2000 . 27 March 2010.
  11. Book: Official Report of the Games of the XXV Olympiad, Barcelona 1992, v.4 . 1992 . . 84-7868-097-7 . 72 . The arrow described an arc and lit the gas issuing from the cauldron; the flame soared up to a height of three metres..
  12. Web site: Barcelona 1992: Did you know? . . 2002 . 4 April 2002 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20020404134346/http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/past/innovations_uk.asp?OLGT=1&OLGY=1992.
  13. Web site: Hall of Famers: 1992 United States Olympic Team . Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame . 15 October 2015 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20100818075707/http://www.hoophall.com/hall-of-famers/tag/1992-united-states-olympic-team . 18 August 2010 .
  14. Web site: Fermin Cacho Ruiz . Olympic.org . 25 August 2013.
  15. Web site: Hassiba Boulmerka: Defying death threats to win gold . 11 February 2012 . Chloe . Arnold . . Algiers.
  16. Web site: On the Bright Side . . Michael . Farber . 30 July 1996 . 16 September 2000 . https://web.archive.org/web/20000916002627/https://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/events/1996/olympics/daily/july30/frec.html . dead.
  17. Book: 1992 Olympics Official Report. Part IV. 24 October 2012. List of participants by NOC's and sport.. 25 December 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20181225173537/https://digital.la84.org/digital/collection/p17103coll8/id/35738/rec/59. dead.
  18. Book: Official Report of the Games of the XXV Olympiad, Barcelona 1992. 3. 64–69. 1992. International Olympic Committee. 11 November 2022.
  19. Book: Television in the Olympics : international research project. 1995. James F. Larson. 978-0861965380. 257–260. illustrated. Miquel de Moragas, Nancy Kay Rivenburgh. 27 April 2013.
  20. HDTV coverage of the Barcelona Olympic Games. Romero, M.. Gavilán, E.. EBU Technical Review. Winter 1992. 16–24. European Broadcasting Union. 13 November 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20110706225141/https://tech.ebu.ch/docs/techreview/trev_254-romero.pdf. 6 July 2011. live.
  21. Current State of Japanese HDTV. Yukio, Omori. Journal of Japanese Trade & Industry. 1993. 6. 36–38. 14 November 2022.
  22. Book: Securing and Sustaining the Olympic City: Reconfiguring London for 2012 and Beyond . Pete . Fussey . Jon . Coaffee . Dick . Hobbs . April 2011 . . 9780754679455 . 48.
  23. Web site: CTV News - CTV News Channel. www.ctvnews.ca. 17 January 2019.
  24. Spain Tackles Terrorist Threat By Basques to Olympics, Expo. 1 April 1992. 17 January 2019. Christian Science Monitor.
  25. News: The Threat to the Games in Spain . Beth . Finkelstein . Noel . Koch . 11 August 1991 . . https://web.archive.org/web/20180730170647/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/1991/08/11/the-threat-to-the-games-in-spain/37be840c-3424-4451-b037-151a53bf2491/ . 30 July 2018 . dead.
  26. Web site: Eta rebuffed. https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220501/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/eta-rebuffed-1532917.html . 1 May 2022 . subscription . live. 13 July 1992. The Independent. 17 January 2019.
  27. Book: Western Europe 2017-2018. 9781475835090. Thompson. Wayne C. 31 August 2017. Rowman & Littlefield.
  28. Web site: The economic impact of the Barcelona Olympic Games, 1986–2004 . 2005 . Brunet . Ferran . . https://web.archive.org/web/20090419040527/http://olympicstudies.uab.es/pdf/wp084_eng.pdf . 19 April 2009 . dead .
  29. Web site: The Olympics Effect. Payne. Bob . 6 August 2008 . . https://web.archive.org/web/20080902014838/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/26042517/ . 2 September 2008 . dead.
  30. Web site: Top 150 City Destinations: London Leads the Way . Bremner . Caroline . 11 October 2007 . Euromonitor International . https://web.archive.org/web/20090901220258/http://www.euromonitor.com/Top_150_City_Destinations_London_Leads_the_Way . 1 September 2009 . dead.
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