Functional calculus explained

In mathematics, a functional calculus is a theory allowing one to apply mathematical functions to mathematical operators. It is now a branch (more accurately, several related areas) of the field of functional analysis, connected with spectral theory. (Historically, the term was also used synonymously with calculus of variations; this usage is obsolete, except for functional derivative. Sometimes it is used in relation to types of functional equations, or in logic for systems of predicate calculus.)

If

f

is a function, say a numerical function of a real number, and

M

is an operator, there is no particular reason why the expression

f(M)

should make sense. If it does, then we are no longer using

f

on its original function domain. In the tradition of operational calculus, algebraic expressions in operators are handled irrespective of their meaning. This passes nearly unnoticed if we talk about 'squaring a matrix', though, which is the case of

f(x)=x2

and

M

an

n x n

matrix. The idea of a functional calculus is to create a principled approach to this kind of overloading of the notation.

The most immediate case is to apply polynomial functions to a square matrix, extending what has just been discussed. In the finite-dimensional case, the polynomial functional calculus yields quite a bit of information about the operator. For example, consider the family of polynomials which annihilates an operator

T

. This family is an ideal in the ring of polynomials. Furthermore, it is a nontrivial ideal: let

n

be the finite dimension of the algebra of matrices, then

\{I,T,T2,\ldots,Tn\}

is linearly dependent. So
n
\sum
i=0

\alphaiTi=0

for some scalars

\alphai

, not all equal to 0. This implies that the polynomial
n
\sum
i=0

\alphaixi

lies in the ideal. Since the ring of polynomials is a principal ideal domain, this ideal is generated by some polynomial

m

. Multiplying by a unit if necessary, we can choose

m

to be monic. When this is done, the polynomial

m

is precisely the minimal polynomial of

T

. This polynomial gives deep information about

T

. For instance, a scalar

\alpha

is an eigenvalue of

T

if and only if

\alpha

is a root of

m

. Also, sometimes

m

can be used to calculate the exponential of

T

efficiently.

The polynomial calculus is not as informative in the infinite-dimensional case. Consider the unilateral shift with the polynomials calculus; the ideal defined above is now trivial. Thus one is interested in functional calculi more general than polynomials. The subject is closely linked to spectral theory, since for a diagonal matrix or multiplication operator, it is rather clear what the definitions should be.