Freedom of choice explained

Freedom of choice describes an individual's opportunity and autonomy to perform an action selected from at least two available options, unconstrained by external parties.[1]

In politics

In the abortion debate, for example, the term "freedom of choice" may emerge in defense of the position that a woman has a right to determine whether she will proceed with or terminate a pregnancy.[2] [3] [4] Similarly, other topics such as euthanasia,[5] vaccination, contraception,[6] and same-sex marriage[7] are sometimes discussed in terms of an assumed individual right of "freedom of choice". Some social issues, for example the New York "Soda Ban" have been both defended[8] and opposed,[9] with reference to "freedom of choice".

In economics

In microeconomics, freedom of choice is the freedom of economic agents to allocate their resources (such as goods, services, or assets) as they see fit, among the options that are available to them.[10] [11] It includes the freedom to engage in employment available to them.[12]

Ratner et al., in 2008, cite the literature on libertarian paternalism which states that consumers do not always act in their own best interests. They attribute this phenomenon to factors such as emotion, cognitive limitations and biases, and incomplete information - which they state may be remedied by various proposed interventions. They discuss providing consumers with information and decision tools, organizing and restricting their market options, and tapping emotions and managing expectations. Each of these, they state, could improve consumers' ability to choose.[13]

However, economic freedom to choose ultimately depends upon market competition, since buyers' available options are usually the result of various factors controlled by sellers, such as overall quality of a product or a service and advertisement. In the event that a monopoly exists, the consumer no longer has the freedom to choose to buy from a different producer. As Friedrich Hayek pointed out:

As exemplified in the above quote, libertarian thinkers are often strong advocates for increasing freedom of choice. One example of this is Milton Friedman's Free to Choose book and TV series.

There is no consensus as to whether an increase in economic freedom of choice leads to an increase in happiness. In one study, the Heritage Foundation's 2011 Index of Economic Freedom report showed a strong correlation between its Index of Economic Freedom and happiness in a country.[14]

In history

Suzanne K. Becking sees "the freedom to choose" as a fundamental basis of colonisation and national development in North America.[15]

Measuring freedom of choice

The axiomatic-deductive approach found in game theory has been used to address the issue of measuring the amount of freedom of choice (FoC) an individual enjoys.[16] In a 1990 paper,[17] [18] Prasanta K. Pattanaik and Yongsheng Xu presented three conditions that a measurement of FoC should satisfy:

  1. Indifference between no-choice situations. Having only one option amounts to the same FoC, no matter what the option is.
  2. Strict monotonicity. Having two distinct options x and y amounts to more FoC than having only the option x.
  3. Independence. If a situation A has more FoC than B, by adding a new option x to both (not contained in A or B), A will still have more FoC than B.

They proved that the cardinality is the only measurement that satisfies these axioms, which they observed to be counter-intuitive and suggestive that one or more axioms should be reformulated. They illustrated this with the example of the option set "to travel by train" or "to travel by car", that should yield more FoC than the option set "to travel by red car" or "to travel by blue car". Some suggestions have been made to solve this problem, by reformulating the axioms, usually including concepts of preferences,[19] [20] [21] or rejecting the third axiom.[22]

Relationship with happiness

A 2006 study by Simona Botti and Ann L. McGill showed that, when subjects were presented with differentiated options and had the freedom to choose between them, their choice enhanced their satisfaction with positive and dissatisfaction with negative outcomes, relative to nonchoosers.[23]

A 2010 study by Hazel Rose Markus and Barry Schwartz compiled a list of experiments about freedom of choice and argued that "too much choice can produce a paralyzing uncertainty, depression, and selfishness".[24] Schwartz argues that people frequently experience regret due to opportunity costs for not making an optimal decision and that, in some scenarios, people's overall satisfaction are sometimes higher when a difficult decision is made by another person rather than by themselves, even when the other person's choice is worse. Schwartz had written a book and given speeches criticizing the excess of options in modern society, though acknowledging that "some choice is better than none".[25] [26]

See also

Notes and References

  1. http://www.heritage.org/index/download. Index of Economic Freedom. Sebastiano. Bavetta. Pietro. Navarra. 2011. The Heritage Foundation. 65. As noted, there are two aspects of free choice: opportunity to choose and autonomy to choose.. February 12, 2013. Chapter 5. December 9, 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20191209002549/https://www.heritage.org/index/download/. dead.
  2. Web site: BBC – Arguments in favour of abortion. This leads some people to claim is that it is unethical to ban abortion because doing so denies freedom of choice to women and forces 'the unwilling to bear the unwanted'. . February 12, 2013.
  3. Web site: Freedom of Choice Act – H.R.1964. Freedom of Choice Act – Declares that it is the policy of the United States that every woman has the fundamental right to choose to: (1) bear a child; (2) terminate a pregnancy prior to fetal viability; or (3) terminate a pregnancy after fetal viability when necessary to protect her life or her health.. February 13, 2013. January 25, 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160125172018/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d110:H.R.1964:. dead.
  4. News: Eggs And Abortion: Freedom Of Choice. Huffington Post . Susan Smalley. February 13, 2013. January 10, 2008.
  5. Web site: Euthanasia and assisted suicide – Arguments. NHS. February 12, 2013.
  6. 10.3109/13625189909071344. Serfaty . D.. Guaranteeing freedom of choice in matters of contraception and abortion in Europe: Some personal remarks. The European Journal of Contraception & Reproductive Health Care. 4. 4. 237–245. 1999. 10817094.
  7. News: Even Same-Sex Marriage Is a Basic Civil Right. Huffington Post . Menachem Rosensaft. February 12, 2013. January 15, 2009.
  8. News: Soda "Ban" May Actually Increase Freedom of Choice. Huffington Post . Lauren Hunter . Kristin Van Busum . February 12, 2013. September 21, 2012.
  9. Web site: The Fizzy Math Behind Bloomberg's Soda Ban . reason.com. Baylen Linnekin . 21 July 2012 . First, the ban would restrict food freedom of choice. . February 12, 2013.
  10. Book: Hall . Robert E. . Robert Hall (economist) . Lieberman . Marc . Microeconomics: Principles & Applications . February 11, 2013 . 2009 . Cengage Learning . 978-1439038970 . 42 .
  11. Book: Pagoso. Cristobal M. . Dinio . Rosemary P. . Villasis . George A.. Introductory Microeconomics . February 11, 2013 . 1994 . Rex Bookstore, Inc. . 978-9712315404 . 15 .
  12. Web site: Quizlet Microeconomics, Chapter 04 – The Market System . . February 11, 2013.
  13. Ratner . R. K. . Soman . D. . Zauberman . G. . Ariely . D. . Carmon . Z. . Keller . P. A. . Kim . B. K. . Lin . F. . Malkoc . S. . Small . 10.1007/s11002-008-9044-3 . D. A. . Wertenbroch . K. . How behavioral decision research can enhance consumer welfare: From freedom of choice to paternalistic intervention . Marketing Letters . 19 . 3–4 . 383 . 2008 . 5880506 .
  14. Sebastiano Bavetta. Pietro Navarra. 2011. Index of Economic Freedom. http://www.heritage.org/index/download. The Heritage Foundation. 61–68. 5. February 12, 2013. December 9, 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20191209002549/https://www.heritage.org/index/download/. dead.
  15. Book: Becking . Suzanne K. . Coleman . Marilyn J. . Ganong . Lawrence H. . 2 September 2014 . Christianity . The Social History of the American Family: An Encyclopedia . 1 . revised . Los Angeles . SAGE Publications . 233 . 9781452286150 . 5 January 2024 . It is commonly believed that the early settlers came to America to experience freedom from religious persecution, and although that proved true for many groups, what brought the early explorers to America was a combination of spreading the Gospel and finding spices, gold, and an opportunity for trade. England began sending settlers to clear the land and make way for an expanded English empire. However, the settlers moved in a different direction, and a new nation was born, With a few notable exceptions, the settlers were free to live and worship as they pleased, thus paving the way for a nation based on the freedom to choose..
  16. Book: Dowding. Keith. Keith Dowding. van Hees. Martin. Martin van Hees. Oxford Handbook of Individual and Social Choice. http://www.rug.nl/staff/martin.van.hees/2009handb.pdf. February 15, 2013. 2009. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Chapter 15 – Freedom of Choice. 374–392. December 22, 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20121222125652/http://www.rug.nl/staff/martin.van.hees/2009handb.pdf. dead.
  17. Pattanaik . Prasanta K. . Xu . Yongsheng . Prasanta Pattanaik . On ranking opportunity sets in terms of freedom of choice . Recherches Économiques de Louvain / Louvain Economic Review . 56 . 3–4 . 383–390 . Department of Economics, Universite Catholique de Louvain via JSTOR . 40723933 . 1990 . 10.1017/S0770451800043955 . 153418558 .
  18. Xu . Yongsheng . On ranking linear budget sets in terms of freedom of choice . Social Choice and Welfare . 22 . 1 . 281–289 . 10.1007/s00355-003-0287-x . February 2004 . 26796101 .
  19. Sen . Amartya . Amartya Sen . Welfare, preference and freedom . Journal of Econometrics . 50 . 1–2 . 15–29 . 10.1016/0304-4076(91)90087-T . October 1991 .
  20. Pattanaik . Prasanta K. . Xu . Yongsheng . Prasanta Pattanaik . On preference and freedom . Theory and Decision . 44 . 2 . 173–198 . 10.1023/A:1004924211553 . April 1998 . 117801220 .
  21. Sugden . Robert . The metric of opportunity . Economics and Philosophy . 14 . 2 . 307–337 . 10.1017/S0266267100003874 . October 1998 . 154300347 .
  22. Carter . Ian . Choice, freedom, and freedom of choice . Social Choice and Welfare . 22 . 1 . 61–81 . 10.1007/s00355-003-0277-z . February 2004 . 32673348 . an explication of freedom of choice should reject the third axiom [...] A person has freedom of choice iff she lacks constraints on the reasoned selection and performance of one or more of the items on an action-menu." and "(...) where a selection is necessarily made from a set of items greater than one .
  23. Botti. Simona. McGill. Ann L.. 2006. When Choosing is Not Deciding: The Effect Of Perceived Responsibility on Satisfaction. Journal of Consumer Research. 33. 2. 1516287. 10.1086/506302. 211–219. 145266845.
  24. Markus . H. R. . Schwartz . B. . 10.1086/651242 . Does Choice Mean Freedom and Well‐Being? . Journal of Consumer Research . 37 . 2 . 344 . 2010 . 15205215 .
  25. Book: Schwartz, Barry. The Paradox of Choice: Why More Is Less. 2005. Harper Perennial. 978-0060005696. 304. S.a. The Paradox of Choice
  26. Web site: The paradox of choice. Schwartz. Barry. July 2005. Talk. TED. February 12, 2013. February 28, 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140228204900/http://www.ted.com/talks/barry_schwartz_on_the_paradox_of_choice.html. dead.

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