Founding Fathers of the United States explained

Founding Fathers of the United States
Location:The Thirteen Colonies
Start:1760s
End:1820s
Including:Signers of the Declaration of Independence (1776), Articles of Confederation (1781), and United States Constitution (1789)
Leaders:
Key Events:

The Founding Fathers of the United States, commonly referred to as the Founding Fathers, were a group of late-18th-century American revolutionary leaders who united the Thirteen Colonies, oversaw the War of Independence from Great Britain, established the United States of America, and crafted a framework of government for the new nation.

The Founding Fathers include those who signed the United States Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, the United States Constitution and others. In 1973, historian Richard B. Morris identified seven figures as key founders, based on what he called the "triple tests" of leadership, longevity, and statesmanship: John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and George Washington.[1]

Most of the Founding Fathers were of English ancestry, though many had family roots extending across various regions of the British Isles, including Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. Additionally, some traced their lineage back to the early Dutch settlers of New York (New Netherland) during the colonial era, while others were descendants of French Huguenots who settled in the colonies, escaping religious persecution in France.[2] [3] [4]

Historical founders

Historian Richard Morris' selection of seven key founders was widely accepted through the 20th century.[5] John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and Benjamin Franklin were members of the Committee of Five that were charged by the Second Continental Congress with drafting the Declaration of Independence. Franklin, Adams, and John Jay negotiated the 1783 Treaty of Paris, which established American independence and brought an end to the American Revolutionary War.[6] The constitutions drafted by Jay and Adams for their respective states of New York (1777) and Massachusetts (1780) proved influential in the language used in developing the U.S. Constitution.[7] [8] [9] The Federalist Papers, which advocated the ratification of the Constitution, were written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and Jay. George Washington was Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army and later president of the Constitutional Convention.[10] [11]

Each of these men held additional important roles in the early government of the United States. Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and Madison served as the first four presidents; Adams and Jefferson were the nation's first two vice presidents;[12] Jay was the nation's first chief justice;[13] Hamilton was the first Secretary of the Treasury;[14] Jefferson was the first Secretary of State;[15] [16] and Franklin was America's most senior diplomat from the start of the Revolutionary War through its conclusion with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783.[17]

The list of Founding Founders is often expanded to include the signers of the Declaration of Independence and individuals who later approved the U.S. Constitution.[1] Some scholars regard all delegates to the Constitutional Convention as Founding Fathers whether they approved the Constitution or not.[18] [19] In addition, some historians include signers of the Articles of Confederation, which was adopted in 1781 as the nation's first constitution.[20]

Historians have come to recognize others as founders, such as Revolutionary War military leaders as well as participants in developments leading up to the war, including prominent writers, orators, and other men and women who contributed to cause.[21] [22] [23] [24] Since the 19th century, the Founding Fathers have shifted from the concept of them as demigods who created the modern nation-state, to take into account their inability to address issues such as slavery and the debt owed after the American Revolutionary War.[25] [26] Scholars emphasize that the Founding Fathers' accomplishments and shortcomings be viewed within the context of their time.[27]

Origin of phrase

The phrase "Founding Fathers" was first coined by U.S. Senator Warren G. Harding in his keynote speech at the Republican National Convention of 1916.[28] Harding later repeated the phrase at his March 4, 1921, inauguration.[29] While U.S. presidents used the terms "founders" and "fathers" in their speeches throughout much of the early 20th century, it was another 60 years before Harding's phrase would be used again during the inaugural ceremonies. Ronald Reagan referred to "Founding Fathers" at both his first inauguration on January 20, 1981, and his second on January 20, 1985.[30] [31]

In 1811, responding to praise for his generation, John Adams wrote to a younger Josiah Quincy III, "I ought not to object to your Reverence for your Fathers as you call them ... but to tell you a very great secret ... I have no reason to believe We were better than you are."[32] He also wrote, "Don't call me, ... Father ... [or] Founder ... These titles belong to no man, but to the American people in general."[33]

In Thomas Jefferson's second inaugural address in 1805, he referred to those who first came to the New World as "forefathers".[34] At his 1825 inauguration, John Quincy Adams called the U.S. Constitution "the work of our forefathers" and expressed his gratitude to "founders of the Union".[35] In July of the following year, John Quincy Adams, in an executive order upon the deaths of his father John Adams and Jefferson, who died on the same day, paid tribute to them as both "Fathers" and "Founders of the Republic".[36] These terms were used in the U.S. throughout the 19th century, from the inaugurations of Martin Van Buren and James Polk in 1837 and 1845, to Abraham Lincoln's Cooper Union speech in 1860 and his Gettysburg Address in 1863, and up to William McKinley's first inauguration in 1897.[37] [38] [39] [40]

At a 1902 celebration of Washington's Birthday in Brooklyn, James M. Beck, a constitutional lawyer and later a U.S. Congressman, delivered an address, "Founders of the Republic", in which he connected the concepts of founders and fathers, saying: "It is well for us to remember certain human aspects of the founders of the republic. Let me first refer to the fact that these fathers of the republic were for the most part young men."[23]

Framers and signers

The National Archives has identified three founding documents as the "Charters of Freedom": Declaration of Independence, United States Constitution, and Bill of Rights. According to the Archives, these documents "have secured the rights of the American people for more than two and a quarter centuries and are considered instrumental to the founding and philosophy of the United States."[41] In addition, as the nation's first constitution, the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union is also a founding document.[42] [43] As a result, signers of three key documents are generally considered to be Founding Fathers of the United States: Declaration of Independence (DI), Articles of Confederation (AC), and U.S. Constitution (USC). The following table provides a list of these signers, some of whom signed more than one document.

NameProvince/stateDI (1776)AC (1777)USC (1787)
New York
New York
New York
New York
New York
New York
New York
New York

Other delegates

The 55 delegates who attended the Constitutional Convention are referred to as framers. Of these, the 16 listed below did not sign the document.[44] Three refused, while the remainder left early, either in protest of the proceedings or for personal reasons.[45] [46] Nevertheless, some sources regard all framers as founders, including those who did not sign:[47]

(*) Randolph, Mason, and Gerry were the only three present at the Constitution's adoption who refused to sign.

Additional Founding Fathers

In addition to the signers and Framers of the founding documents and one of the seven notable leaders previously mentioned—John Jay—the following are regarded as founders based on their contributions to the creation and early development of the new nation:

Women founders

See also: Women in the American Revolution. Historians have come to recognize the roles women played in the nation's early development, using the term "Founding Mothers".[76] [77] Among the women honored in this respect are:

Other patriots

The following men and women are also recognized for the notable contributions they made during the founding era:

The colonies unite (1765–1774)

See also: Stamp Act of 1765.

In the mid-1760s, Parliament began levying taxes on the colonies to finance Britain's debts from the French and Indian War, a decade-long conflict that ended in 1763.[121] [122] Opposition to Stamp Act and Townshend Acts united the colonies in a common cause.[123] While the Stamp Act was withdrawn, taxes on tea remained under the Townshend Acts and took on a new form in 1773 with Parliament's adoption of the Tea Act. The new tea tax, along with stricter customs enforcement, was not well-received across the colonies, particularly in Massachusetts.[124]

On December 16, 1773, 150 colonists disguised as Mohawk Indians boarded ships in Boston and dumped 342 chests of tea into the city's harbor, a protest that came to be known as the Boston Tea Party.[125] [126] Orchestrated by Samuel Adams and the Boston Committee of Correspondence, the protest was viewed as treasonous by British authorities.[127] In response, Parliament passed the Coercive or Intolerable Acts, a series of punitive laws that closed Boston's port and placed the colony under direct control of the British government. These measures stirred unrest throughout the colonies, which felt Parliament had overreached its authority and was posing a threat to the self-rule that had existed in the Americas since the 1600s.[124]

Intent on responding to the Acts, twelve of the Thirteen Colonies agreed to send delegates to meet in Philadelphia as the First Continental Congress, with Georgia declining because it needed British military support in its conflict with native tribes.[128] The concept of an American union had been entertained long before 1774, but always embraced the idea that it would be subject to the authority of the British Empire. By 1774, however, letters published in colonial newspapers, mostly by anonymous writers, began asserting the need for a "Congress" to represent all Americans, one that would have equal status with British authority.[129]

Continental Congress (1774–1775)

See main article: Continental Congress. The Continental Congress was convened to deal with a series of pressing issues the colonies were facing with Britain. Its delegates were men considered to be the most intelligent and thoughtful among the colonialists. In the wake of the Intolerable Acts, at the hands of an unyielding British King and Parliament, the colonies were forced to choose between either totally submitting to arbitrary Parliamentary authority or resorting to unified armed resistance.[130] [131] The new Congress functioned as the directing body in declaring a great war and was sanctioned only by reason of the guidance it provided during the armed struggle. Its authority remained ill-defined, and few of its delegates realized that events would soon lead them to deciding policies that ultimately established a "new power among the nations". In the process the Congress performed many experiments in government before an adequate Constitution evolved.[132]

First Continental Congress (1774)

See main article: First Continental Congress. The First Continental Congress convened at Philadelphia's Carpenter's Hall on September 5, 1774.[133] The Congress, which had no legal authority to raise taxes or call on colonial militias, consisted of 56 delegates, including George Washington of Virginia; John Adams and Samuel Adams of Massachusetts; John Jay of New York; John Dickinson of Pennsylvania; and Roger Sherman of Connecticut. Peyton Randolph of Virginia was unanimously elected its first president.[134] [135]

The Congress came close to disbanding in its first few days over the issue of representation, with smaller colonies desiring equality with the larger ones. While Patrick Henry, from the largest colony, Virginia, disagreed, he stressed the greater importance of uniting the colonies: "The distinctions between Virginians, Pennsylvanians, New Yorkers, and New Englanders are no more. I am not a Virginian, but an American!".[136] The delegates then began with a discussion of the Suffolk Resolves, which had just been approved at a town meeting in Milton, Massachusetts.[137] Joseph Warren, chairman of the Resolves drafting committee, had dispatched Paul Revere to deliver signed copies to the Congress in Philadelphia.[138] [139] [127] The Resolves called for the ouster of British officials, a trade embargo of British goods, and the formation of a militia throughout the colonies.[137] Despite the radical nature of the resolves, on September 17 the Congress passed them in their entirety in exchange for assurances that Massachusetts' colonists would do nothing to provoke war.[140] [141]

The delegates then approved a series of measures, including a Petition to the King in an appeal for peace and a Declaration and Resolves which introduced the ideas of natural law and natural rights, foreshadowing some of the principles found in the Declaration of Independence and Bill of Rights.[142] The declaration asserted the rights of colonists and outlined Parliament's abuses of power. Proposed by Richard Henry Lee, it also included a trade boycott known as the Continental Association.[143] The Association, a crucial step toward unification, empowered committees of correspondence throughout the colonies to enforce the boycott. The Declaration and its boycott directly challenged Parliament's right to govern in the Americas, bolstering the view of King George III and his administration under Lord North that the colonies were in a state of rebellion.[144]

Lord Dartmouth, the Secretary of State for the Colonies who had been sympathetic to the Americans, condemned the newly established Congress for what he considered its illegal formation and actions.[145] [146] In tandem with the Intolerable Acts, British Army commander-in-chief Lieutenant General Thomas Gage was installed as governor of Massachusetts. In January 1775, Gage's superior, Lord Dartmouth, ordered the general to arrest those responsible for the Tea Party and to seize the munitions that had been stockpiled by militia forces outside of Boston. The letter took several months to reach Gage, who acted immediately by sending out 700 army regulars. During their march to Lexington and Concord on the morning of April 19, 1775, the British troops encountered militia forces, who had been warned the night before by Paul Revere and another messenger on horseback, William Dawes. Even though it is unknown who fired the first shot, the Revolutionary War began.[147]

Second Continental Congress (1775)

See main article: Second Continental Congress. On May 10, 1775, less than three weeks after the Battles at Lexington and Concord, the Second Continental Congress convened in the Pennsylvania State House. The gathering essentially reconstituted the First Congress with many of the same delegates in attendance.[148] Among the new arrivals were Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, John Hancock of Massachusetts, and in June, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia. Hancock was elected president two weeks into the session when Peyton Randolph was recalled to Virginia to preside over the House of Burgesses as speaker, and Jefferson was named to replace him in the Virginia delegation.[149] After adopting the rules of debate from the previous year and reinforcing its emphasis on secrecy,[150] [151] the Congress turned to its foremost concern, the defense of the colonies.[152]

The provincial assembly in Massachusetts, which had declared the colony's governorship vacant, reached out to the Congress for direction on two matters: whether the assembly could assume the powers of civil government and whether the Congress would take over the army being formed in Boston.[153] In answer to the first question, on June 9 the colony's leaders were directed to choose a council to govern within the spirit of the colony's charter.[154] [155] As for the second, Congress spent several days discussing plans for guiding the forces of all thirteen colonies. Finally, on June 14 Congress approved provisioning the New England militias, agreed to send ten companies of riflemen from other colonies as reinforcements, and appointed a committee to draft rules for governing the military, thus establishing the Continental Army. The next day, Samuel and John Adams nominated Washington as commander-in-chief, a motion that was unanimously approved.[156] [157] Two days later, on June 17, the militias clashed with British forces at Bunker Hill, a victory for Britain but a costly one.[158]

The Congress's actions came despite the divide between conservatives who still hoped for reconciliation with England and at the other end of the spectrum, those who favored independence.[159] To satisfy the former, Congress adopted the Olive Branch Petition on July 5, an appeal for peace to King George III written by John Dickinson. Then, the following day, it approved the Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms, a resolution justifying military action.[156] The declaration, intended for Washington to read to the troops upon his arrival in Massachusetts, was drafted by Jefferson but edited by Dickinson who thought its language too strong.[160] [161] When the Olive Branch Petition arrived in London in September, the king refused to look at it.[162] By then, he had already issued a proclamation declaring the American colonies in rebellion.[163]

Declaration of Independence (1776)

Under the auspices of the Second Continental Congress and its Committee of Five,[164] Thomas Jefferson drafted the Declaration of Independence. It was presented to the Congress by the Committee on June 28,[165] and after much debate and editing of the document, on July 2, 1776,[166] [167] Congress passed the Lee Resolution, which declared the United Colonies independent from Great Britain. Two days later, on July 4, the Declaration of Independence was adopted.[168] The name "United States of America", which first appeared in the Declaration, was formally approved by the Congress on September 9, 1776.[169]

In an effort to get this important document promptly into the public realm John Hancock, president of the Second Continental Congress, commissioned John Dunlap, editor and printer of the Pennsylvania Packet, to print 200 broadside copies of the Declaration, which came to be known as the Dunlap broadsides. Printing commenced the day after the Declaration was adopted. They were distributed throughout the 13 colonies/states with copies sent to General Washington and his troops at New York with a directive that it be read aloud. Copies were also sent to Britain and other points in Europe.[170] [171] [165]

Fighting for independence

See main article: American Revolutionary War. While the colonists were fighting the British to gain independence their newly formed government, with its Articles of Confederation, were put to the test, revealing the shortcomings and weaknesses of America's first Constitution. During this time Washington became convinced that a strong federal government was urgently needed, as the individual states were not meeting the organizational and supply demands of the war on their own individual accord.[172] [173] Key precipitating events included the Boston Tea Party in 1773, Paul Revere's Ride in 1775, and the Battles of Lexington and Concord in 1775.[174] George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River was a major American victory over Hessian forces at the Battle of Trenton and greatly boosted American morale.[175] The Battle of Saratoga and the Siege of Yorktown, which primarily ended the fighting between American and British, were also pivotal events during the war. The 1783 Treaty of Paris marked the official end of the war.[176]

After the war, Washington was instrumental in organizing the effort to create a "national militia" made up of individual state units, and under the direction of the Federal government. He also endorsed the creation of a military academy to train artillery offices and engineers. Not wanting to leave the country disarmed and vulnerable so soon after the war, Washington favored a peacetime army of 2600 men. He also favored the creation of a navy that could repel any European intruders. He approached Henry Knox, who accompanied Washington during most of his campaigns, with the prospect of becoming the future Secretary of War.[177]

Treaty of Paris

See main article: Treaty of Paris (1783). After Washington's final victory at the surrender at Yorktown on October 19, 1781, more than a year passed before official negotiations for peace commenced. The Treaty of Paris was drafted in November 1782, and negotiations began in April 1783. The completed treaty was signed on September 3. Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, John Jay and Henry Laurens represented the United States,[178] while David Hartley, a member of Parliament, and Richard Oswald, a prominent and influential Scottish businessman, represented Great Britain.[179] [180]

Franklin, who had a long-established rapport with the French and was almost entirely responsible for securing an alliance with them a few months after the start of the war, was greeted with high honors from the French council, while the others received due accommodations but were generally considered to be amateur negotiators.[181] Communications between Britain and France were largely effected through Franklin and Lord Shelburne who was on good terms with Franklin.[182] Franklin, Adams and Jay understood the concerns of the French at this uncertain juncture and, using that to their advantage, in the final sessions of negotiations convinced both the French and the British that American independence was in their best interests.[183]

Constitutional Convention

See main article: Constitutional Convention (United States). Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation had no power to collect taxes, regulate commerce, pay the national debt, conduct diplomatic relations, or effectively manage the western territories.[184] [185] [186] Key leaders – George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and others – began fearing for the young nation's fate.[187] As the Articles' weaknesses became more and more apparent, the idea of creating a strong central government gained support, leading to the call for a convention to amend the Articles.[188] [189]

The Constitutional Convention met in the Pennsylvania State House from May 14 through September 17, 1787.[190] The 55 delegates in attendance represented a cross-section of 18th-century American leadership. The vast majority were well-educated and prosperous, and all were prominent in their respective states with over 70 percent (40 delegates) serving in the Congress when the convention was proposed.[191]

Many delegates were late to arrive, and after eleven days' delay, a quorum was finally present on May 25 to elect Washington, the nation's most trusted figure, as convention president.[192] [193] Four days later, on May 29, the convention adopted a rule of secrecy, a controversial decision but a common practice that allowed delegates to speak freely.[194] [195] [196]

Virginia and New Jersey plans

See main article: New Jersey Plan and Virginia Plan. Immediately following the secrecy vote, Virginia governor Edmund Randolph introduced the Virginia Plan, fifteen resolutions written by Madison and his colleagues proposing a government of three branches: a single executive, a bicameral (two-house) legislature, and a judiciary.[197] [198] [199] The lower house was to be elected by the people, with seats apportioned by state population. The upper house would be chosen by the lower house from delegates nominated by state legislatures. The executive, who would have veto power over legislation, would be elected by the Congress, which could overrule state laws.[200] [201] While the plan exceeded the convention's objective of merely amending the Articles, most delegates were willing to abandon their original mandate in favor of crafting a new form of government.[202] [189]

Discussions of the Virginia resolutions continued into mid-June, when William Paterson of New Jersey presented an alternative proposal.[203] The New Jersey Plan retained most of the Articles' provisions, including a one-house legislature and equal power for the states. One of the plan's innovations was a "plural" executive branch, but its primary concession was to allow the national government to regulate trade and commerce.[204] [205] [206] Meeting as a committee of the whole, the delegates discussed the two proposals beginning with the question of whether there should be a single or three-fold executive and then whether to grant the executive veto power.[207] After agreeing on a single executive who could veto legislation, the delegates turned to an even more contentious issue, legislative representation.[208] Larger states favored proportional representation based on population, while smaller states wanted each state to have the same number of legislators.[209] [210] [211]

Connecticut Compromise

See main article: Connecticut Compromise. By mid-July, the debates between the large-state and small-state factions had reached an impasse.[212] With the convention on the verge of collapse, Roger Sherman of Connecticut introduced what became known as the Connceticut (or Great) Compromise.[213] [214] [215] Sherman's proposal called for a House of Representatives elected proportionally and a Senate where all states would have the same number of seats. On July 16, the compromise was approved by the narrowest of margins, 5 states to 4.[216] [217]

The proceedings left most delegates with reservations.[218] [219] Several went home early in protest, believing the convention was overstepping its authority.[220] [221] [222] Others were concerned about the lack of a Bill of Rights safeguarding individual liberties.[223] [224] Even Madison, the Constitution's chief architect, was dissatisfied, particularly over equal representation in the Senate and the failure to grant Congress the power to veto state legislation.[225] Misgivings aside, a final draft was approved overwhelmingly on September 17, with 11 states in favor and New York unable to vote since it had only one delegate remaining, Hamilton.[218] Rhode Island, which was in a dispute over the state's paper currency, had refused to send anyone to the convention.[226] [227] Of the 42 delegates present, only three refused to sign: Randolph and George Mason, both of Virginia, and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts.[228] [219]

State ratification conventions

The U. S. Constitution faced one more hurdle: approval by the legislatures in at least nine of the 13 states.[229] Within three days of the signing, the draft was submitted to the Congress of the Confederation, which forwarded the document to the states for ratification.[230] In November, Pennsylvania's legislature convened the first of the conventions. Before it could vote, Delaware became the first state to ratify, approving the Constitution on December 7 by a 30–0 margin.[231] Pennsylvania followed suit five days later, splitting its vote 46–23.[232] Despite unanimous votes in New Jersey and Georgia, several key states appeared to be leaning against ratification because of the omission of a Bill of Rights, particularly Virginia where the opposition was led by Mason and Patrick Henry, who had refused to participate in the convention claiming he "smelt a rat".[233] [234] [235] Rather than risk everything, the Federalists relented, promising that if the Constitution was adopted, amendments would be added to secure people's rights.[236]

Over the next year, the string of ratifications continued. Finally, on June 21, 1788, New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify, making the Constitution the law of the land.[237] [238] Virginia followed suit four days later, and New York did the same in late July.[233] After North Carolina's assent in November, another year-and-a-half would pass before the 13th state would weigh in.[239] Facing trade sanctions and the possibility of being forced out of the union, Rhode Island approved the Constitution on May 29, 1790, by a begrudging 34–32 vote.[240] [239]

New form of government

The Constitution officially took effect on, when the House and Senate met for their first sessions. On April 30, Washington was sworn in as the nation's first president.[241] [242] [243] Ten amendments, known collectively as the United States Bill of Rights, were ratified on December 15, 1791.[244] Because the delegates were sworn to secrecy, Madison's notes on the ratification were not published until after his death in 1836.[245]

Bill of Rights

See main article: United States Bill of Rights. The Constitution, as drafted, was sharply criticized by the Anti-Federalists, a group that contended the document failed to safeguard individual liberties from the federal government. Leading Anti-Federalists included Patrick Henry and Richard Henry Lee, both from Virginia, and Samuel Adams of Massachusetts. Delegates at the Constitutional Convention who shared their views were Virginians George Mason and Edmund Randolph and Massachusetts representative Elbridge Gerry, the three delegates who refused to sign the final document.[246] Henry, who derived his hatred of a central governing authority from his Scottish ancestry, did all in his power to defeat the Constitution, opposing Madison every step of the way.[247]

The criticisms are what led to the amendments proposed under the Bill of Rights. Madison, the bill's principal author, was originally opposed to the amendments, but was influenced by the 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights, primarily written by Mason, and the Declaration of Independence, by Thomas Jefferson.[248] Jefferson, while in France, shared Henry's and Mason's fears about a strong central government, especially the president's power, but because of his friendship with Madison and the pending Bill of Rights, he quieted his concerns.[249] Alexander Hamilton, however, was opposed to a Bill of Rights believing the amendments not only unnecessary but dangerous:

Why declare things shall not be done, which there is no power to do ... that the liberty of the press shall not be restrained, when no power is given by which restrictions may be imposed?[250]

Madison had no way of knowing the debate between Virginia's two legislative houses would delay the adoption of the amendments for more than two years.[251] The final draft, referred to the states by the federal Congress on September 25, 1789,[252] was not ratified by Virginia's Senate until December 15, 1791.[251]
The Bill of Rights drew its authority from the consent of the people and held that,

Madison came to be recognized as the founding era's foremost proponent of religious liberty, free speech, and freedom of the press.[253]

Ascending to the presidency

The first five U.S. presidents are regarded as Founding Fathers for their active participation in the American Revolution: Washington, John Adams, Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe. Each of them served as a delegate to the Continental Congress.[254]

Demographics and other characteristics

The Founding Fathers represented the upper echelon of political leadership in the British colonies during the latter half of the 18th century.[255] [256] All were leaders in their communities and respective colonies who were willing to assume responsibility for public affairs.[257]

Of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, Articles of Confederation, and U.S. Constitution, nearly all were native born and of British heritage, including Scots, Irish, and Welsh.[258] [259] Nearly half were lawyers, while the remainder were primarily businessmen and planter-farmers.[260] [261] [262] The average age of the founders was 43.[263] Benjamin Franklin, born in 1706, was the oldest, while only a few were born after 1750 and thus were in their 20s.[264] [265] [266]

The following sections discuss these and other demographic topics in greater detail. For the most part, the information is confined to signers/delegates associated with the Declaration of Independence, Articles of Confederation, and Constitution.

Political experience

All of the Founding Fathers had extensive political experience at the national and state levels.[267] [268] As just one example, the signers of the Declaration of Independence and Articles of Confederation were members of Second Continental Congress, while four-fifths of the delegates at the Constitutional Convention had served in the Congress either during or prior to the convention. The remaining fifth attending the convention were recognized as leaders in the state assemblies that appointed them.

Following are brief profiles of the political backgrounds of some of the more notable founders:

Education

More than a third of the Founding Fathers attended or graduated from colleges in the American colonies, while additional founders attended college abroad, primarily in England and Scotland. All other founders either were home schooled, received tutoring, completed apprenticeships, or were self-educated.

American institutions

Following is a listing of founders who graduated from six of the nine colleges established in the Americas during the Colonial Era. A few founders, such as Alexander Hamilton[281] and James Monroe,[282] attended college (Columbia and William & Mary, respectively) but did not graduate. The other three colonial colleges, all founded in the 1760s, included Brown University (College of Rhode Island), Dartmouth College, and Rutgers University (Queen's College).

British institutions

Following are founders who graduated from institutions in Britain:

Ethnicity

All of the founders were white, and two-thirds (36 out of 55) were natives of the American Colonies, while nineteen were born in other parts of the British Empire.

Occupations

While the Founding Fathers were engaged in a broad range of occupations, most had careers in three professions: about half the founders were lawyers, a sixth were planters/farmers, another sixth were merchants/businessmen, and the others were spread across miscellaneous professions.

Religion

See also: First Great Awakening, Religious views of George Washington and Religious views of Thomas Jefferson. Of the 55 delegates to the Constitutional Convention in 1787, 28 were Anglicans (Church of England or Episcopalian), 21 were other Protestants, and three were Catholics (Daniel Carroll and Fitzsimons; Charles Carroll was Catholic but was not a Constitution signatory).[378] Among the Protestant delegates to the Constitutional Convention, eight were Presbyterians, seven were Congregationalists, two were Lutherans, two were Dutch Reformed, and two were Methodists.[378]

A few prominent Founding Fathers were anti-clerical, notably Jefferson.[379] [380] Historian Gregg L. Frazer argues that the leading founders (John Adams, Jefferson, Franklin, Wilson, Morris, Madison, Hamilton, and Washington) were neither Christians nor Deists, but rather supporters of a hybrid "theistic rationalism".[381] Many founders deliberately avoided public discussion of their faith. Historian David L. Holmes uses evidence gleaned from letters, government documents, and second-hand accounts to identify their religious beliefs.[48]

Founders on currency and postage

Four U.S. founders are minted on American currency—Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson, and George Washington; Washington and Jefferson both appear on three different denominations.

Founding Father nameCurrency imageDenomination
George WashingtonQuarter dollar (quarter)
25¢
Dollar coin
$1
One dollar
$1
Thomas JeffersonFive cents (nickel)
5¢
Dollar coin
$1
Two dollars
$2
Alexander HamiltonTen dollars
$10
Benjamin FranklinOne hundred dollars
$100

Political and cultural impact

See also: Commemoration of the American Revolution, Independence Day (United States) and Legacy of George Washington.

Political rhetoric

According to David Sehat, in modern politics:[382]

Everyone cites the Founders. Constitutional originalists consult the Founders' papers to decide original meaning. Proponents of a living and evolving Constitution turn to the Founders as the font of ideas that have grown over time. Conservatives view the Founders as architects of a free enterprise system that built American greatness. The more liberal-leaning, following their sixties parents, claim the Founders as egalitarians, suspicious of concentrations of wealth. Independents look to the Founders to break the logjam of partisan brinksmanship. Across the political spectrum, Americans ground their views in a supposed set of ideas that emerged in the eighteenth century.But, in fact, the Founders disagreed with each other....they had vast and profound differences. They argued over federal intervention in the economy and about foreign policy. They fought bitterly over how much authority rested with the executive branch, about the relationship and prerogatives of federal and state government. The Constitution provided a nearly limitless theater of argument. The founding era was, in reality, one of the most partisan periods of American history.

Holidays

Independence Day (colloquially called the Fourth of July) is a United States national holiday celebrated yearly on July 4 to commemorate the signing of the Declaration of Independence and the founding of the nation. Washington's Birthday is also observed as a national federal holiday, and on April 13 Jefferson's Birthday honors the US founder and president.

Media and theater

See also: List of plays and musicals about the American Revolution, List of films about the American Revolution and List of television series and miniseries about the American Revolution. The Founding Fathers were portrayed in the Tony Award–winning 1969 musical 1776, which depicted the debates over and eventual adoption of the Declaration of Independence. The stage production was adapted into the 1972 film of the same name. The 1989 film A More Perfect Union, which was filmed on location in Independence Hall, depicts the events of the Constitutional Convention. The writing and passing of the founding documents are depicted in the 1997 documentary miniseries Liberty!, and the passage of the Declaration of Independence is portrayed in the second episode of the 2008 miniseries John Adams and the third episode of the 2015 miniseries Sons of Liberty. The Founders also feature in the 1986 miniseries , the 2002–2003 animated television series Liberty's Kids, the 2020 miniseries Washington, and in many other films and television portrayals.

Several Founding Fathers, Hamilton, Washington, Jefferson, and Madison—were reimagined in Hamilton, a 2015 musical inspired by Ron Chernow's 2004 biography Alexander Hamilton, with music, lyrics and book by Lin-Manuel Miranda. The musical won eleven Tony Awards and a Pulitzer Prize for Drama.[383]

Sports

Several major professional sports teams in the Northeastern United States are named for themes based on the founders:

Religious freedom

Religious persecution had existed for centuries around the world and it existed in colonial America.[384] Founders such as Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, Patrick Henry, and George Mason first established a measure of religious freedom in Virginia in 1776 with the Virginia Declaration of Rights, which became a model for religious liberty for the nation.[385] Prior to this, Baptists, Presbyterians, and Lutherans had for a decade petitioned against the Church of England's efforts to suppress religious liberties in Virginia.

Jefferson left the Continental Congress to return to Virginia to join the fight for religious freedom, which proved difficult since many members of the Virginia legislature belonged to the established Church of England. While Jefferson was not completely successful, he managed to have repealed the various laws that were punitive toward those with different religious beliefs.[385] [386] [387] Jefferson was the architect for separation of Church and State, which opposed the use of public funds to support any established religion and believed it was unwise to link civil rights to religious doctrine.[388] [387]

The United States Constitution, ratified in 1788, states in Article VI that "no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States". Freedom of religion and freedom of speech were further affirmed as the nation's law in the Bill of Rights. The 14th Amendment of 1868 provided all Americans with "equal protection under the laws" and thus applied the First Amendment restriction against limiting the free exercise of religion to the states. [389] [390]

Washington, a local leader of the Church of England, was also a strong proponent of religious freedom, He assured Baptists worried that the Constitution might not protect their religious liberties, that, "... certainly, I would never have placed my signature to it." Jews also viewed Washington as a champion of freedom and sought his assurances that they would enjoy complete religious freedom. Washington responded by declaring America's revolution in religion stood as an example for the rest of the world.[391]

Slavery

The Founding Fathers were not unified on the issue of slavery and continued to accommodate it within the new nation. Some were morally opposed to it and some attempted to end it in several of the colonies, but nationally, slavery remained protected. In her study of Jefferson, a slaveholder of 600 slaves, Annette Gordon-Reed notes ironically, "Others of the founders held slaves, but no other founder drafted the charter for American freedom".[392] As well as Jefferson, Washington and many other Founding Fathers were slaveowners; 41 of the 56 signers of the Declaration owned slaves. Some were conflicted by the institution, seeing it as immoral and politically divisive; Washington freed his slaves, in his will. Jay and Hamilton led the successful fight to outlaw the international slave trade in New York, with efforts beginning in 1777.[393] [394] Thomas Jefferson included an anti slavery clause in his original draft of the Declaration of Independence:[395]

"He [King George] has waged cruel war against human nature itself, violating its most sacred rights of life and liberty in the persons of a distant people who never offended him, captivating & carrying them into slavery in another hemisphere or to incur miserable death in their transportation thither.  This piratical warfare, the opprobrium of infidel powers, is the warfare of the Christian King of Great Britain.  Determined to keep open a market where Men should be bought & sold, he has prostituted his negative for suppressing every legislative attempt to prohibit or restrain this execrable commerce.  And that this assemblage of horrors might want no fact of distinguished die, he is now exciting those very people to rise in arms among us, and to purchase that liberty of which he has deprived them, by murdering the people on whom he has obtruded them: thus paying off former crimes committed again the Liberties of one people, with crimes which he urges them to commit against the lives of another."

Founders such as Samuel Adams and John Adams were against slavery. Rush wrote a pamphlet in 1773 which criticized the slave trade, and slavery. Rush argued scientifically that Africans are not intellectually or morally inferior, and any apparent evidence to the contrary is only the "perverted expression" of slavery, which "is so foreign to the human mind, that the moral faculties, as well as those of the understanding are debased, and rendered torpid by it." The Continental Association contained a clause which banned any Patriot involvement in slave trading.[396] [397] [398] [399]

Franklin, though a key founder of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society,[400] owned slaves whom he manumitted (released). While serving in the Rhode Island Assembly, in 1769 Hopkins introduced one of the earliest anti-slavery laws in the colonies. When Jefferson entered public life as a member of the House of Burgesses, he began as a social reformer by an effort to secure legislation permitting emancipation of slaves. Jefferson say's "In 1769, I became a member of the legislature…. I made one effort in that body for the permission of the emancipation of slaves, which was rejected", but the representatives of the Crown sought "to direct our labors in subservience to [the mother country's] interest…. and… the Royal negative closed the last door to every hope of amelioration." Jay founded the New York Manumission Society in 1785, for which Hamilton became an officer. They and other members of the Society founded the African Free School in New York, to educate the children of free blacks and slaves. When Jay was governor of New York in 1798, he helped secure and signed into law an abolition law; fully ending forced labor as of 1827. He freed his slaves in 1798. Hamilton opposed slavery, as his experiences left him familiar with it and its effect on slaves and slaveholders,[401] though he did negotiate slave transactions for his wife's family, the Schuylers.[402] Evidence suggests Hamilton may have owned a house slave and after the Jay Treaty was signed, Hamilton advocated that American slaves freed by the British during the war be forcibly returned to their enslavers.[403] [404] Henry Laurens, ran the largest slave trading house in North America. In the 1750s alone, his firm, Austin and Laurens, handled sales of more than 8,000 Africans.[405]

Slaves and slavery are mentioned indirectly in the 1787 Constitution. For example, Article 1, Section 2, Clause 3 prescribes that "three-fifths of all other Persons" are to be counted for the apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives and direct taxes. Additionally, in Article 4, Section 2, Clause 3, slaves are referred to as "persons held in service or labor".[400] [406] The Founding Fathers made some efforts to contain slavery. Many Northern states had adopted legislation to end, or significantly reduce slavery, during and after the revolution.[406] In 1782, Virginia passed a manumission law that allowed owners to free their slaves by will or deed.[407] As a result, thousands of slaves were manumitted in Virginia.[407] In the Ordinance of 1784, Jefferson proposed to ban slavery in all the western territories, which failed to pass Congress by one vote. Partially following Jefferson's plan, Congress did ban slavery in the Northwest Ordinance, for lands north of the Ohio River. The international slave trade was banned in all states except South Carolina by 1800. In 1807, President Jefferson called for and signed into law a federally enforced ban on the international slave trade, throughout the U.S. and its territories. It became a federal crime to import or export a slave. However, the domestic slave trade was allowed for expansion or for diffusion of slavery into the Louisiana Territory.[406]

Reconstruction as a "Second Founding"

According to Jeffrey K. Tulis and Nicole Mellow:[408]

The Founding, Reconstruction (often called "the second founding"), and the New Deal are typically heralded as the most significant turning points in the country's history, with many observers seeing each of these as political triumphs through which the United States has come to more closely realize its liberal ideals of liberty and equality.
Scholars such as Eric Foner have expanded the theme.[409] [410] [411] Black abolitionists played a key role by stressing that freed blacks needed equal rights after slavery was abolished.[412] Biographer David Blight states that Frederick Douglass, "played a pivotal role in America's Second Founding out of the apocalypse of the Civil War, and he very much wished to see himself as a founder and a defender of the Second American Republic."[413] Constitutional provision for racial equality for free blacks was enacted by a Republican Congress led by Thaddeus Stevens, Charles Sumner and Lyman Trumbull.[414] The "second founding" comprised the 13th, 14th and 15th amendments to the Constitution. All citizens now had federal rights that could be enforced in federal court. In a deep reaction, after 1876 freedmen lost many of these rights and had second class citizenship in the era of lynching and Jim Crow laws. Finally in the 1950s the U.S., Supreme Court started to restore those rights. Under the leadership of Martin Luther King and James Bevel, the Civil Rights movement made the nation aware of the crisis, and under President Lyndon Johnson major civil rights legislation was passed in 1964–65, and 1968.[415]

Scholarly analysis

See main article: Historiography of the United States. Historians who wrote about the American Revolution era and the founding of the United States government now number in the thousands. Their inclusion would go well beyond the scope of this article. Some of the most prominent ones, however, are listed below. While most scholarly works maintain overall objectivity, historian Arthur H. Shaffer notes that many of the early works about the American Revolution often express a national bias, or anti-bias. Shaffer maintains that this bias lends a direct insight into the minds of the founders and their adversaries respectively. He notes that any bias is the product of a national interest and prevailing political mood, and as such cannot be dismissed as having no historic value for the modern historian.[416] Conversely, various modern accounts of history contain anachronisms, modern day ideals and perceptions used in an effort to write about the past and as such can distort the historical account in an effort to placate a modern audience.[417] [418]

Early historians

Several of the earliest histories of the founding of the United States and its founders were written by Jeremy Belknap, author of his three-volume work, The history of New-Hampshire, published in 1784.[419]

Modern historians

Articles and books by these and other 20th- and 21st-century historians, combined with the digitization of primary sources such as handwritten letters, continue to contribute to an encyclopedic body of knowledge about the Founding Fathers:

According to American historian Joseph Ellis, the concept of the Founding Fathers of the U.S. emerged in the 1820s as the last survivors died out. Ellis says the founders, or the fathers comprised an aggregate of semi-sacred figures whose particular accomplishments and singular achievements were decidedly less important than their sheer presence as a powerful but faceless symbol of past greatness. For the generation of national leaders coming of age in the 1820s and 1830s, such as Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and John C. Calhoun, the founders represented heroic but anonymous abstraction whose long shadow fell across all followers and whose legendary accomplishments defied comparison.

Noted collections

See also

Bibliography

Books

Journal articles

Online sources

Further reading

Books

Journal articles

External links

Notes and References

  1. [#morris1973|Morris, 1973]
  2. Web site: English Emigration.. Spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk. 21 August 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20140408173429/http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAEengland.htm. 8 April 2014. dead.
  3. Book: Haefeli, Evan . New Netherland and the Dutch Origins of American Religious Liberty . University of Pennsylvania Press . 2012. 978-0-8122-0895-5 .
  4. Book: Lee, Hannah Farnham Sawyer . The Huguenots in France and America . 1973 . 1-2. Genealogical Publishing Com . 978-0-8063-0531-8 .
  5. [#berstein1987|Bernstein, 1987]
  6. [#jedson2006|Jedson, 2006]
  7. [#founding'gov|US Constitution, Transcription]
  8. [#mass'gov|J.Adams and Massachusetts Constitution]
  9. [#morris2022|Morris: John Jay & the Constitution]
  10. [#bradford1994|Bradford, 1994]
  11. [#jillson1994|Jilson, 1994]
  12. [#loc'presidents|Library of Congress: Chronological list of Presidents]
  13. [#malone10|Dictionary of American biography, 1932]
  14. [#chernow2004|Chernow, 2004]
  15. [#chernow2010|Chernow, 2010]
  16. [#stewart2015|Stewart, 2015]
  17. [#malone6|Dictionary of American Biography, 1932]
  18. [#signers.gov|National Archives: Signers of the Declaration]
  19. [#framers.gov|National Archives]
  20. [#padover1958|Padover, 1958]
  21. Encyclopædia Britannica, p. 12
  22. [#sneff2016|Sneff, 2016]
  23. News: Hamilton Club Honors Memory of Washington. The Brooklyn Daily Eagle. February 23, 1902. Brooklyn, NY . 8 . June 15, 2022.
  24. [#bernstein2009|Bernstein, 2009]
  25. Web site: Resistance and Abolition | African | Immigration and Relocation in U.S. History | Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress | Library of Congress . .
  26. https://history.state.gov/milestones/1784-1800/loans
  27. [#bernstein2009|Bernstein, 2009]
  28. [#berstein1987|Bernstein, 1987]
  29. [#harding1921|Harding, 1921, Inaugural Address]
  30. [#reagan1981|Reagan, 1981, First Inaugural Address]
  31. [#reagan1985|Reagan, 1985, Second Inaugural Address]
  32. Web site: February 9, 1811 . From John Adams to Josiah, III Quincy, 9 February 1811 . November 3, 2022 . Founders Online, National Archives.
  33. [#ellis2007|Ellis, 2007]
  34. [#jefferson1805|Jefferson, 1805, Second Inaugural Address]
  35. [#quincy1825|J. Quincy Adams, 1825, Inaugural Address]
  36. [#ex'order1826|J. Q. Adams, 1826, Executive order]
  37. [#vanburen1837|Martin Van Buren, 1837, Inaugural Address]
  38. [#polk1845|Polk, 1845, Inaugural Address]
  39. [#conant2015|Conany, 2015]
  40. [#mckinley1897|McKinley, 1897, First Inaugural Address]
  41. Web site: America's Founding Documents. US National Archives. October 30, 2015 . June 8, 2022.
  42. [#altman2003|Altman, 2003]
  43. [#bellia2020|Bellia, 2020]
  44. [#morton2006|Morton, 2006]
  45. [#beeman2009|Beeman, 2009]
  46. [#morton2006|Morton, 2006]
  47. [#bernstein2009|Bernstein, 2009]
  48. [#holmes2006|Holmes, 2006]
  49. [#wood2006|Wood, 2006]
  50. [#campbell1969|Campbell, 1969]
  51. [#kidd2011|Kidd, 2011]
  52. [#malone9|Dictionary of American biography, 1932]
  53. [#dugan2010|Dungan, Nicholas, 2010]
  54. [#chernow2004|Chernow, 2004]
  55. [#gothamcenter|Gotham Center, NY: Livingston papers]
  56. [#dangerfield1960|Dangerfield, 1960]
  57. [#bernstein2009|Bernstein, 2009]
  58. Web site: American Founders: K-O . loc.gov. Library of Congress. June 10, 2022.
  59. Book: Lehrman, Lewis E. . Lewis Lehrman . The American Founders . Family Enmity: John Marshall and Thomas Jefferson . 157–159 . . 2013 . New York . https://archive.org/details/americanfounders0000lehr/page/157/mode/2up . 978-0984-01785-0.
  60. Book: Unger, Harlow G. . Harlow Giles Unger . John Marshall: The Chief Justice Who Saved the Nation . . 2014 . Boston, Massachusetts . 978-0306-82220-9.
  61. [#malone13|Dictionary of American biography, 1932]
  62. [#unger2009|Unger, 2009]
  63. [#cogliano2006|Cogliano, 2006]
  64. [#kann1999|Kann, 1999]
  65. [#bowman2005|Bowman, 2005]
  66. [#journal2005|Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 2005]
  67. [#braff2009|Braff, 2009]
  68. [#mccullough2001|McCullough, 2001]
  69. [#bernstein2009|Bernstein, 2009]
  70. [#mccullough2001|McCullough, 2001]
  71. [#ramage1922|Ramage, 1922]
  72. Web site: Bioguide Search. bioguide.congress.gov.
  73. [#bowling1976|Bowling, 1976]
  74. [#cary1961|Cary, 1961]
  75. [#wright1996|Wright, 1996]
  76. [#britannica2010|Encyclopædia Britannica]
  77. [#kann1999|Kann, 1999]
  78. Web site: Abigail Smith Adams. Michals. Debra. 2015 . womenshistory.org. National Women's History Museum. June 26, 2022.
  79. [#britannica2010|Encyclopædia Britannica]
  80. [#mcwilliams1976|McWilliams, 1976]
  81. [#bernstein2009|Bernstein, 2009]
  82. Book: Newman, Richard S. . Freedom's Prophet: Bishop Richard Allen, the AME Church, and the Black Founding Fathers . New York University Press . 2008 . New York . 978-0814-75826-7.
  83. [#britannica2010|Encyclopædia Britannica]
  84. [#boston1925|Boston City Council, archives]
  85. Web site: John Adams I (Frigate) 1799–1867. USA.gov. August 22, 2015.
  86. Web site: Westcott . Reed . n.d. . Hugh Henry Brackenridge, Digital Encyclopedia of George Washington . January 23, 2023 . George Washington's Mount Vernon (mountvernon.org) . en . "Hugh Henry Brackenridge was a Scottish-born Pennsylvanian preacher, politician, writer, and jurist, who – though not strictly a Founding Father himself – was intimately familiar with several founders, James Madison in particular.".
  87. Conner . Martha . Breckenridge at Princeton . Western Pennsylvania History . 146–162.
  88. Web site: Chandler . Lyndsay C. . Homol . Lindley . 2018 . 2007 . H.H. Brackenridge . January 23, 2023 . Pennsylvania Center for the Book . Penn State University.
  89. News: O'Toole . James . January 2, 2000 . Hugh Henry Brackenridge – Our local Founding Father . . January 23, 2023.
  90. Crocco . Stephen . 1992 . Hugh Henry Brackenridge: Priest and Prophet of the American Enlightenment . American Presbyterians . 70 . 4 . 211–221 . 23332616 . 0886-5159.
  91. Reed . Isaac Ariail . 2019 . Performative State-Formation in the Early American Republic . American Sociological Review . 84 . 2 . 334–367 . 10.1177/0003122419831228 . 48595814 . 96424952 . 0003-1224.
  92. [#deetz1996|Deetz, 1996]
  93. [#chernow2004|Chernow, 2004]
  94. [#yafa2006|Yafa, 2006]
  95. Bowen . Edwin W. . 1903 . Philip Freneau, the Poet of the American Revolution . The Sewanee Review . 11 . 2 . 213–220 . 27530558 . 0037-3052.
  96. Book: Castronovo, Russ . August 21, 2014 . Aftermath: The Poetry of the Post-Revolution . https://academic.oup.com/book/34798/chapter/297631748 . Propaganda 1776: Secrets, Leaks, and Revolutionary Communications in Early America . Oxford University Press . Oxford Studies in American Literary History . 9780199354900 . en . 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199354900.003.0006.
  97. [#dugan2010|Dungan, Nicholas, 2010]
  98. [#ellis2007a|Ellis, 2007]
  99. Roberts, Cokie (2005). Founding Mothers: The Women Who Raised Our Nation. Harper Perennial.
  100. Roberts, Cokie (2008). Ladies of Liberty: The Women Who Shaped Our Nation. Harper.
  101. [#chernow2010|Chernow, 2010]
  102. Web site: Principles and acts of the revolution in America. 1822. Baltimore, Printed and pub. for the editor, by W. O. Niles.
  103. Book: Sibley's Harvard Graduates . 1933 . Harvard University Press . Boston . 220–228 . 2027/uc1.31970025342293 .
  104. Web site: Founders Online: To John Adams from Benjamin Kent, 24 April 1776. founders.archives.gov.
  105. Raab, 2007,, pp. 135
  106. Jones, Keith Marshall, III. John Laurance: The Immigrant Founding Father America Never Knew. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 2019.
  107. [#buchanan2007|Buchanan, 2007]
  108. LaGumina, Salvatore (2000). The Italian American experience: an encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis, p. 361.
  109. [#obrien1937|O'Brien, 1937]
  110. [#chernow2004|Chernow, 2004]
  111. https://www.usmcu.edu/Research/Marine-Corps-History-Division/People/Whos-Who-in-Marine-Corps-History/Mackie-Ozbourn/Major-Samuel-Nicholas/ Marine Corps University
  112. Raphael, Ray. The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Founding Fathers And the Birth of Our Nation (Penguin, 2011).
  113. Web site: March 23, 2021 . January 30, 2019 . The Founding Fathers . .
  114. [#schwartz1987|Schwartz, 1987]
  115. Web site: Bowden . Ralph . April 10, 2014 . Tennessee's First Hero: Gordon Belt and Traci Nichols-Belt examine how history has treated Tennessee founding father John Sevier . July 18, 2023 . Chapter 16 . Humanities Tennessee . en-US.
  116. Book: Jaffe, Irma B. . John Trumbull, patriot-artist of the American Revolution . New York Graphic Society . 1975 . 0-8212-0459-9 . Boston . 1229525.
  117. Silverman . E.H. . June 1958 . Painter of the Revolution . . 9 . 4 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20230912203415/https://www.americanheritage.com/painter-revolution . September 12, 2023 .
  118. [#malone19|Dictionary of American biography, 1932]
  119. [#malone17|Dictionary of American biography, 1932]
  120. [#kendall2010|Kendall, 2010]
  121. [#jensen1968|Jensen, 1968]
  122. [#carp2010|Carp, 2010]
  123. [#chaffin1991|Chaffin, 1991]
  124. [#carp2010|Carp, 2010]
  125. [#carp2010|Carp, 2010]
  126. Web site: Boston Tea Party . March 23, 2022. October 27, 2009. History.com. July 28, 2022.
  127. [#andrilk2012|Andrilk, 2012]
  128. [#firstcongress|Mount Vernon, Essay: First Continental Congress]
  129. [#jensen1968|Jensen, 1968]
  130. [#ammerman1974|Ammerman, 1974]
  131. [#chorlton2011|Chorlton, 2011]
  132. [#burnett1941|Burnett, 1941]
  133. [#jensen1968|Jensen, 1968]
  134. [#randolph2022|Mount Vernon, Peyton Randolph, Essay]
  135. [#chorlton2011|Chorlton, 2011]
  136. [#campbell1969|Campbell, 1969]
  137. [#suffolk1973|Suffolk, 1973, pp. 21–34]
  138. [#adams1971|Adams, 1971, Autobiography]
  139. [#scaife1921|Scaife, 1921]
  140. [#suffolk1973|Suffolk, 1973, pp. 37–38]
  141. [#maier1998|Maier, 1998]
  142. [#perry1959|Perry, 1959]
  143. Robbins. Caroline. April 1976 . Rights and Grievances at Carpenters' Hall September 5 – October 26,1774. Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies. 43. 2. 103–104. 27772339.
  144. [#bullion1999|Bullion, 1999]
  145. [#ammerman1974|Ammerman, 1974]
  146. [#chorlton2011|Chorlton, 2011]
  147. [#alexander2002|Alexander, 2002]
  148. [#burnett1941|Burnett, 1941]
  149. [#Fowler1980|Fowler, 1980]
  150. [#Congress1775|Congress 1775, pp. 96–97]
  151. [#burnett1941|Burnett, 1941]
  152. [#burnett1941|Burnett, 1941]
  153. [#Congress1775|Congress 1775, p. 105]
  154. [#Congress1775|Congress 1775, p. 108]
  155. [#burnett1941|Burnett, 1941]
  156. [#andrilk2012|Andrilk, 2012]
  157. [#chernow2010|Chernow, 2010]
  158. [#phillips2012|Phillips, 2012]
  159. [#morris1973|Morris, 1973]
  160. [#boydauthorship|Boyd, 1950]
  161. [#burnett1941|Burnett, 1941]
  162. [#mccullough2006|McCullough, 2006]
  163. [#maier1998|Maier, 1998]
  164. [#cogliano2006|Cogliano, 2006]
  165. [#maier1998|Maier, 1998]
  166. [#ellis2007|Ellis, 2007]
  167. [#allen2002|Allen, 2002]
  168. [#allen2002|Allen, 2002]
  169. [#allen2002|Allen, 2002]
  170. [#friedenwald1904|Friedenwald, 1904]
  171. [#andrilk2012|Andrilk, 2012]
  172. [#swindler1981|Swindler, 1981]
  173. [#chernow2010|Chernow, 2010]
  174. [#ferling2007|Ferling, 2007]
  175. [#ferling2007|Ferling, 2007]
  176. [#renehan2007|Renehan, 2007]
  177. [#chernow2010|Chernow, 2010]
  178. [#jedson2006|Jedson, 2006]
  179. [#morris1965|Morris, 1965]
  180. [#jedson2006|Jedson, 2006]
  181. [#renehan2007|Renehan, 2007]
  182. [#meng1933|Meng, 1933]
  183. [#ferling1996|Ferling, 1986]
  184. [#maier2010|Maier, 2010]
  185. [#bowen1986|Bowen, 1986]
  186. Web site: Delegates of the Continental and Confederation Congresses Who Signed the United States Constitution . United States House of Representatives . January 10, 2023.
  187. Web site: Founders on the Defects of the Articles of Confederation 1780–1787: Letters (Excerpts) . 1–8 . National Humanities Center . October 31, 2022.
  188. [#jensen1964|Jensen, 1964]
  189. [#jensen1950|Jensen, 1950]
  190. [#warren1928|Warren, 1928]
  191. [#adler2015|Adler, 2015]
  192. [#jillson1994|Jillson, 1994]
  193. [#maier2010|Maier, 2010]
  194. [#beeman2009|Beeman, 2009]
  195. [#bowen1986|Bowen, 1986]
  196. [#warren1928|Warren, 1928]
  197. [#warren1928|Warren, 1928]
  198. [#bowen1986|Bowen, 1986]
  199. [#bernstein1986|Bernstein, 1987]
  200. [#bowen1986|Bowen, 1986]
  201. [#farrand1913|Farrand, 1913]
  202. [#warren1928|Warren, 1928]
  203. [#jilson2016|Jillson, 2016]
  204. [#bowen1986|Bowen, 1986]
  205. [#beeman2009|Beeman, 2009]
  206. [#rakove2010|Rakove, 2010]
  207. [#bowman1986|Bowman, 1986]
  208. [#warren1928|Warren, 1928]
  209. [#bowen1986|Bowen, 1986]
  210. [#jilson2016|Jillson, 2016]
  211. [#beeman2009|Beeman, 2009]
  212. [#vandoren1986|Van Doren, 1986]
  213. [#farrand1913|Farrand, 1913]
  214. [#maier2010|Maier, 2010]
  215. [#bowen1986|Bowen, 1986]
  216. [#bernstein2009|Bernstein, 1987]
  217. [#beeman2009|Beeman, 2009]
  218. [#maier2010|Maier, 2010]
  219. [#beeman2009|Beeman, 2009]
  220. [#farrand1913|Farrand, 1913]
  221. [#warren1928|Warren, 1928]
  222. [#bowman1986|Bowman, 1986]
  223. [#maier2010|Maier, 2010]
  224. [#berstein1987|Bernstein, 1987]
  225. [#maier2010|Maier, 2010]
  226. [#vandoren1986|Van Doren, 1986]
  227. [#maier2010|Maier, 2010]
  228. [#morton2006|Morton, 2006]
  229. [#beeman2009|Beeman, 2009]
  230. [#ellis2007|Ellis, 2007]
  231. [#maier2010|Maier, 2010]
  232. [#warren1928|Warren, 1928]
  233. [#jilson2016|Jillson, 2016]
  234. [#morton2006|Morton, 2006]
  235. [#campbell1969|Campbell, 1969]
  236. [#beeman2009|Beeman, 2009]
  237. [#beeman2009|Beeman, 2009]
  238. [#maier2010|Maier, 2010]
  239. [#warren1928|Warren, 1928]
  240. [#maier2010|Maier, 2010]
  241. [#bowman2005|Bowman, 2005]
  242. [#vandoren1986|Van Doren, 1986]
  243. [#maier2010|Maier, 2010]
  244. [#bowman2005|Bowman, 2005]
  245. [#archive'madison|National Archives: Madison at the Federal Convention]
  246. [#labunski2006|Labunski, 2006]
  247. [#labunski2006|Labunski, 2006]
  248. [#labunski2006|Labunski, 2006]
  249. [#kidd2011|Kidd, 2011]
  250. [#labunski2006|Labunski, 2006]
  251. [#labunski2006|Labunski, 2006]
  252. [#labunski2006|Labunski, 2006]
  253. [#stewart2015|Stewart, 2015]
  254. [#bernstein2009|Bernstein, 2009]
  255. [#bernstein2009|Bernstein, 2009]
  256. [#padover1958|Padover, 1958]
  257. [#padover1958|Padover, 1958]
  258. [#padover1958|Padover, 1958]
  259. [#brown1976|Brown, 1976]
  260. Web site: Werther. Richard J.. Analyzing the Founders: A Closer Look at the Signers of Four Founding Documents. Journal of the American Revolution. October 24, 2017. March 3, 2022.
  261. [#padover1958|Padover, 1958]
  262. [#brown1976|Brown, 1976]
  263. [#brown1976|Brown, 1976]
  264. Web site: Signers of The Declaration of Independence . USConstitution.net . August 30, 2022.
  265. Web site: Signers of The Articles of Confederation . usconstitution.net . August 30, 2022.
  266. Web site: Data on the Framers of the Constitution . USConstitution.net . August 30, 2022.
  267. [#martin1973|Martin, 1973]
  268. [#greene1973|Greene, 1973]
  269. [#malone1|American National Biography, 1999]
  270. [#mccullough2001|McCullough, 2001]
  271. [#malone5|Dictionary of American Biography, 1932]
  272. [#franklin'auto|Franklin, Autobiography, 1895, [1790]]
  273. [#brands2000|Brands, 2000]
  274. [#malone10|Dictionary of American biography, 1932]
  275. [#jillson2004|Jillson & Wilson, 1994]
  276. [#morris1965|Morris, 1965]
  277. [#ferling2014|Ferling, 2014]
  278. [#brands2000|Brands, 2000]
  279. [#malone13|Dictionary of American biography, 1932]
  280. [#malone17|Dictionary of American biography, 1932]
  281. Web site: Hamilton, Alexander . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 29, 2022.
  282. Web site: Monroe, James . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 29, 2022.
  283. [#cogliano2006|Cogliano, 2006]
  284. Web site: John Blair, Jr. . Supreme Court Historical Society . September 29, 2022.
  285. Web site: James McClurg, Virginia . November 6, 2015 . National Archives and Records Administration . September 29, 2022.
  286. Web site: Mercer, James Francis . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 29, 2022.
  287. Web site: Biographies of the Secretaries of State: Edmund Jennings Randolph (1753–1813) . Office of the Historian, US Department of State . September 29, 2022.
  288. Web site: John Jay, 1789–1795 . Supreme Court Historical Society . September 29, 2022.
  289. Web site: Livingston, Robert R. . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 29, 2022.
  290. Web site: Morris, Gouverneur . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 29, 2022.
  291. Web site: Adams, John . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 28, 2022.
  292. Web site: Adams, Samuel . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 28, 2022.
  293. Web site: Dana, Francis . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 28, 2022.
  294. Web site: Ellery, William . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 28, 2022.
  295. Web site: Gerry, Elbridge . November 6, 2015 . National Archives and Records Administration . September 28, 2022.
  296. Web site: Hancock, John . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 28, 2022.
  297. Web site: Hooper, William . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 28, 2022.
  298. Web site: Johnson, William Samuel . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. September 29, 2022.
  299. Web site: Rufus King, Massachusetts . November 6, 2015 . National Archives and Records Administration . September 28, 2022.
  300. Web site: Lovell, James . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 28, 2022.
  301. 1885 . Robert Treat Paine . Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . 21 . American Academy of Arts & Sciences . 582–585 . 25129842.
  302. Web site: Strong, Caleb . November 6, 2015 . National Archives and Records Administration . September 28, 2022.
  303. Web site: Recalling Joseph Warren–Physician, Revolutionary, Leader . Feldscher . Karen . March 23, 2012 . Harvard School of Public Health . September 28, 2022.
  304. Web site: Wentworth, John, Jr. . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 28, 2022.
  305. Web site: Williams, William . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 28, 2022.
  306. Web site: Princeton Undergraduate Alumni Index, 1748–1920 . Department of Special Collections, Princeton University Library . September 29, 2022.
  307. Web site: Bedford, Gunning, Jr. . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 29, 2022.
  308. Web site: William Richardson Davie, North Carolina . November 6, 2015 . National Archives and Records Administration . September 29, 2022.
  309. Web site: Jonathan Dayton, New Jersey . November 6, 2015 . National Archives and Records Administration . September 29, 2022.
  310. Web site: Ellsworth, Oliver . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 29, 2022.
  311. Web site: Hewes, Joseph . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 29, 2022.
  312. Web site: Houstoun, William . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 29, 2022.
  313. Web site: Hutson, Richard . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 29, 2022.
  314. Web site: Madison, James . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 29, 2022.
  315. Web site: Martin, Alexander . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 29, 2022.
  316. Web site: Luther Martin, Maryland . November 6, 2015 . National Archives and Records Administration . September 29, 2022.
  317. Web site: William Paterson, New Jersey . November 6, 2015 . National Archives and Records Administration . September 29, 2022.
  318. Web site: Reed, Joseph . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 29, 2022.
  319. Web site: Rush, Benjamin . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 29, 2022.
  320. Web site: Scudder, Nathaniel . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 29, 2022.
  321. Web site: Smith, Jonathan Bayard . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 29, 2022.
  322. Web site: Stockton, Richard . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 29, 2022.
  323. Web site: Hopkinson, Francis . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 29, 2022.
  324. Web site: Marchant, Henry . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 29, 2022.
  325. Web site: Mifflin, Thomas . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. September 29, 2022.
  326. Web site: Paca, William . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 29, 2022.
  327. Web site: Williamson, Hugh . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 29, 2022.
  328. Web site: Adams, Andrew . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. September 29, 2022.
  329. Web site: Baldwin, Abraham . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. September 29, 2022.
  330. Web site: Hall, Lyman . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. September 29, 2022.
  331. Web site: Hosmer, Titus . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. September 29, 2022.
  332. Web site: Ingersoll, Jared . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. September 29, 2022.
  333. Web site: Livingston, Philip . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. September 29, 2022.
  334. Web site: Livingston, William . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. September 29, 2022.
  335. Web site: Morris, Lewis . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. September 29, 2022.
  336. Web site: Wolcott, Oliver . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. September 29, 2022.
  337. [#NCReview|The North Carolina Review, p. 278]
  338. Web site: Banister, John . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . October 4, 2022.
  339. Web site: John Blair, Virginia . November 6, 2015 . National Archives and Records Administration . October 4, 2022.
  340. Web site: Dickinson, John . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . October 4, 2022.
  341. [#NCReview|The North Carolina Review, p. 279]
  342. Web site: Matthews, John . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . October 4, 2022.
  343. [#NCReview|The North Carolina Review, p. 280]
  344. Web site: Randolph, Peyton . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . September 29, 2022.
  345. [#NCReview|The North Carolina Review, p. 286]
  346. Web site: Nelson, Thomas Jr. . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . October 4, 2022.
  347. Web site: Benjamin Rush . June 11, 2023 . University of Pennsylvania, Archives and Records Center . en.
  348. Web site: Witherspoon, John . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . October 4, 2022.
  349. [#concise1997v1|Concise Vol. 1, 1997]
  350. [#malone5|Dictionary of American biography, 1932]
  351. [#malone7|Dictionary of American biography, 1932]
  352. [#concise1997v1|Concise Vol. 1, 1997]
  353. [#concise1997v2|Concise Vol. 2, 1997]
  354. [#malone3|Dictionary of American biography, 1932]
  355. [#malone7|Dictionary of American biography, 1932]
  356. [#malone18|Dictionary of American biography, 1932]
  357. [#malone9|Dictionary of American biography, 1932]
  358. [#malone17|Dictionary of American biography, 1932]
  359. Web site: Taylor, George . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. October 2, 2022.
  360. [#malone18|Dictionary of American biography, 1932]
  361. [#malone18|Dictionary of American biography, 1932]
  362. [#concise1997v2|Concise Vol. 2, 1997]
  363. [#concise1997v2|Concise Vol. 2, 1997]
  364. [#concise1997v2|Concise Vol. 2, 1997]
  365. Web site: Lewis, Francis . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. October 2, 2022.
  366. [#chernow2004|Chernow, 2004]
  367. [#malone9|Dictionary of American biography, 1932]
  368. Web site: Bartlett, Josiah . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. October 2, 2022.
  369. Web site: Holten, Samuel . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . October 2, 2022.
  370. Web site: McHenry, James . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . October 2, 2022.
  371. Web site: Thornton, Matthew . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . October 2, 2022.
  372. Web site: Witherspoon, John . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . October 2, 2022.
  373. [#chernow2010|Chernow, 2010]
  374. [#isaacson2004|Isaacson, 2004]
  375. Web site: Biography: Benjamin Franklin . . . October 2, 2022.
  376. Web site: A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations, by Country, since 1776: Sweden . Office of the Historian . October 5, 2022.
  377. Web site: Gov. Benjamin Franklin . January 15, 2019 . National Governors Association . October 5, 2022.
  378. [#lambert=2003|Lambert, 2003]
  379. [#onuf2007|Onuf, 2007]
  380. Letter to Horatio G. Spafford, March 17, 1814. "In every country and in every age, the priest has been hostile to liberty. He is always in alliance with the despot, abetting his abuses in return for protection to his own."
  381. [#frazer2012|Frazer, 2012]
  382. [#sehat2015|Shehat, 2015]
  383. Web site: Playbill. Robert Viagas. Hamilton Tops Tony Awards With 11 Wins. April 9, 2017. June 13, 2016.
  384. [#gelfand1969|Gelfand, 1969]
  385. [#gelfand1969|Gelfand, 1969]
  386. [#cogliano2006|Cogliano, 2006]
  387. [#meacham2012|Meacham, 2012]
  388. [#cogliano2006|Cogliano, 2006]
  389. see Library of Congress, "Religion and the Founding of the American Republic" (2023) https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/religion/rel06.html#:~:text=Prohibition%20of%20Religious%20Tests,full%20Convention%20on%20August%2030.online
  390. Steven Waldman, Founding Faith: How Our Founding Fathers Forged a Radical New Approach to Religious Liberty (Random House, 2009).
  391. [#lambert=2003|Lambert, 2003]
  392. [#reed2000|Gordon-Reed, 2000]
  393. News: The Founders and Slavery: John Jay Saves the Day. The Economist . July 2011 . April 5, 2017.
  394. http://www.columbia.edu/cu/libraries/inside/dev/jay/JaySlavery.html The Selected Papers of John Jay
  395. Web site: (1776) The Deleted Passage of the Declaration of Independence • . 9 July 2024 . 10 August 2009.
  396. https://archive.org/details/notesonhistory00moorrich Notes on the history of slavery in Massachusetts
  397. James A. Rawley and Stephen D. Behrendt, The Transatlantic Slave Trade: A History (2008)
  398. Thomas N. Ingersoll, The Loyalist Problem in Revolutionary New England (2016)
  399. [#dolbeare2010|Dolbeare, 2010]
  400. [#wright2002|Wright, 2002]
  401. Alexander Hamilton: Slavery and Race in a Revolutionary Generation . Horton . James O. . 2004 . New York Journal of American History . 91 . 3 . 1151–1152 . October 29, 2016. 10.2307/3663046 . 3663046 .
  402. Web site: Magness, Phillip . Alexander Hamilton's Exaggerated Abolitionism . June 27, 2015 . April 6, 2017 .
  403. [#serfilippi2020|Serfilippi, 2020]
  404. Encyclopedia: Encyclopædia Britannica. The Founding Fathers and Slavery. April 9, 2017 .
  405. Web site: Slavery and Justice: Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice . Brown University . October 2006 .
  406. [#freehling1972|Freehling, 1972]
  407. [#cambridge2008|Cambridge History of Law, 2008]
  408. Jeffrey K. Tulis and Nicole Mellow, Legacies of losing in American politics (U of Chicago Press, 2018), p. 2. -
  409. Eric Foner, The Second Founding: How the Civil War and Reconstruction Remade the Constitution (2020) excerpt
  410. Ilan Wurman, The Second Founding: An Introduction to the Fourteenth Amendment (2020) excerpt
  411. See also Garrett Epps, "Second Founding: The Story of the Fourteenth Amendment." Oregon Law Review 85 (2006) pp: 895–911 online.
  412. David Hackett Fischer, African Founders: How Enslaved People Expanded American Ideals (Simon and Schuster, 2022) pp 1–3. excerpt
  413. David W. Blight, Frederick Douglass: Prophet of Freedom (Simon and Schuster, 2018) p. xv; winner of Pulitzer Prize; excerpt.
  414. Book: Trefousse, Hans Louis . Hans L. Trefousse . The Radical Republicans Lincoln's Vanguard for Racial Justice . Alfred A. Knopf . 1969 . New York . vii–viii. /ref> Paul Rego, Lyman Trumbull and the Second Founding of the United States (University Press of Kansas, 2022) pp. 1–2. excerpt.
  415. Book: Risen, Clay . The Bill of the Century: The Epic Battle for the Civil Rights Act . Bloomsbury Press . 2014 . New York . 2–5 . 978-1608-19824-5.
  416. Shaffer, 2017, Preface:
  417. [#murison2013|Murison, 2013]
  418. [#grafton1990|Grafton, 1990]
  419. The History of New-Hampshire: Jeremy Belknap as Literary Craftsman. The William and Mary Quarterly. 21. 1. 18–39. 1923354. Kaplan. Sidney. 1964. 10.2307/1923354.
  420. Cunningham, 1988:
  421. [#hart1904|Hart (ed.), 1904–1918]
  422. [#cooney1967|Cooney, 1967 Master of Arts Thesis]
  423. [#bernstein2009|Bernstein, 2009]
  424. Book: Furstenberg, François . 2006 . In the Name of the Father: Washington's Legacy: Slavery and the Making of a Nation . New York . Penguin Press . 978-1594200922 . 66527258. furstenberg2006.
  425. Appleton's American Biography, v. 6, p. 579
  426. [#ferling2007|Ferling, 2007]
  427. [#mccullough2001|McCullough, 2001]

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Founding Fathers of the United States".

Except where otherwise indicated, Everything.Explained.Today is © Copyright 2009-2024, A B Cryer, All Rights Reserved. Cookie policy.