Freedom in the World explained

Freedom in the World is a yearly survey and report by the U.S.-based non-governmental organization Freedom House that measures the degree of civil liberties and political rights in every nation and significant related and disputed territories around the world.[1]

Origin and use

Freedom in the World was launched in 1973 by Raymond Gastil. It produces annual scores representing the levels of political rights and civil liberties in each state and territory, on a scale from 1 (most free) to 7 (least free). Depending on the ratings, the nations are then classified as "Free", "Partly Free", or "Not Free". The report is often used by researchers in order to measure democracy and correlates highly with several other measures of democracy such as the Polity data series.[2]

The Freedom House rankings are widely reported in the media and used as sources by political researchers. Their construction and use has been evaluated by critics and supporters.

Country rankings

The rankings are from the Freedom in the World 2019,[3] 2020,[4] 2021,[5] and 2022 surveys, each report covering the previous year. The average of each pair of ratings on political rights and civil liberties determines the overall status of "Free" (1.0–2.5), "Partly Free" (3.0–5.0), or "Not Free" (5.5–7.0).[6]

An asterisk (*) indicates countries which are "electoral democracies". To qualify as an "electoral democracy", a state must have satisfied the following criteria:

  1. A competitive, multiparty political system;
  2. Adult suffrage for all citizens without criminal convictions (some states may further punish and subjugate people with criminal convictions by disenfranchising them from the democratic process);
  3. Regularly contested elections conducted in conditions of ballot secrecy, reasonable ballot security, and the absence of massive voter fraud that yields results that are unrepresentative of the public will; and
  4. Significant public access of major political parties to the electorate through the media and through generally open political campaigning.

An electoral democracy must have a score of 7 or more out of 12 in political rights subcategory A (Electoral Progress), an overall aggregate score of 20 in their political rights rating and an overall aggregate score of 30 in their civil liberties rating.[7]

Freedom House's term "electoral democracy" differs from "liberal democracy" in that the latter also implies the presence of a substantial array of civil liberties. In the survey, all Free countries qualify as both electoral and liberal democracies. By contrast, some Partly Free countries qualify as electoral, but not liberal, democracies.[6]

World

* indicates "Civil liberties in country or territory" or "Human rights in country or territory" links.

PR = political rights, CL = civil liberties

2024

Country (2024)
PR RatingCL RatingTotalFree
Afghanistan77615Not free
Albania33682840Partly free
Algeria65321022Not free
Andorra11933855Free
Angola65281018Not free
Antigua and Barbuda22853352Free
Argentina22853650Free
Armenia44542331Partly free
Australia11953857Free
Austria11933756Free
Azerbaijan77707Not free
Bahamas11913853Free
Bahrain7612210Not free
Bangladesh55401525Partly free
Barbados11943757Free
Belarus77826Not free
Belgium11963957Free
Belize21873453Free
Benin43611942Partly free
Bhutan24633033Partly free
Bolivia33662739Partly free
Bosnia and Herzegovina54511734Partly free
Botswana32722844Free
Brazil23723042Free
Brunei6528721Not free
Bulgaria22783246Free
Burkina Faso7527324Not free
Burundi7614410Not free
Cape Verde11923854Free
Cambodia7523419Not free
Cameroon661569Not free
Canada11973958Free
Central African Republic77514Not free
Chad7615114Not free
Chile11943856Free
China769-211Not free
Colombia23703139Free
Comoros54421626Partly free
Costa Rica11913853Free
Croatia22833449Free
Cuba7612111Not free
Cyprus11923854Free
Czech Republic11943658Free
Democratic Republic of the Congo7619415Not free
Denmark11974057Free
Djibouti7524519Not free
Dominica11933756Free
Dominican Republic33682741Partly free
East Timor723339Free
Ecuador33672938Partly free
Egypt6618612Not free
El Salvador44532132Partly free
Equatorial Guinea77505Not free
Eritrea77312Not free
Estonia11953857Free
Eswatini7617116Not free
Ethiopia66201010Not free
Fiji33662739Partly free
Finland111004060Free
France12893851Free
Gabon7520218Not free
Gambia502228Partly free
Georgia43582236Partly free
Germany11933954Free
Ghana22803545Free
Greece22853550Free
Grenada12893752Free
Guatemala54461729Partly free
Guinea6530723Not free
Guinea-Bissau54431726Partly free
Guyana23733043Free
Haiti65301119Not free
Honduras44482226Partly free
Hungary33652441Partly free
Iceland11943757Free
India24663333Partly free
Indonesia34572928Partly free
Iran771147Not free
Iraq56301614Not free
Ireland11973958Free
Israel23743440Free
Italy11903654Free
Ivory Coast44491930Partly free
Jamaica22803347Free
Japan11964056Free
Jordan65331122Not free
Kazakhstan7523518Not free
Kenya44522230Partly free
Kiribati11903753Free
Kosovo34602832Partly free
Kuwait55381424Partly free
Kyrgyzstan7527423Not free
Laos7613211Not free
Latvia12883751Free
Lebanon54421329Partly free
Lesotho23663036Free
Liberia24643034Partly free
Libya76918Not free
Liechtenstein21903353Free
Lithuania12893851Free
Luxembourg11973859Free
Madagascar34582434Partly free
Malawi33662937Partly free
Malaysia44532231Partly free
Maldives45442123Partly free
Mali6526620Not free
Malta22873552Free
Marshall Islands11933855Free
Mauritania55391524Partly free
Mauritius22853550Free
Mexico34602733Partly free
Micronesia11923755Free
Moldova33612635Partly free
Monaco31822557Free
Mongolia12843648Free
Montenegro33692742Partly free
Morocco55371324Partly free
Mozambique54441430Partly free
Myanmar76808Not free
Namibia22773146Free
Nauru23773443Free
Nepal34622834Partly free
Netherlands11973958Free
New Zealand11994059Free
Nicaragua7616412Not free
Niger6433627Partly free
Nigeria45442024Partly free
North Korea77303Not free
North Macedonia33672839Partly free
Norway11983959Free
Oman6524618Not free
Pakistan55351421Partly free
Palau11923755Free
Panama22833548Free
Papua New Guinea43612239Partly free
Paraguay33632637Partly free
Peru33662739Partly free
Philippines34582533Partly free
Poland22803347Free
Portugal11963957Free
Qatar6525718Not free
Republic of the Congo7617215Not free
Romania22833548Free
Russia761349Not free
Rwanda6623815Not free
Samoa22843252Free
San Marino11973958Free
São Tomé and Príncipe22843549Free
Saudi Arabia77817Not free
Senegal33672839Partly free
Serbia43571839Partly free
Seychelles22793445Free
Sierra Leone33602436Partly free
Singapore44481929Partly free
Slovakia11903753Free
Slovenia11963957Free
Solomon Islands32752847Free
Somalia77826Not free
South Africa22793346Free
South Korea22833350Free
South Sudan771-34Not free
Spain11903753Free
Sri Lanka44542233Partly free
Saint Kitts and Nevis21893554Free
Saint Lucia11923854Free
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines11903654Free
Sudan766-39Not free
Suriname22793445Free
Sweden11994059Free
Switzerland11963957Free
Syria771-34Not free
Tajikistan77505Not free
Tanzania55361224Partly free
Thailand55361224Partly free
Togo54421527Partly free
Tonga22813150Free
Trinidad and Tobago22823349Free
Tunisia53511635Partly free
Turkey56331716Not free
Turkmenistan77202Not free
Tuvalu11933756Free
Uganda65341024Not free
Ukraine44492128Partly free
United Arab Emirates7618513Not free
United Kingdom11913853Free
United States22833350Free
Uruguay11964056Free
Uzbekistan7612210Not free
Vanuatu22823250Free
Venezuela7615114Not free
Vietnam7619415Not free
Yemen761019Not free
Zambia44542331Partly free
Zimbabwe65271017Not free

Before 2024

CountryElectoral democracy20192020202120222023
FreePtsFreePtsFreePtsFreePtsFreePts
5 6 275 6 275 6 277 7 2
3 3 683 3 673 3 663 3 67
6 5 346 5 346 5 326 5 32
1 1 941 1 941 1 931 1 93
6 5 316 5 326 5 316 5 30
2 2 842 2 852 2 852 2 85
2 2 842 2 852 2 842 2 84
4 4 514 4 534 4 554 4 55
1 1 981 1 971 1 971 1 95
1 1 931 1 931 1 931 1 93
7 6 117 6 107 6 107 6 9
1 1 911 1 911 1 911 1 91
7 6 127 6 117 6 127 6 12
5 5 415 5 395 5 395 5 39
1 1 961 1 951 1 951 1 95
7 6 197 6 197 6 117 7 8
1 1 961 1 961 1 961 1 96
1 2 862 2 862 1 872 1 87
2 2 794 2 664 2 655 3 59
3 4 593 4 592 4 613 4 61
3 3 673 3 633 3 663 3 66
4 4 534 4 534 4 534 4 53
3 2 723 2 723 2 723 2 72
2 2 752 2 752 3 742 3 73
6 5 296 5 286 5 286 5 28
2 2 802 2 802 2 782 2 79
4 3 604 4 564 4 544 4 53
7 6 147 6 137 6 147 6 14
6 5 267 5 257 5 247 5 24
6 6 196 6 186 6 166 6 15
1 1 991 1 981 1 981 1 98
1 1 901 1 921 1 921 1 92
7 7 97 7 107 7 97 7 7
7 6 177 6 177 6 177 6 15
1 1 941 2 901 1 931 1 94
7 6 117 6 107 6 97 6 9
3 3 663 3 663 3 653 3 64
4 4 504 4 445 4 425 4 42
7 6 157 6 187 6 20
7 5 217 5 207 5 20
1 1 911 1 911 1 91
1 2 851 2 851 2 85
7 6 147 6 147 6 13
1 1 941 1 941 1 94
1 1 911 1 911 1 91
1 1 971 1 971 1 97
6 5 267 5 247 5 24
1 1 931 1 931 1 93
3 3 673 3 673 3 67
2 3 702 3 712 3 72
3 3 633 3 653 3 67
6 6 226 6 216 6 18
2 3 672 4 662 4 63
7 7 67 7 67 7 5
7 7 27 7 27 7 2
1 1 941 1 941 1 94
6 6 196 6 246 6 22
7 6 167 5 197 5 19
3 3 613 3 603 3 60
1 1 1001 1 1001 1 100
1 2 901 2 901 2 90
7 5 237 5 227 5 22
4 5 454 4 464 4 46
3 3 633 3 614 3 60
1 1 941 1 941 1 94
1 2 832 2 822 2 82
1 2 871 2 881 2 87
1 2 891 2 891 2 89
4 4 534 4 524 4 52
5 4 435 5 405 5 38
5 4 425 4 465 4 44
2 3 752 3 742 3 73
5 5 415 5 385 5 37
4 4 464 4 454 5 44
3 3 703 3 703 3 69
1 1 941 1 941 1 94
2 3 752 3 712 4 67
2 4 622 4 612 4 59
6 6 186 6 176 6 16
5 6 325 6 315 6 29
1 1 971 1 971 1 97
2 3 782 3 762 3 76
1 1 891 1 891 1 90
4 4 514 4 515 4 44
2 2 782 2 782 2 80
1 1 961 1 961 1 96
5 5 375 5 376 5 34
7 5 227 5 237 5 23
4 4 484 4 484 4 48
1 1 931 1 931 1 93
3 4 543 4 564 4 54
5 5 365 5 365 5 37
5 4 385 4 397 5 28
7 6 147 6 147 6 13
2 2 871 2 891 2 89
5 4 455 4 445 4 43
3 3 633 3 633 3 63
3 3 623 4 603 4 60
7 6 97 6 97 6 9
2 1 902 1 902 1 90
1 1 911 1 911 2 90
1 1 981 1 981 1 97
3 4 563 3 613 4 60
3 3 643 3 623 3 66
4 4 524 4 524 4 51
5 5 354 5 404 5 40
4 4 445 5 416 5 33
2 1 912 1 902 1 90
1 1 931 1 931 1 93
6 5 325 5 345 5 35
1 2 891 2 891 2 87
3 3 633 3 623 4 61
1 1 921 1 921 1 92
3 4 583 4 603 3 61
3 1 823 1 833 1 83
1 2 851 2 841 2 84
4 3 654 3 623 3 63
5 5 395 5 375 5 37
4 4 515 4 455 4 43
5 5 305 6 305 6 28
3 2 752 2 772 2 77
2 2 782 3 772 3 77
3 4 543 4 563 4 56
1 1 991 1 991 1 98
1 1 981 1 971 1 99
6 5 326 5 316 5 30
4 4 494 4 484 4 48
3 5 504 5 474 5 45
7 7 37 7 37 7 3
4 3 593 3 633 3 66
1 1 1001 1 1001 1 100
6 5 236 5 236 5 23
5 5 395 5 385 5 37
1 1 921 1 921 1 92
1 2 841 2 842 2 83
4 3 644 3 624 3 62
3 3 653 3 653 3 65
2 3 732 3 723 3 71
3 3 613 4 593 4 56
2 2 842 2 842 2 82
1 1 961 1 961 1 96
6 5 256 5 256 5 25
2 2 812 2 832 2 83
7 6 207 6 207 6 20
6 6 236 6 226 6 21
1 1 891 1 892 1 89
1 1 921 1 921 1 91
1 1 911 1 911 1 91
2 2 812 2 812 2 81
1 1 951 1 951 1 93
2 2 832 2 842 2 84
7 7 77 7 77 7 7
2 3 723 3 713 3 71
3 3 674 3 664 3 64
3 3 713 3 722 3 77
3 3 653 3 653 3 65
4 4 514 4 504 4 48
1 2 881 2 881 1 90
1 1 941 1 941 1 95
2 2 792 2 792 2 79
7 7 77 7 77 7 7
2 2 792 2 792 2 79
2 2 832 2 832 2 83
7 7 27 7 27 7 2
1 1 941 1 921 1 90
3 4 564 4 564 4 56
7 7 77 6 127 6 17
2 3 772 3 752 2 79
1 1 1001 1 1001 1 100
1 1 961 1 961 1 96
7 7 07 7 07 7 17 7 17 7 1
7 6 97 6 97 6 87 6 87 6 7
4 5 455 5 405 5 345 5 345 5 36
7 5 306 4 327 5 307 5 296 5 30
5 4 435 4 445 4 435 4 425 4 42
2 2 792 2 792 2 792 2 792 2 81
2 2 822 2 822 2 82
2 3 692 3 702 3 71
5 6 315 6 325 6 32
7 7 27 7 27 7 2
1 1 931 1 931 1 93
6 5 366 5 346 5 34
3 4 603 3 623 4 60
7 6 177 6 177 6 17
1 1 931 1 941 1 93
2 1 862 1 862 2 83
1 1 981 1 981 1 98
7 6 97 6 107 6 11
2 2 822 2 822 2 82
7 6 197 6 167 6 14
7 5 207 5 207 6 19
7 6 117 6 117 6 11
4 4 544 4 544 4 52
5 5 315 5 296 5 28

Territories and countries with limited recognition

Territory (2024)
TotalFree
Abkhazia391722Partly free
Crimea2-24Not free
Eastern Donbas2-13Not free
Gaza Strip835Not free
Hong Kong41932Partly free
Indian Kashmir26620Not free
Nagorno-Karabakh-3-30Not free
Northern Cyprus762749Free
Pakistani Kashmir29920Not free
Somaliland431726Partly free
South Ossetia1239Not free
Taiwan943856Free
Tibet0-22Not free
Transnistria17512Not free
West Bank22418Not free
Western Sahara4-37Not free
Country2014201520162017201820202021[8]
FreeFreeFreeFreeFreeFreePtsFreePts
45454545451723Partly401723Partly40
(disputed)4376767676-210Not8-29Not7
Donetsk PR and Luhansk PR (disputed)-16Not5-15Not4
Gaza Strip (Palestine)767676767638Not1138Not11
(China)52525252521639Partly551537Partly52
Indian Kashmir (India)4444444444820Not28720Not27
Azad Kashmir (Pakistan)6565656565919Not28919Not28
22222222223150Free812850Free78
(United States)*121211[9]
45455555451724Partly411824Partly42
767676767628Not1028Not10
11931194
Tibet (China)7777777777-23Not1-23Not1
6666666666913Not22812Not20
West Bank (Palestine)6565657575421Not25421Not25
7777777777-37Not4-37Not4

Former entries

Former entries from Freedom in the World. Most are territories added in the 1978 report for 1977 and received their last coverage in the 2000 report of the same year. Other territories with differing dates are noted below. Their placements are based on their final rankings before ceasing coverage.

Free

Partly Free

Not Free

Trends

Percentage of countries in each category, from the 1973 through 2021 reports:

1973–2021



valign=bottom Year
valign=bottom Free
valign=bottom Partly
Free
valign=bottom Not
Free
valign=bottom Electoral
Democracies
1975 41 (27%) 48 (32%) 63 (41%) —
1980 51 (32%) 54 (33%) 56 (35%) —
1985 53 (32%) 59 (35%) 55 (33%) —
1990 61 (37%) 44 (26%) 62 (37%) 69 (41%)
1995 76 (40%) 61 (32%) 54 (28%) 113 (59%)
2000 85 (44%) 60 (31%) 47 (25%) 120 (63%)
2005 89 (46%) 54 (28%) 49 (26%) 119 (62%)
2010 89 (46%) 58 (30%) 47 (24%) 116 (60%)
2011 87 (45%) 60 (31%) 47 (24%) 115 (59%)
2012 87 (45%) 60 (31%) 48 (25%) 117 (60%)
2013 90 (46%) 58 (30%) 47 (24%) 117 (60%)
2014 88 (45%) 59 (30%) 48 (25%) 122 (63%)
2015 89 (46%) 55 (28%) 51 (26%) 125 (64%)
2016 86 (44%) 59 (30%) 50 (26%) 125 (64%)
2017 87 (45%) 59 (30%) 49 (25%) 123 (63%)
2018 88 (45%) 58 (30%) 49 (25%) 116 (59%)
2019 86 (44%) 59 (30%) 50 (26%) 115 (59%)
2020 83 (43%) 63 (32%) 49 (25%) 115 (59%)
2021 82 (42%) 59 (30%) 54 (28%) 114 (58%)
2022 83 (43%) 56 (29%) 56 (29%) 115 (59%)
2023 84 (43%) 54 (28%) 57 (29%) 110 (56%)
Sources: Country Status and ratings overview 1973–2016,[10] [11] Number and percentages of electoral democracies 1989–2016,[12] Freedom in the World 2018 report covering 2017.[13]

Notes:

Evaluation

There is some debate over the neutrality of Freedom House and the methodology used for the Freedom in the World report, which has been written by Raymond Gastil and his colleagues.[14] The neutrality and biases of human-rights indices have been discussed in several publications by Kenneth A. Bollen.[15] Bollen wrote that "Considered together these criticisms suggest that some nations may have been incorrectly rated on Gastil's measures. However, none of the criticisms have demonstrated a systematic bias in all the ratings. Most of the evidence consists of anecdotal evidence of relatively few cases. Whether there is a systematic or sporadic slant in Gastil's ratings is an open question" (Bollen, 1986, p. 586).[14] The freedom index of Freedom in the World has a very strong and positive (at least an 80%) correlation with three other democracy-indices studied in Mainwaring (2001, p. 53).[16]

Ideological bias or neutrality

In his 1986 study, Bollen discussed reviews of measurements of human rights, including the index reported in Freedom in the World (Bollen, 1986, p. 585). Criticisms of Freedom in the World during the 1980s were discussed by Gastil (1990), who stated that "generally such criticism is based on opinions about Freedom House rather than detailed examination of survey ratings", a conclusion disputed by Giannone.[17] The definition of Freedom in Gastil (1982) and Freedom House (1990) emphasized liberties rather than the exercise of freedom, according to Adam Przeworski, who gave the following example: In the United States, citizens are free to form political parties and to vote, yet even in presidential elections only half of U.S. "citizens" vote; in the U.S., "the same two parties speak in a commercially sponsored unison", wrote .[18]

More recent charges of ideological bias prompted Freedom House to issue this 2010 statement:

Freedom House does not maintain a culture-bound view of freedom. The methodology of the survey is grounded in basic standards of political rights and civil liberties, derived in large measure from relevant portions of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. These standards apply to all countries and territories, irrespective of geographical location, ethnic or religious composition, or level of economic development.[6]

Mainwaring et alia (2001, p. 52)[16] wrote that Freedom House's index had "two systematic biases: scores for leftist were tainted by political considerations, and changes in scores are sometimes driven by changes in their criteria rather than changes in real conditions." Nonetheless, when evaluated in Latin American countries yearly, Freedom House's index was very strongly and positively correlated with the index of Adam Przeworski and with the index of the authors themselves: They evaluated Pearson's coefficient of linear correlation between their index and Freedom House's index, which was 0.82; among these indices and the two others studied, the correlations were all between 0.80 and 0.86 (Mainwaring et alia, 2001, p. 53).[16]

As previously quoted, Bollen criticized previous studies of Freedom in the World as anecdotal and inconclusive; they raised issues needing further study by scientific methods rather than anecdotes.[14] Bollen studied the question of ideological bias using multivariate statistics. Using their factor-analytic model for human-rights measurements, Bollen and Paxton estimate that Gastil's method produces a bias of -0.38 standard deviations (s.d.) against Marxist–Leninist countries and a larger bias, +0.5 s.d., favoring Christian countries; similar results held for the methodology of Sussman (Bollen and Paxton, 2000, p. 585).[19] In contrast, another method by a critic of Freedom in the World produced a bias for Leftist countries during the 1980s of at least +0.8 s.d., a bias that is "consistent with the general finding that political scientists are more favorable to leftist politics than is the general population" (Bollen and Paxton, p. 585).[19]

Coder bias

Political scientists Andrew T. Little and Anne Meng argued that the data produced by Freedom House and the Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) project relies heavily on subjective, as opposed to objective, measures and thus are tainted by coder bias.[20]

Use and conceptual analysis

Criticisms of the reception and uses of the Freedom in the World report have been noted by Diego Giannone:[21]

Time series

See also: Panel study and Time series. In "Political and ideological aspects in the measurement of democracy: the Freedom House case" (2010) which reviewed changes to the methodology since 1990, Diego Giannone concluded that "because of the changes in methodology over time and the strict interconnection between methodological and political aspects, the FH data do not offer an unbroken and politically neutral time series, such that they should not be used for cross-time analyses even for the development of first hypotheses. The internal consistency of the data series is open to question."[27]

On this topic, the Freedom House website replies that they have "made a number of modest methodological changes to adapt to evolving ideas about political rights and civil liberties. At the same time, the time series data are not revised retroactively, and any changes to the methodology are introduced incrementally in order to ensure the comparability of the ratings from year to year."[6]

See also

References

External links

Notes and References

  1. Web site: William Ide . January 11, 2000 . Freedom House Report: Asia Sees Some Significant Progress . https://web.archive.org/web/20131204022723/http://www.voanews.com/content/report--asia-sees-some-significant-progress-81235887/165280.html . 4 December 2013 . dead . Voice of America . October 13, 2012 . dmy .
  2. http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/g/g/ggc3/caspertufisPAweb.pdf “Correlation Versus Interchangeability: the Limited Robustness of Empirical Finding on Democracy Using Highly Correlated Data Sets"
  3. Web site: Freedom in the World 2019 . Freedom House . 5 February 2019 . 5 February 2019.
  4. Web site: Freedom in the World 2020 . Freedom House . 4 March 2020 . 4 March 2020.
  5. Web site: Freedom in the World 2021 . Freedom House . 3 March 2021 . 3 March 2021.
  6. http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=351&ana_page=363&year=2010 "Freedom in the World 2010: Methodology"
  7. Web site: Methodology: Freedom in the World 2018. 13 January 2018. freedomhouse.org. 17 January 2018. 24 February 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200224132730/https://freedomhouse.org/report/methodology-freedom-world-2018. dead.
  8. Web site: Countries and Territories. 2021-03-05. Freedom House. en.
  9. Puerto Rico *. Retrieved from https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2016/puerto-rico
  10. https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/Country Status %26 Ratings Overview, 1973-2016.pdf "Country Status and ratings overview"
  11. https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world Country and Territory Ratings and Statuses, 1973-2024 (Excel Download)
  12. https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/Electoral Democracy Numbers, FIW 1989-2016.pdf "Number and percentages of electoral democracies"
  13. https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/freedom-world-2018 Freedom In the World 2018
  14. Bollen, K.A., "Political Rights and Political Liberties in Nations: An Evaluation of Human Rights Measures, 1950 to 1984", Human Rights Quarterly, vol. 8, no. 4 (November 1986), pp.567–591. Also in: Jabine, T.B. and Pierre Claude, R. (Eds.), Human Rights and Statistics, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992, pp. 188–215, .
  15. Bollen has held chairs as a Distinguished Professor of Sociology and the Director of the Howard W. Odum Institute for Research in Social Science at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH). Also serving as an Adjunct Professor of Statistics at UNC-CH, Bollen wrote the leading graduate textbook in structural equation models (SEM), often called LISREL models; SEM modeling allows the summary of a large number of measurements using a small number of meaningful factors. SEM was used by Bollen in the studies reported hereafter.
  16. Mainwaring . S. . Brinks . D. . Pérez-Liñán . A.B. . Classifying Political Regimes in Latin . 10.1007/BF02687584 . Studies in Comparative International Development . 36. 1 . 37–65 . 2001 . 155047996 .
  17. Gastil . R.D. . 10.1007/BF02716904 . The Comparative Survey of Freedom: Experiences and Suggestions . Studies in Comparative International Development . 25 . 1. 25–50 . 1990 . 144099626 .
  18. Adam. Przeworski . Adam Przeworski . Freedom to choose and democracy . 2003 . 19 . 2 . 265–279 . Economics and Philosophy . 10.1017/S0266267103001159 . 10.1.1.570.736 . 38812895 .
  19. Bollen, Kenneth A. and Paxton, Pamela, "Subjective Measures of Liberal Democracy", Comparative Political Studies, vol. 33, no. 1 (February 2000), pp. 58–86
  20. Andrew Little and Anne Meng,“Measuring Democratic Backsliding.“ PS: Political Science & Politics (forthcoming). https://osf.io/n32zk/
  21. Giannone, Diego, "Political and ideological aspects in the measurement of democracy: the Freedom House case", Democratization, vol. 17, no. 1 (February 2010), pp. 68–97.
  22. "Concept Misformation in Comparative Politics." The American Political Science Review 64 (4): 1033–1053.
  23. Giannone (2010), p. 69. Quoting Landman, Tod, and Julia Hausermann, indicators/GovIndicatorsEssex2003.pdf Map-Making and Analysis of the Main International Initiatives on Developing Indicators on Democracy and Good Governance, Final Report, University of Essex – Human Rights Centre, July 2003, 98 pp.
  24. Scoble, Harry and Laurie Wiseberg, Ved Nanda, Ved, James Scarritt, and George Shepherd (eds) (1981), "Problems of Comparative Research in Human Rights", Global Human Rights: Public Policies, Comparative Measures and NGO Strategies, pp. 147–171, Westview Press, Boulder, CO, . Cited in Giannone (2010), p. 69.
  25. Giannone (2010), p. 69, citing Scoble, et al. (1981) and Axel Hadenius and Jan Teorell. "Assessing Alternative Indices of Democracy", Political Concepts, Committee on Concepts and Methods, Working Paper Series, August 2005, 47 pp.
  26. Munck, Gerardo L. and Verkuilen, Jay, CPS 2002.pdf "Conceptualising and Measuring Democracy: Evaluating Alternative Indices", Comparative Political Studies, vol. 35, no. 1 (February 2002), pp. 5–34. Cited in Giannone (2010), p. 69.
  27. Giannone (2010), p. 68.

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