Foreign relations of Germany explained
The Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) is a Central European country and member of the European Union, G4, G7, the G20, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). It maintains a network of 229 diplomatic missions abroad and holds relations with more than 190 countries. As one of the world's leading industrialized countries it is recognized as a major power in European and global affairs.
History
See main article: History of German foreign policy. The history of German foreign policy covers diplomatic developments and international history since 1871.
Before 1866, Habsburg Austria and its German Confederation were the nominal leader in German affairs, but the Hohenzollern Kingdom of Prussia exercised increasingly dominant influence in German affairs, owing partly to its ability to participate in German Confederation politics through its Brandenburg holding, and its ability to influence trade through its Zollverein network. The question of excluding or including Austria's influence was settled by the Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War in 1866. The unification of Germany was made possible by the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, in which the smaller states joined behind Prussia in a smashing victory over France. The German Empire was put together in 1871 by Otto von Bismarck, who dominated German and indeed all of European diplomatic history until he was forced to resign in 1890.
Primary institutions and actors
Federal Cabinet
The three cabinet-level ministries responsible for guiding Germany's foreign policy are the Ministry of Defense, the Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development and the Federal Foreign Office. In practice, most German federal departments play some role in shaping foreign policy in the sense that there are few policy areas left that remain outside of international jurisdiction. The bylaws of the Federal Cabinet (as delineated in Germany's Basic Law), however, assign the Federal Foreign Office a coordinating function. Accordingly, other ministries may only invite foreign guests or participate in treaty negotiations with the approval of the Federal Foreign Office.
Bundestag
With respect to foreign policy, the Bundestag acts in a supervisory capacity. Each of its committees – most notably the foreign relations committee – oversees the country's foreign policy. The consent of the Bundestag (and insofar as Länder are impacted, the Bundesrat) is required to ratify foreign treaties. If a treaty legislation passes first reading, it is referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs, which is capable of delaying ratification and prejudice decision through its report to the Bundestag.[1]
In 1994, a full EU Committee was also created for the purpose of addressing the large flow of EU-related topics and legislation. Also, the committee has the mandate to speak on behalf of the Bundestag and represent it when deciding an EU policy position.[2] A case in point was the committee's involvement regarding the European Union's eastern enlargement wherein the Committee on Foreign Affairs is responsible for relations with ECE states while the EU Committee is tasked with the negotiations.
NGOs
There is a raft of NGOs in Germany that engage foreign policy issues. These NGOs include think-tanks (German Council on Foreign Relations), single-issue lobbying organizations (Amnesty International), as well as other organizations that promote stronger bilateral ties between Germany and other countries (Atlantic Bridge). While the budgets and methods of NGOs are distinct, the overarching goal to persuade decision-makers to the wisdom of their own views is a shared one. In 2004, a new German governance framework, particularly on foreign and security policy areas, emerged where NGOs are integrated into actual policymaking.[3] The idea is that the cooperation between state and civil society groups increases the quality of conflict resolution, development cooperation and humanitarian aid for fragile states. The framework seeks to benefit from the expertise of the NGOs in exchange for these groups to have a chance for influencing foreign policy.
Disputes
In 2001, the discovery that the terrorist cell which carried out the attacks against the United States on 11 September 2001, was based in Hamburg, sent shock waves through the country.
The government of Chancellor Gerhard Schröder backed the following U.S. military actions, sending Bundeswehr troops to Afghanistan to lead a joint NATO program to provide security in the country after the ousting of the Taliban.
Nearly all of the public was strongly against America's 2003 invasion of Iraq, and any deployment of troops.[4] This position was shared by the SPD/Green government, which led to some friction with the United States.
In August 2006, the German government disclosed a botched plot to bomb two German trains. The attack was to occur in July 2006 and involved a 21-year-old Lebanese man, identified only as Youssef Mohammed E. H. Prosecutors said Youssef and another man left suitcases stuffed with crude propane-gas bombs on the trains.
As of February 2007, Germany had about 3,000 NATO-led International Security Assistance Force force in Afghanistan as part of the War on Terrorism, the third largest contingent after the United States (14,000) and the United Kingdom (5,200).[5] German forces are mostly in the more secure north of the country.
However, Germany, along with some other larger European countries (with the exception of the UK and the Netherlands), have been criticised by the UK and Canada for not sharing the burden of the more intensive combat operations in southern Afghanistan.[6] [7]
Global initiatives
Humanitarian aid
Germany is the largest net contributor to the United Nations and has several development agencies working in Africa and the Middle East. The development policy of the Federal Republic of Germany is an independent area of German foreign policy. It is formulated by the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and carried out by the implementing organisations. The German government sees development policy as a joint responsibility of the international community.[8] It is the world's third biggest aid donor after the United States and France.[9] Germany spent 0.37 per cent of its gross domestic product (GDP) on development, which is below the government's target of increasing aid to 0.51 per cent of GDP by 2010. The international target of 0.7% of GNP would have not been reached either.
Ecological involvement
See main article: Kyoto protocol and Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
International organizations
Germany is a member of the Council of Europe, European Union, European Space Agency, G4, G8, International Monetary Fund, NATO, OECD, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, UN, World Bank Group and the World Trade Organization.
European Union
See main article: Foreign relations of the European Union.
European integration has gone a long way since the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and the Elysée Treaty. Peaceful collaborations with its neighbors remain one of Germany's biggest political objectives, and Germany has been on the forefront of most achievements made in European integration:
Most of the social issues facing European countries in general: immigration, aging populations, straining social-welfare and pension systems – are all important in Germany.Germany seeks to maintain peace through the "deepening" of integration among current members of the European Union member states
Germany has been the largest net contributor to EU budgets for decades (in absolute terms – given Germany's comparatively large population – not per capita) and seeks to limit the growth of these net payments in the enlarged union.
NATO
Under the doctrine introduced by the 2003 Defense Policy Guidelines, Germany continues to give priority to the transatlantic partnership with the United States through the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. However, Germany is giving increasing attention to coordinating its policies with the European Union through the Common Foreign and Security Policy.
UN
See main article: Germany and the United Nations.
The German Federal Government began an initiative to obtain a permanent seat in the United Nations Security Council, as part of the Reform of the United Nations. This would require approval of a two-thirds majority of the member states and approval of all five Security Council veto powers.
This aspiration could be successful due to Germany's good relations with the People's Republic of China and the Russian Federation. Germany is a stable and democratic republic and a G7 country which are also favourable attributes. The United Kingdom and France support German ascension to the supreme body.[10] The U.S. is sending mixed signals.
NATO member states, including Germany, decided not to sign the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, a binding agreement for negotiations for the total elimination of nuclear weapons, supported by more than 120 nations.[11]
Diplomatic relations
List of countries which the Federal Republic of Germany maintains diplomatic relations with:
Bilateral relations
Africa
Americas
| Country | Notes |
|---|
| - Antigua and Barbuda is represented in Germany through its embassy in the United Kingdom.
- Germany is represented in Antigua and Barbuda through its embassy in Trinidad and Tobago.[56]
|
 Argentina | See Argentina–Germany relations
|
| - The Bahamas is represented in Germany through its embassy in the United Kingdom.
- Germany is represented in the Bahamas through its embassy in Jamaica.[60]
|
 Barbados | See Barbados–Germany relations
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 Belize | - Belize is represented in Germany through its embassy in Brussels.[62]
- Germany is represented in Belize through its embassy in Guatemala.[63]
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| See Bolivia–Germany relations- Diplomatic relations between the two states were broken during the First World War.
- Relations were restored after the war under the agreement concluded on 20 July 1921.[64] [65]
- Bolivia has an embassy in Berlin.
- Germany has an embassy in La Paz.[66]
- See also: German Bolivians
|
 Brazil | See Brazil–Germany relations
|
 Canada | See Canada–Germany relations Canada operates consulates in Munich and Düsseldorf.[69] In addition to its embassy in Ottawa, Germany maintains consulates in Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver.
|
 Chile | See Chile–Germany relations- Chile has an embassy in Berlin, consulates-general in Frankfurt, Hamburg, and Munich and honorary consulates in Bremen, Cologne and Stuttgart.[70] [71]
- Germany has an embassy in Santiago and honorary consulates in Antofagasta, Concepción, La Serena, Puerto Montt, Punta Arenas, Temuco, Valdivia, and Vina del Mar.
|
 Colombia | See Colombia–Germany relations- Colombia has an embassy in Berlin, a consulate-general in Frankfurt and three honorary consulates in Bremen, Hamburg and Stuttgart.
- Germany has an embassy in Bogotá and four honorary consulates in Armenia, Barranquilla, Cali, and Medellin.[72]
|
| - Costa Rica has an embassy in Berlin.
- Germany has an embassy in San José.[73]
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 Cuba | See Cuba–Germany relations- Cuba has an embassy in Berlin and an embassy outpost in Bonn.
- Germany has an embassy in Havana.[74]
- The Federal Republic of Germany Germany ended diplomatic relations on January 14, 1963, due to the Hallstein Doctrine, two days after Cuba recognized the German Democratic Republic.
- Diplomatic relations were re-established on 18 January 1975.
|
| - Dominica is represented in Germany through its embassy in London.
- Germany is represented in Dominica through its embassy in Trinidad and Tobago.[75]
|
| - The Dominican Republic has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Frankfurt and Hamburg.
- Germany has an embassy in Santo Domingo.[76]
|
| See Ecuador–Germany relations- Ecuador has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate in Hamburg.
- Germany has an embassy in Quito.[77]
|
| - El Salvador has an embassy in Berlin.
- Germany has an embassy in San Salvador.[78]
|
| - Grenada has closed its embassy in Germany on 17 August 2013.
- Germany is represented in Grenada through its embassy in Trinidad and Tobago.[79]
|
|
|
| See Germany–Guyana relations- Guyana is represented in Germany through its embassy in Brussels.
- Germany is represented in Guyana through its embassy in Trinidad and Tobago.[81]
|
| See Germany–Haiti relations
|
| - Honduras has an embassy in Berlin.
- Germany has an embassy in Tegucigalpa.[83]
|
| See Germany–Jamaica relations- Jamaica has an embassy in Berlin.
- Germany has an embassy in Kingston.[84]
|
 Mexico | See Germany–Mexico relations
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| See Germany–Nicaragua relations- Nicaragua has an embassy in Berlin.
- Germany has an embassy in Managua.[87]
|
| - Panama has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Hamburg.
- Germany has an embassy in Panama City.[88]
|
 Paraguay | See Germany–Paraguay relations
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 Peru | See Germany–Peru relations
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| - St. Kitts and Nevis is represented in Germany through its High Commission in the United Kingdom.
- Germany is represented in St. Kitts and Nevis through its embassy in Trinidad and Tobago.[92]
|
| - St. Lucia is represented in Germany through its High Commission in the United Kingdom.
- Germany is represented in St. Lucia through its embassy in Trinidad and Tobago.[93]
|
| - St. Vincent and the Grenadines is represented in Germany through its High Commission in the United Kingdom.
- Germany is represented in St. Vincent and the Grenadines through its embassy in Trinidad and Tobago.[94]
|
 Suriname | - Suriname is represented in Germany through its embassy in the Netherlands.
- Germany is represented in Suriname through its embassy in Trinidad and Tobago.[95]
|
| - Trinidad and Tobago is represented in Germany through its High Commission in the United Kingdom.
- Germany has an embassy in Port of Spain.[96]
|
 United States | See Germany–United States relations Former chancellor Angela Merkel has sought warmer relations with the United States and to rebuild political ties on common values and beliefs.
- United States has an embassy in Berlin, an embassy outpost in Bonn, consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Leipzig and Munich, as well as a consular agency in Bremen.[97]
- Germany has an embassy in Washington, D.C., and consulates-general in Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York City and San Francisco.[98]
- See also: German American
|
 Uruguay | See Germany–Uruguay relations- Uruguay has an embassy in Berlin, a general consulate in Hamburg and five honorary consulate (in Bremen, Frankfurt am Main, Essen, Munich, and Stuttgart).
- Germany has an embassy in Montevideo.
- Germany is Uruguay's principal trading partner in the European Union.[99]
|
| See Germany–Venezuela relations- Venezuela has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Frankfurt and Hamburg.
- Germany has an embassy in Caracas.[100]
| |
Asia
| Country | Notes |
|---|
 Afghanistan | See Afghanistan–Germany relations- Germany was one of the first nations to recognise Afghan sovereignty, following the Soviet Union in 1991.[101]
- Afghanistan has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Bonn and Grünwald.[102]
- Germany had an embassy in Kabul and a consulate-general in Mazar-i-Sharif.
- Afghanistan and Germany established close ties in 1935, as Afghanistan sought to break from their historical patterns of British and Russian alignment. Afghanistan resisted calls from Moscow and London to expel the Italian and German diplomatic corps for most of World War II.[103]
|
 Armenia | See Armenia–Germany relations Armenian-German relations have always been stable and solid; they continue to work together and advance through the years in cooperation. Their leaders have discussed bilateral relations and noted that they have considerably improved over the last few years.[104]
- Armenia has an embassy in Berlin and honorary consulates in Frankfurt, Karlsruhe, Magdeburg, and Munich.[105]
- Germany has an embassy in Yerevan and an honorary consulate in Gyumri.
|
 Azerbaijan | See Azerbaijan–Germany relations- Azerbaijan has an embassy in Berlin.[106]
- Germany has an embassy in Baku.[107]
|
| See Bahrain–Germany relations- Bahrain has an embassy in Berlin.
- Germany has an embassy in Manama.[108]
|
 Bangladesh | See main article: Bangladesh–Germany relations.
After the independence of Bangladesh in 1971 East Germany was the third country in the world, and the first country in Europe, to officially recognise Bangladesh in 1972.[109] Bangladesh also warmly greeted German reunification. As an economic power as well as an important member of the European Union (EU), Germany is a reliable partner of Bangladesh in development cooperation. After establishment of diplomatic relations, the bilateral relations between the two countries began to grow steadily. Bangladesh is a priority partner country of German Development Cooperation (GTZ). In trade with Germany, Bangladesh has for years recorded a large surplus. Germany is the second largest export market of Bangladesh after the US. The cultural relationship of both the countries is very strong. The cultural cooperation between them is mainly channeled through the Goethe Institute that work on developing the cultural ties between both the countries by sponsoring local and German cultural activities. Both Germany and Bangladesh share common views on various international issues and work together in the UN and in other international forum. They have maintained and developed close and friendly relations in a wide range of field. The two countries are harmonized together by their commitment to various sectors mutually agreed upon, which is expected to be strengthened further in future.
- Bangladesh has an embassy in Berlin.
- Germany has an embassy in Dhaka.[110]
|
| The Governments of the Federal Republic of Germany and the Kingdom of Bhutan have maintained diplomatic relations since 25 November 2020. This move further deepened the friendly relations between the two countries. Consular relations have been in place since July 2000. Bhutan has agreed to let Germany set up an honorary consulate in Thimphu. Bhutan has an honorary consulate-general in Germany.- Bhutan is represented in Germany through its mission to the EU in Brussels.
- Germany is represented in Bhutan through its embassy in India.[111]
|
| See Brunei–Germany relations
|
| See Cambodia–Germany relations- Cambodia has an embassy in Berlin.
- Germany has an embassy in Phnom Penh.[114]
|
 China | See China–Germany relationsGermany has good relationships with the People's Republic of China, even though Angela Merkel and large parts of Germany's political class have recently criticised the People's Republic for holding back reforms in the field of democracy and human rights. In recent years trade between them has reached high volumes, both in imports and exports. In July 2019, the UN ambassadors from 22 nations, including Germany, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC condemning China's mistreatment of the Uyghurs as well as its mistreatment of other minority groups, urging the Chinese government to close the Xinjiang re-education camps.[115] [116] - China has an embassy in Berlin, an embassy outpost in Bonn, consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich, and an Economic and Trade Office of the Special Administrative Region of Hong Kong.
- Germany has an embassy in Beijing and consulates-general in Chengdu, Hong Kong, Guangzhou, Shanghai, and Shenyang.[117]
|
| See Germany–Hong Kong relationsThere are no formal diplomatic relations between Hong Kong and Germany, due to the character of Hong Kong being a Special Administrative Region and not an independent nation.
|
 India | See main article: Germany–India relations. During the Cold War India maintained diplomatic relations with both West Germany and East Germany. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, and the reunification of Germany, relations have further improved. The German ambassador to India, Bernd Mutzelburg, once said that India and Germany, are not just 'natural partners', but important countries in a globalised world. Germany is India's largest trade partner in Europe. German Chancellor Angela Merkel visited India recently, as did the Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi visit Germany. Both countries have been working towards gaining permanent seats in the United Nations Security Council. As both countries are strong liberal democracies, they have similar objectives. UN reforms, fighting terrorism and climate change, and promotion of science, education, technology, and human rights, are some areas of shared interests, and collaboration between these two countries. Culturally too, Indian and German writers and philosophers, have influenced each other.[119] Recently, Germany has invested in developing education and skills amongst rural Indians. Germany was one of the first countries to agree with the Indo-US Nuclear deal.
|
 Indonesia | See Germany–Indonesia relations- Indonesia and Germany have traditionally enjoyed good, intensive and wide-ranging relations.
- Germany and Indonesia, as the largest members of the European Union and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), respectively, take similar positions on many issues relating to the development of the two regional organizations.[130]
- Indonesia has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Frankfurt and Hamburg.
- Germany has an embassy in Jakarta.[131]
|
| See Germany–Iran relations- Iran has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Frankfurt, Hamburg, and Munich.
- Germany has an embassy in Tehran.[132]
|
 Iraq | See Germany–Iraq relations- Iraq has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.
- Germany has an embassy in Baghdad and a consulate-general in Erbil.[133]
- There are currently some 84,000–150,000 Iraqis living in Germany.
|
 Israel | See Germany–Israel relationsGermany-Israel relations refers to the special relationship between Israel and Germany based on shared beliefs, Western values and a combination of historical perspectives.[134] Among the most important factors in their relations is Nazi Germany's role in the genocide of European Jews during the Holocaust.[135] Following German history during the Holocaust, one of Postwar Germany's aims was to establish and maintain relations of Wiedergutmachung with the State of Israel. Starting with the Reparations Agreement in 1952, support for the national security of the State of Israel is central to German foreign policy.Germany has been actively involved in the Egypt–Israel peace treaty in 1979, the Oslo Accords (1993) which led to the Israel–Jordan peace treaty in 1994 and the continuing Israeli–Palestinian peace process which make Germany arguably (next to the United States) Israel's closest ally.
|
 Japan | See Germany–Japan relationsRegular meetings between the two countries have led to several cooperations. In 2004 German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder and Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi agreed upon cooperations in the assistance for reconstruction of Iraq and Afghanistan,[137] [138] the promotion of economic exchange activities,[139] youth and sports exchanges[140] as well as exchanges and cooperation in science, technology and academic fields.[141] After China, Japan is Germany's principal trading partner in Asia in 2006.[142] - Japan has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, and Munich.
- Germany has an embassy in Tokyo and a consulate-general in Osaka.[143]
|
| See Germany–Jordan relations- Jordan has an embassy in Berlin.
- Germany has an embassy in Amman and an honorary consulate in Aqaba.[144]
|
 Kazakhstan | See Germany–Kazakhstan relations- Kazakhstan and Germany have established partnerships in the energy, technology and raw materials sectors.
- Germany has a national pavilion at the Astana Expo 2017.
- Kazakhstan has an embassy in Berlin,[145] an embassy outpost in Bonn, a consultaetegeneral in Frankfurt, and a consulate in Munich.[146]
- Germany has an embassy in Astana and a consulate-general in Almaty.
|
 Kuwait | See Germany–Kuwait relations- Kuwait has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.
- Germany has an embassy in Kuwait City.[147]
|
| - Kyrgyzstan has an embassy in Berlin, an embassy outpost in Bonn, and a consulate in Frankfurt.
- Germany has an embassy in Bishkek.[148]
|
| See Germany–Laos relations- Laos has an embassy in Berlin.
- Germany has an embassy in Vientiane.[149]
|
 Lebanon | See Germany–Lebanon relations- Lebanon has an embassy in Berlin.
- Germany has an embassy in Beirut.[150]
|
 Malaysia | See Germany–Malaysia relations- Malaysia has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.
- Germany has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur.[151]
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| See Germany–Maldives relations- The Maldives have an embassy in Berlin.
- Germany is represented in the Maldives through its embassy in Sri Lanka.[152]
|
| See Germany–Mongolia relations
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| See Germany–Nepal relations- Nepal has an embassy in Berlin.
- Germany has an embassy in Kathmandu.[154]
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| See Germany–North Korea relations- North Korea has an embassy in Berlin.
- Germany has an embassy in Pyongyang.[155]
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| See Germany–Oman relations- Oman has an embassy in Berlin.
- Germany has an embassy in Muscat.[156]
|
 Pakistan | See Germany–Pakistan relationsPakistan and Germany enjoy extremely close, warm and historical relations.[157] Germany is Pakistan's fourth largest trading partner and biggest trading partner in the EU. Germany has been a reliable partner in trade, development, military, scientific and cultural co-operation. The collaboration between Germany and Pakistan dates back to the creation of Pakistan. Germany is home to 53,668 Pakistani immigrants.- Pakistan has an embassy in Berlin, a consulate-general in Frankfurt, and honorary consulates in Frankfurt, Düsseldorf, Hamburg, and Isartal.[158]
- Germany has an embassy in Islamabad, a consulate-general in Karachi, and an honorary consulate in Lahore.
- See also Pakistanis in Germany
|
| "Palestinian territories" | See Germany–Palestine relations- Palestine has a representative office in Berlin.
- Germany has a representative office in Ramallah.[159]
|
 Philippines | See Germany–Philippines relationsThe relationship between Germany and the Philippines remains strong and positive. In 1955 an agreement was signed which led to a dynamic cooperation between the two countries.- The Philippines has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.
- Germany has an embassy in Manila.[160]
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 Qatar | See Germany–Qatar relations- Qatar has an embassy in Berlin, an embassy outpost in Bonn, and a consulate-general in Munich.
- Germany has an embassy in Doha.[161]
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 Saudi Arabia | See Germany–Saudi Arabia relations- Saudi Arabia has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.
- Germany has an embassy in Riyadh and a consulate-general in Jeddah.[162]
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 Singapore | See Germany–Singapore relations- Singapore has an embassy in Berlin.
- Germany has an embassy in Singapore.[163]
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| - The establishment of diplomatic relations between the Germany and the Joseon Dynasty of Korea started on 26 November 1883.
- The number of the South Koreans living in Germany in 2011 was about 31,000.[164]
- South Korea has an embassy in Berlin, an embassy outpost in Bonn, and consulates-general in Frankfurt and Hamburg.[165]
- Germany has an embassy in Seoul.[166]
- See also: Foreign relations of South Korea#Europe.
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| See Germany–Sri Lanka relations- Sri Lanka has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.
- Germany has an embassy in Colombo.[167]
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| See Germany–Syria relations
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| See Germany–Tajikistan relations- Tajikistan has an embassy in Berlin.
- Germany has an embassy in Dushanbe.[170]
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| See Germany–Thailand relations- Thailand has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Frankfurt and Munich.
- Germany has an embassy in Bangkok.[171]
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 Turkey | See Germany–Turkey relations Good Turkish/Ottoman-German relations from the 19th century onwards. They were allies in First World War. Germany promoted Turkish immigration after 1945 when it suffered an acute labor shortage. They were called Gastarbeiter (German for guest workers). Most Turks in Germany trace their ancestry to Central and Eastern Anatolia. Today, Turks are Germany's largest ethnic minority and form most of Germany's Muslim minority. Berlin is home to about 250,000 Turks,[172] making it the largest Turkish community outside of Turkey.
- Turkey has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Berlin, Düsseldorf, Essen, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Hannover, Hürth, Karlsruhe, Mainz, Munich, Münster, Nuremberg, and Stuttgart.[173]
- Germany has an embassy in Ankara, consulates-general in Istanbul and İzmir, and a consulate in Antalya.
- Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and of NATO.
- Germany is an EU member and Turkey is an EU candidate. Germany opposes Turkey's accession negotiations to the EU, although negotiations have now been suspended.
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| - Turkmenistan has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate in Frankfurt.
- Germany has an embassy in Ashgabat.[174]
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 United Arab Emirates | See Germany–United Arab Emirates relations- UAE has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Bonn and Munich.
- Germany has an embassy in Abu Dhabi and a consulate-general in Dubai.[175]
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| See Germany–Uzbekistan relations- Uzbekistan has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.
- Germany has an embassy in Tashkent.[176]
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| See Germany–Vietnam relations- Vietnam has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.
- Germany has an embassy in Hanoi and a consulate-general in Ho Chi Minh City.[177]
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| See Germany–Yemen relations- Yemen has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.
- Germany has an embassy in Sanaʽa which at the moment is only working to a limited extend due to the civil war.[178]
| |
Europe
- Balkan states
See also: Cold War II.
The German government was a strong supporter of the enlargement of NATO.
Germany was one of the first nations to recognize Croatia and Slovenia as independent nations, rejecting the concept of Yugoslavia as the only legitimate political order in the Balkans (unlike other European powers, who first proposed a pro-Belgrade policy). This is why Serb authorities sometimes referred to "new German imperialism" as one of the main reasons for Yugoslavia's collapse.[179] German troops participate in the multinational efforts to bring "peace and stability" to the Balkans.
- Central EuropeWeimar triangle (France, Germany and Poland); Germany continues to be active economically in the states of Central Europe, and to actively support the development of democratic institutions. In the 2000s, Germany has been arguably the centerpiece of the European Union (though the importance of France cannot be overlooked in this connection).
| Country | Notes |
|---|
 Albania | See Albania-Germany relations
|
| - Andorra is accredited to Germany from its embassy in Vienna, Austria.
- Germany is accredited to Andorra from its embassy in Madrid, Spain.[181]
|
 Austria | See Austria–Germany relations Relations between them are close because as countries have strong historical and cultural ties.
- Austria has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Munich.
- Germany has an embassy in Vienna.[182]
- Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Council of Europe.
|
 Belarus | See Belarus-Germany relations- Belarus has an embassy in Berlin[183] and a consulate-general in Munich.[184]
- Germany has an embassy in Minsk.[185]
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 Belgium | See Belgium–Germany relations- Belgium has an embassy in Berlin.
- Germany has an embassy in Brussels.[186]
- Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.
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| See Bosnia and Herzegovina–Germany relationsThe German government has made continuous efforts concerning the peace process after the civil war.- Bosnia and Herzegovina has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Frankfurt, Munich, and Stuttgart.
- Germany has an embassy in Sarajevo.[187]
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 Bulgaria | See Bulgaria–Germany relationsThe Bulgarian government views Germany as its key strategic partner in the EU.- Bulgaria has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Frankfurt and Munich.
- Germany has an embassy in Sofia.[188]
- Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.
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 Croatia | See Croatia–Germany relations- There are more than 200,000 Croats who live in Germany. Historically Germany has had a close collaboration with Croatia.
- Croatia has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich and Stuttgart,[189] and honorary consulates in Dresden and Mainz.[190]
- Germany has an embassy in Zagreb and an honorary consulate in Osijek.
- Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.
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| See Cyprus–Germany relations- In 2004, an agreement on mutual recognition of university degrees was signed, designed to facilitate Cypriot and German students' admission to German and Cypriot universities.
- There is a close and trustful cooperation at a government level. Minister of State Hoyer visited Cyprus on 11 and 12 February 2010. Federal Foreign Minister Westerwelle met with his Cypriot counterpart Marcos Kyprianou in Berlin on 2 March.
- Cyprus has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Hamburg.[191]
- Germany has an embassy in Nicosia.[192]
- Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Council of Europe.
|
 Czech Republic | See Czech Republic–Germany relations Today, they share 815 km of common borders.
- Czech Republic has an embassy in Berlin, consulates-general in Dresden and Munich, a consulate in Düsseldorf, and honorary consulates in Dortmund, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Nuremberg, and Rostock.
- Germany has an embassy in Prague.[193]
- Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.
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 Denmark | See Denmark–Germany relations- Denmark has an embassy in Berlin and three consulates-general in Flensburg, Hamburg and Munich.
- Germany has an embassy in Copenhagen[194]
- Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.
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| See Estonia–Germany relations- Estonia has an embassy in Berlin.
- Germany has an embassy in Tallinn.[195]
- Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.
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 Finland | See Finland–Germany relations- Finland has an embassy in Berlin.
- Germany has an embassy in Helsinki.[196]
- Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.
|
 France | See France–Germany relations Being the historic core of Europe and the "twin engine for European integration", the cooperation with France is one of the most central elements of German foreign policy. The Elysée Treaty from 1963 set the foundation for a collaboration that – next to the European project – also repeatedly called for a "Core Union" with maximum integration.[197] In recent times, France and Germany are among the most enthusiastic proponents of the further integration of the EU. They are sometimes described as the "twin engine" or "core countries" pushing for moves.
- France has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich, Saarbrücken, Suttgart.[198]
- Germany has an embassy in Paris and consulates-general in Bordeaux, Lyon, Marseille, and Strasbourg.
- Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.
|
 Greece | See Germany–Greece relations- The first Greek Embassy in Berlin was established in 1834, when Berlin was the capital of the Kingdom of Prussia.
- Greece has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich, Stuttgart.
- Germany has an embassy in Athens and a consulate-general in Thessaloniki.[199]
- Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.
|
 Georgia | See Georgia–Germany relations- Georgia has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.
- Germany has an embassy in Tbilisi.[200]
- Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
- Georgia is an EU candidate and Germany is an EU member.
|
| See Germany–Holy See relations- Holy See has an apostolic nunciature in Berlin.
- Germany's embassy to the Holy See is located in Rome.[201]
|
 Hungary | See Germany–Hungary relations- Hungary has an embassy in Berlin,[202] consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Munich, and Stuttgart, an honorary consulate-general in Bremerhaven, and honorary consulates in Dresdener, Erfurt, Essen, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Nuremberg, and Schwerin.
- Germany has an embassy in Budapest and an honorary consulate in Pécs.[203]
- Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.
|
 Iceland | See Germany–Iceland relations- German-Icelandic cultural relations go back more than a thousand years; they share a Germanic cultural background.
- Iceland has an embassy in Berlin and nine honorary consulates in Bremen, Cologne, Cuxhaven, Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich, Stuttgart, and Warnemünde.[204]
- Germany has an embassy in Reykjavík an honorary consulates in Akureyri and Seyðisfjörður.
- Both countries are full members of NATO.
|
 Ireland | See Germany–Ireland relations- As Ireland was neutral during World War II, it was able to maintain diplomatic relations with Germany throughout the war. Nonetheless, at least one Irish merchant vessel was destroyed by a German submarine.
- Ireland has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt and honorary consulates in Bergisch Gladbach, Hamburg, Munich, and Stuttgart.
- Germany has an embassy in Dublin and an honorary consulate Galway.[205]
- Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Council of Europe.
|
 Italy | See Germany–Italy relations- These two countries were part of the Holy Roman Empire.
- The Italian regions of Friuli-Venezia Giulia and South Tyrol were located inside the boundaries of the German Confederation.
- Relations were established after the Unification of Italy.
- They enjoy friendly relations and were members of the Axis during World War II, formed an alliance during the Cold War (West Germany), and are full members of the European Union and NATO.
- Italy has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-generals in Cologne, Frankfurt, Hannover, Munich, and Suttgart, consulates in Freiburg and Dortmund, and a consular agency in Wolfsburg.
- Germany has an embassy in Rome and a consulate-general in Milan.[206]
- Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.
|
| See Germany–Kosovo relations- Kosovo has an embassy in Berlin, consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich, and a consulate in Stuttgart.[207]
- Germany has an embassy in Pristina.
- Germany is the second-largest donor to Kosovo, behind the United States.[208]
|
 Latvia | See Germany–Latvia relations- Diplomatic relations were first established following Latvia's independence from Russian rule, under agreement signed in Berlin on 15 July 1920.[209] These relation lasted until the Soviet take over of Latvia in 1940.
- Relations were reestablished in 1991, following the collapse of the Soviet Union.
- Latvia has an embassy in Berlin[210] and honorary consulates in Bremen, Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Künzelsau, Munich and Rostock.[211]
- Germany has an embassy in Riga.[212]
- Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.
|
 Liechtenstein | See Germany–Liechtenstein relations- Liechtenstein has an embassy in Berlin.
- Germany is accredited to Liechtenstein from its embassy in Bern, Switzerland.[213]
|
 Lithuania | See Germany–Lithuania relations- Lithuania has an embassy in Berlin and honorary consulates in Dresden, Erfurt, Essen, Künzelsau, and Munich.[214]
- Germany has an embassy in Vilnius[215] and an honorary consulate in Klaipėda.
- Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.
|
 Luxembourg | See Germany–Luxembourg relations- Luxembourg has an embassy in Berlin.
- Germany has an embassy in Luxembourg City.[216]
- Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.
|
 Malta | See Germany–Malta relations
|
| See Germany–Moldova relations
|
 Monaco | - Monaco has an embassy in Berlin.
- Germany is accredited to Monaco from its embassy in Paris, France.[220]
|
| See Germany–Montenegro relations- Montenegro has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.
- Germany has an embassy in Podgorica.[221]
- Both countries are full members of NATO.
- Germany is an EU member and Montenegro is an EU candidate.
|
 Netherlands | See Germany–Netherlands relations- Relations were established following the unification of Germany in 1871.
- During the First World War, the German army refrained from attacking the Netherlands, and thus relations between the two states were preserved. At war's end in 1918, the former Kaiser Wilhelm II fled to the Netherlands, where he lived till his death in 1941.
- The German army occupied the Netherlands during the Second World War and kept the country under occupation in 1940–1945.
- Netherlands has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf and Munich.
- Germany has an embassy in The Hague and a consulate-general which is at the same time an embassy outpost in Amsterdam.[222]
- Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.
|
| See Germany–North Macedonia relations- North Macedonia has an embassy in Berlin, an embassy outpost in Bonn, and a consulate-general in Munich.
- Germany has an embassy in Skopje.[223]
- Both countries are full members of NATO.
- Germany is an EU member and North Macedonia is an EU candidate.
|
 Norway | See Germany–Norway relations- Norway has an embassy in Berlin.
- Germany has an embassy in Oslo.[224]
- Both countries are full members of NATO.
|
 Poland | See Germany–Poland relations During the Cold War, communist Poland had good relations with East Germany, but had strained relations with West Germany. After the fall of communism, Poland and the reunited Germany have had a mostly positive but occasionally strained relationship due to some political issues. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Germany has been a proponent of Poland's participation in NATO and the European Union. The Polish-German border is 467 km long.[225]
- Poland has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Cologne, Hamburg, and Munich.
- Germany has an embassy in Warsaw, consulates-general in Gdańsk, Kraków, Wrocław and a consulate in Opole, which is an outpost of the consulate-general in Wrocław.[226]
- Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.
|
| See Germany–Portugal relations- Portugal has an embassy in Berlin, consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Hamburg, Stuttgart, and an outpost of the consulate-general Stuttgart in Hattersheim am Main.
- Germany has an embassy in Lisbon.[227]
- Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.
|
 Romania | See Germany–Romania relations- Both countries have – due to a formerly significant number of Germans of Romania – also cultural relations.
- Romania has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Bonn, Munich, and Stuttgart.
- Germany has an embassy in Bucharest and consulates in Sibiu and Timișoara.[228]
- Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.
|
| See Germany–Russia relations Germany tries to keep Russia engaged with the rest of the Western world. The future aim is to promote a stable market-economy liberal democracy in Russia, which is part of the Western world.
|
| - San Marino is represented in Germany through its Ambassador in San Marino.
- Germany is represented in Germany through its embassy in Rome and its consulate-general in Milan.[230]
|
 Serbia | See Germany–Serbia relations- There are 505,000 registered people of Serbian descent living in Germany.
- Germans of Serbia today constitute a small minority, but used to be the largest minority in Serbia before World War II.
- Serbia has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich, and Stuttgart.[231] [232]
- Germany has an embassy in Belgrade.[233]
- Germany is an EU member and Serbia is an EU candidate.
|
 Slovakia | See Germany–Slovakia relations
|
 Slovenia | See Germany–Slovenia relations- Slovenia has an embassy in Berlin, and a consulate-general in Munich.
- Germany has an embassy in Ljubljana.[236]
- Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.
|
| - Diplomatic relations were established on 15 December 2017[237]
- Sovereign Military Order of Malta has an Embassy in Berlin.
- Germany is represented to Sovereign Military Order of Malta through its Embassy to the Holy See.[238]
|
 Spain | See Germany–Spain relations- Spain has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich, and Stuttgart.
- Germany has an embassy in Madrid, a consulate-general in Barcelona, and consulates in Las Palmas, Málaga, and Palma de Mallorca.[239]
- Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.
|
 Sweden | See Germany–Sweden relations- Relations have been strong with cultural and economic cooperation.
- Sweden has an embassy in Berlin and 12 honorary consulates.
- Germany has an embassy in Stockholm and 8 honorary consulates.[240]
- Both countries are full members of the European Union, NATO, and of the Council of Europe.
|
 Switzerland | See Germany–Switzerland relations- Switzerland has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Frankfurt, Munich, and Stuttgart.
- Germany has an embassy in Bern.[241]
|
 Ukraine | See Germany–Ukraine relations
|
 United Kingdom | See Germany–United Kingdom relations- The United Kingdom has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf and Munich. The United Kingdom also has honorary consulates in Bremen, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Hannover, Kiel, and Stuttgart.[243] [244] [245]
- Germany has an embassy in London and a consulate-general in Edinburgh.[246] [247] Germany also has honorary consulates in Aberdeen, Barrow upon Humber, Belfast, Bristol, Cardiff, Coventry, Dover, Glasgow, Hamilton (Bermuda), Kirkwall (Orkney), Leeds, Lerwick (Shetland), Liverpool, Newcastle upon Tyne, Plymouth, Southampton, Saint Helier (Jersey), Saint Peter Port (Guernsey), and Tortola (British Virgin Islands).
- Both countries are full members of NATO.
- Germany recorded its highest foreign direct investment with a surge in UK companies setting up operations to keep a post-Brexit presence in the EU in 2022.[248]
| |
Oceania
| Country | Notes |
|---|
 Australia | See Australia–Germany relations- Australia has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.
- Germany has an embassy in Canberra and a consulate-general in Sydney.[249]
|
| - Fiji is represented in Germany through its embassy in Brussels.
- Germany is represented in Fiji through its embassy in New Zealand.[250]
|
| - Kiribati has an honorary consulate in Hamburg.
- Germany is represented in Kiribati through its embassy in New Zealand.[251]
|
| - The Marshall Islands is represented in Germany through its permanent mission to the United Nations.
- Germany is represented in the Marshall Islands through its embassy in the Philippines.[252]
|
| - Micronesia is represented in Germany though its embassy in the United States.
- Germany is represented in Germany through its embassy in the Philippines.[253]
|
| - Nauru is represented in Germany through its consulate-general in Australia.
- Germany is represented in Nauru through its embassy in Australia.[254]
|
 New Zealand | See Germany–New Zealand relations- New Zealand has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Hamburg.
- Germany has an embassy in Wellington.[255]
|
| - Palau is represented in Germany through its embassy in the United States.
- Germany is represented in Palau through its embassy in the Philippines.[256]
|
 Papua New Guinea | - Papua New Guinea is accredited to Germany from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.
- Germany is accredited to Papua New Guinea from its embassy in Canberra, Australia.[257]
|
 Samoa | See Germany–Samoa relations- Samoa is accredited to Germany from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.
- Germany is accredited to Samoa from its embassy in Wellington, New Zealand.[258]
|
| - Solomon Islands is represented in Germany through its embassy in Belgium.
- Germany is represented in Solomon Islands through its embassy in Australia.[259]
|
 Tonga | See Germany–Tonga relations- Tonga is accredited to Germany from its embassy in London, United Kingdom.
- Germany is accredited to Tonga from its embassy in Wellington, New Zealand.[260]
|
| - Tuvalu is represented in Germany through its embassy in Belgium.
- Germany is represented in Tuvalu through its embassy in New Zealand.[261]
|
| - Vanuatu is represented in Germany through its embassy in Belgium.
- Germany is represented in Vanuatu through its embassy in Australia.[262]
| |
See also
Further reading
German diplomacy
- Bark, Dennis L., and David R. Gress. A History of West Germany. Vol. 1: From Shadow to Substance, 1945–1963. Vol. 2: Democracy and Its Discontents, 1963–1991 (1993), the standard scholarly history
- Blumenau, Bernhard, 'German Foreign Policy and the 'German Problem' During and After the Cold War: Changes and Continuities'. in: B Blumenau, J Hanhimäki & B Zanchetta (eds), New Perspectives on the End of the Cold War: Unexpected Transformations? Ch. 5. London: Routledge, 2018. .
- Brandenburg, Erich. From Bismarck to the World War: A History of German Foreign Policy 1870-1914 (1927) online.
- Buse, Dieter K., and Juergen C. Doerr, eds. Modern Germany: an encyclopedia of history, people and culture, 1871-1990 (2 vol. Garland, 1998).
- Clark, Claudia. Dear Barack: The Extraordinary Partnership of Barack Obama and Angela Merkel (2021)
- Cole, Alistair. Franco-German Relations (2000)
- Feldman, Lily Gardner. Germany's Foreign Policy of Reconciliation: From Enmity to Amity (Rowman & Littlefield; 2012) 393 pages; on German relations with France, Israel, Poland, and Czechoslovakia/the Czech Republic. excerpt
- Forsberg, Tuomas. "From Ostpolitik to ‘frostpolitik’? Merkel, Putin and German foreign policy towards Russia." International Affairs 92.1 (2016): 21-42. online
- Gaskarth, Jamie, and Kai Oppermann. "Clashing traditions: German foreign policy in a New Era." International Studies Perspectives 22.1 (2021): 84-105. online
- Geiss, Imanuel. German foreign policy, 1871–1914 (1976)
- Haftendorn, Helga. German Foreign Policy Since 1945 (2006), 441pp
- Hanrieder, Wolfram F. Germany, America, Europe: Forty Years of German Foreign Policy (1991)
- Heuser, Beatrice. NATO, Britain, France & the FRG: Nuclear Strategies & Forces for Europe, 1949-2000 (1997) 256pp
- Hewitson, Mark. "Germany and France before the First World War: a reassessment of Wilhelmine foreign policy." English Historical Review 115.462 (2000): 570–606. in JSTOR
- Junker, Detlef, ed. The United States and Germany in the Era of the Cold War (2 vol 2004), 150 short essays by scholars covering 1945–1990 excerpt and text search vol 1; excerpt and text search vol 2
- Kefferputz, Roderick and Jeremy Stern. "The United States, Germany, and World Order: New Priorities for a Changing Alliance." Atlantic Council: Issue Brief (2021) online
- Kimmich, Christoph. German Foreign Policy 1918-1945: A Guide to Research and Research Materials (2nd ed. Scholarly Resources, 1991) 264 pp.
- Leitz, Christian. Nazi Foreign Policy, 1933-1941: The Road to Global War (2004)
- Maulucci Jr., Thomas W. Adenauer's Foreign Office: West German Diplomacy in the Shadow of the Third Reich (2012) excerpt
- Oppermann, Kai. "National role conceptions, domestic constraints and the new 'normalcy' in German foreign policy: the Eurozone crisis, Libya and beyond." German Politics; 21.4 (2012): 502-519.
- Paterson, William E. "Foreign Policy in the Grand Coalition." German politics 19.3-4 (2010): 497-514.
- Papayoanou, Paul A. "Interdependence, institutions, and the balance of power: Britain, Germany, and World War I." International Security 20.4 (1996): 42–76.
- Schwarz, Hans-Peter. Konrad Adenauer: A German Politician and Statesman in a Period of War, Revolution and Reconstruction (2 vol 1995) excerpt and text search vol 2.
- Schmitt, Bernadotte E. "Triple Alliance and Triple Entente, 1902-1914." American Historical Review 29.3 (1924): 449–473. in JSTOR
- Sontag, Raymond James. Germany and England: Background of Conflict, 1848-1898 (1938)
- Spang, Christian W. and Rolf-Harald Wippich, eds. Japanese-German Relations, 1895-1945: War, Diplomacy and Public Opinion (2006)
- Weinberg, Gerhard L. The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany (2 vol, 1970–80).
- Wright, Jonathan. Germany and the Origins of the Second World War (Palgrave Macmillan, 2007) 223pp. online review
- Young, William. German Diplomatic Relations 1871-1945: The Wilhelmstrasse and the Formulation of Foreign Policy (2006); how the foreign ministry shaped policy
World/European diplomatic context
- Albrecht-Carrié, René. A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna (1958), 736pp; a basic introduction that gives context to Germany's roles
- Kaiser, David E. Economic Diplomacy and the Origins of the Second World War: Germany, Britain, France, and Eastern Europe, 1930-1939 (Princeton UP, 2015).
- Kennedy, Paul. The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (1989) excerpt and text search; very wide-ranging, with much on economic power
- Langer, William. An Encyclopedia of World History (5th ed. 1973), very detailed outline
- Langer, William. European Alliances and Alignments 1870-1890 (2nd ed. 1950); advanced coverage of Bismarckian system
- Langer, William L. The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890-1902 (2 vol, 1935)
- Macmillan, Margaret. The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914 (2013) cover 1890s to 1914; see esp. ch 3–5, 8,
- Mowat, R. B. A History of European Diplomacy 1815-1914 (1922), basic introduction
- Schroeder, Paul W. The Transformation of European Politics 1763-1848 (1996)
- Steiner, Zara. The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919-1933 (2007) excerpt and text search
- Steiner, Zara. The Triumph of the Dark: European International History 1933-1939 (2011) excerpt and text search
- Taylor, A. J. P. The Struggle for Mastery in Europe: 1848–1918 (1957) excerpt and text search, advanced coverage of all major powers
External links
- German -Bashing and the Breakup of Yugoslavia, ("The Donald W. Treadgold Papers in Russian, East European and Central Asian Studies, nº 16, March 1998). University of Washington: HMJ School of International Studies
- The German Economy in the New Europe
- EU Enlargement and Transatlantic Relations
- Bierling, Stephan. Die Außenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Normen, Akteure, Entscheidungen. 2. Auflage. München: Oldenbourg, 2005 .
- von Bredow, Wilfried. Die Außenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Eine Einführung. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2006 .
- Permanent Mission of Germany to the United Nations
- Auswärtiges Amt
- AICGS American Institute for Contemporary German Studies
- SWP German Institute for International and Security Affairs
Notes and References
- Book: Feld, Werner. Reunification and West German-Soviet Relations: The Role of the Reunification Issue in the Foreign Policy of the Federal Republic of Germany, 1949–1957, with Special Attention to Policy Toward the Soviet Union. Martinus Nijhoff. 2012. 9789401194082. The Hague.
- Book: Collins, Stephen. German Policy-Making and Eastern Enlargement of the European Union During the Ko: Managing the Agenda?. Manchester University Press. 2002. 0719063280. Manchester, UK. 49.
- Book: Werner, Andreas. NGOs in Foreign Policy: Security Governance in Germany and the Netherlands. Waxmann Verlag. 2016. 9783830934073. Munster, Germany. 19–20.
- News: France and Germany Unite Against Iraq War. 7 March 2017. The Guardian. 22 January 2003.
- Web site: Archived copy . 15 February 2007 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070224153539/http://www2.hq.nato.int/ISAF/media/pdf/placemat_isaf.pdf . 24 February 2007 .
- Web site: Afghan News Network. Afghannews.net . 31 December 2010.
- News: Search – Global Edition – The New York Times . International Herald Tribune . 29 March 2009 . 31 December 2010.
- http://www.bmz.de/en/index.html Aims of German development policy
- http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/17/9/44981892.pdf Table: Net Official Development Assistance 2009
- Web site: Security Council Reform: Where It Stands | Germany . Deutsche Welle. 18 June 2005 . 31 December 2010.
- News: 122 countries adopt 'historic' UN treaty to ban nuclear weapons . CBC News . 7 July 2017.
- Web site: Länder . 23 July 2023 . de.
- Book: Scholler, Heinrich . 100 Jahre deutsch-äthiopische diplomatische Beziehungen: von der traditionellen Monarchie zum modernen Staat . LIT Verlag Münster . 2007 . 28.
- Book: Völkerrechtliche Praxis der Bundesrepublik. Deutschland im Jahre 1980 . 538 . de.
- News: 19 December 2017 . Establishment of diplomatic relations with the Federal Republic of Germany . 23 July 2023.
- Web site: 22 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt – Algerien . 24 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: 20 February 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt – Angola . 24 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Botswana . 24 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Burundi . 24 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Cabo Verde . 24 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Kamerun . 24 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Zentralafrikanische Republik . 24 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Tschad . 24 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Komoren . 24 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Kongo (Demokratische Republik Kongo) . 24 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Kongo (Republik Kongo) . 24 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Ägypten . 24 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Vertretungen Eritreas in Deutschland . 17 December 2022 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Äthiopien. Auswärtiges Amt. de. 24 March 2019.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Gabun . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Ghana . 24 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
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- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Liberia . 24 August 2022 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Speech by Foreign Minister Heiko Maas at the re-opening of the German Embassy Tripoli.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Madagaskar . 24 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Mali . 24 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Book: Mechthild Lindemann, Michael Mayer . Akten zur Auswärtigen Politik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1962 . Walter de Gruyter . 2013 . 676–677 . 978-3-486-71830-0 . de . 23 July 2023.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Mauretanien . 24 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Marokko . 24 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Namibia . 24 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Niger . 24 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Nigeria . 24 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Ruanda . 24 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Sao Tome and Principe . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Senegal . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Sierra Leone . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Somalia . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Südafrika . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
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- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Tansania . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
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- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Uganda . 24 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
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- Web site: Embajada de la República Argentina en República Federal de Alemania. 20 February 2015.
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- Web site: Embajada de Alemania Buenos Aires – Página principal. 20 February 2015.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Bahamas. Auswärtiges Amt. de. 25 March 2019.
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- Web site: Embajada de Alemania Guatemala – General Information for BELIZE. guatemala.diplo.de. 5 April 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20161221095410/http://www.guatemala.diplo.de/Vertretung/guatemala/es/02/hauptseite__belize.html. 21 December 2016. dead.
- Web site: Germany and Bolivia – Protocol for the Resumption of diplomatic relations, signed at La Paz, July 20, 1921 [1922] LNTSer 76; 10 LNTS 301]. worldlii.org. 11 November 2015.
- Text in League of Nations Treaty Series, vol. 10, pp. 302–303.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Bolivien . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- http://berlim.itamaraty.gov.br/pt-br/ Embassy of Brazil in Berlin (in German and Portuguese)
- Web site: Representações da República Federal da Alemanha no Brasil – Página Inicial. 20 February 2015.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Kanada . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Consulados en Alemania. echile.de. 6 December 2018.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Chile . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
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- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Ecuador . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – El Salvador . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Grenada . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Guatemala . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Guyana . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Haiti . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Honduras . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
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- Web site: Embajada de México en Alemania. 20 February 2015.
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- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Paraguay . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Peru . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – St. Kitts und Nevis . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Amt . Auswärtiges . Auswärtiges Amt . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – St. Vincent und die Grenadinen . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Suriname . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Trinidad und Tobago . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – USA . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: German Missions in the United States: German Embassy. 20 February 2015.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Uruguay . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Venezuela . 25 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Amin Saikal, Ravan Farhadi, Kirill Nourzhanov. Modern Afghanistan: a history of struggle and survival. I.B.Tauris, 2006., . Pg 64
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Afghanistan . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Tom Lansford. A bitter harvest: US foreign policy and Afghanistan. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2003, . Pg 2
- http://library.aua.am/library/news/archive/2006_11-17.htm Armenian, German leaders discuss bilateral relations
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Armenien . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Azerbaijani embassy in Berlin . Azembassy.de . 31 December 2010.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Aserbaidschan . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Bahrain . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- News: E. Germany Recognizes Bangladesh . Associated Press . Ocala, Florida, USA . Ocala Star-Banner . 11 January 1972 .
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Bangladesch . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Amt . Auswärtiges . Germany and Bhutan: Bilateral Relations . 18 August 2021 . German Federal Foreign Office . en.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Brunei Darussalam . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Brunei-Germany Relations. Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Brunei). https://web.archive.org/web/20140222050815/http://www.mofat.gov.bn/index.php/bilateral-relations/item/67-germany. 22 February 2014. dead. 14 February 2014.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Kambodscha . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- News: Which Countries Are For or Against China's Xinjiang Policies? . . 15 July 2019.
- Web site: More than 20 ambassadors condemn China's treatment of Uighurs in Xinjiang . The Guardian. 11 July 2019.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – China . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Hong Kong . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: What is India? . Meghalayatimes.info . 21 September 2009 . 21 November 2009.
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- Web site: Welcome to Consulate General of India, Frankfurt, Germany. cgifrankfurt.de. 4 October 2016.
- Web site: Welcome to Consulate General of India, Munich(Germany). cgimunich.com. 4 October 2016.
- Web site: Welcome to Consulate General of India, Hamburg (Germany). cgihamburg.de. 4 October 2016.
- Web site: German Missions in India – Home. india.diplo.de. 4 October 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20150520162123/http://www.india.diplo.de/Vertretung/indien/en/Startseite.html. 20 May 2015. dead.
- Web site: German Missions in India – The Embassy. india.diplo.de. 4 October 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20150510025315/http://www.india.diplo.de/Vertretung/indien/en/01__Embassy/German__Embassy__New__Delhi.html. 10 May 2015. dead.
- Web site: German Missions in India – Bengaluru Consulate General. india.diplo.de. 4 October 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20120616112611/http://www.india.diplo.de/Vertretung/indien/en/02__Bangalore/Bangalore.html. 16 June 2012. dead.
- Web site: German Missions in India – Chennai Consulate General. india.diplo.de. 4 October 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20150510102628/http://www.india.diplo.de/Vertretung/indien/en/03__Chennai/Chennai.html. 10 May 2015. dead.
- Web site: German Missions in India – Kolkata Consulate General. india.diplo.de. 4 October 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20150510095059/http://www.india.diplo.de/Vertretung/indien/en/04__Kolkata/Kolkata.html. 10 May 2015. dead.
- Web site: German Missions in India – Mumbai Consulate General. india.diplo.de. 4 October 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20150504024142/http://www.india.diplo.de/Vertretung/indien/en/05__Mumbai/Mumbai.html. 4 May 2015. dead.
- Web site: Indonesia, Political relations . March 2013 . Federal Foreign Office of Germany . 2 June 2013.
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- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Iran . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Irak . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- http://www.bicom.org.uk/publications/israels_foreign_relations/s/1207/the-israel-german-special-relationship/ Israel's foreign relations. The Israel-German special relationship
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- Web site: Japanese–German Cooperation and Coordination in the Assistance for Reconstruction of Iraq. 24 November 2008. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. 9 November 2004.
- Web site: Japanese–German Cooperation and Coordination in the Assistance for Reconstruction of Afghanistan. 24 November 2008. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. 9 November 2004.
- Web site: Japanese–German Economic Exchanges. 24 November 2008. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. 9 November 2004.
- Web site: Japanese German Youth / Sports Exchange. 24 November 2008. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. 9 November 2004.
- Web site: Japanese–German Science, Technology and Academic Cooperation and Exchanges. 24 November 2008. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. 9 November 2004.
- Web site: Economic relations. 24 November 2008. Federal Foreign Office Germany. April 2008.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Japan . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Jordanien . 31 January 2023 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Kazakhstan embassy in Berlin.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Kasachstan . 5 July 2022 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Kuwait . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Kirgisistan . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Laos . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Libanon . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Malaysia . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Malediven . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Mongolei . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Nepal . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Korea (Demokratische Volksrepublik, Nordkorea) . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Oman . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
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- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Pakistan . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Palästinensische Gebiete . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Philippinen . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Katar . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Saudi-Arabien . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Singapur . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Bilateral relations. Auswärtiges Amt. en-GB. 4 October 2016.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Korea (Republik Korea, Südkorea) . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Deutsche Botschaft Seoul – Startseite. seoul.diplo.de. https://web.archive.org/web/20150701194049/http://www.seoul.diplo.de/Vertretung/seoul/de/Startseite.html. 1 July 2015. dead. 4 October 2016.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Sri Lanka . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Syrien. 14 October 2022. Auswärtiges Amt. de.
- Web site: Deutsche Vertretungen in Syrien. 14 October 2022. Auswärtiges Amt. de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Tadschikistan . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Thailand . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- News: Berlin: Shish And Sauerkraut To Go. https://web.archive.org/web/20110514033307/http://www.independent.co.uk/travel/europe/berlin-shish-and-sauerkraut-to-go-448678.html. dead. 14 May 2011. Andrew. Spooner. The Independent. 13 May 2007. 24 May 2010 . London.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Türkei . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Turkmenistan . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Vereinigte Arabische Emirate . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Usbekistan . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Vietnam . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
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- Crawford . Beverly . 1996 . Explaining Defection from International Cooperation: Germany's Unilateral Recognition of Croatia . World Politics . 48 . 4 . 482-521.
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- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Andorra . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Österreich . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Belarusian embassy in Berlin(in German and Russian only) . Belarus-botschaft.de . 31 December 2010.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Belarus . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: embassy in Minsk (in German and Russian only) . ru . Minsk.diplo.de . 31 December 2010 . https://web.archive.org/web/20090614232801/http://www.minsk.diplo.de/Vertretung/minsk/ru/Startseite.html . 14 June 2009 . dead .
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Belgien . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Bosnien und Herzegovina . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Bulgarien . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Croatian embassy in Berlin (in croat and German only) . De.mfa.hr . 31 December 2010 . 16 May 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190516000448/http://de.mfa.hr/?mv=959&mh=166 . dead .
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Kroatien . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Cyprus embassy in Berlin. mfa.gov.cy. https://web.archive.org/web/20160404223600/http://www.mfa.gov.cy/mfa/embassies/berlinembassy.nsf/DMLindex_en/DMLindex_en?OpenDocument. 4 April 2016. dead. 5 April 2018.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Zypern . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Tschechien . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Dänemark . 2 May 2023 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Estonia . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Finnland . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Archived copy . 4 March 2006 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20060305201030/http://www.cer.org.uk/pdf/brnote_coreeurope_feb04.pdf . 5 March 2006 .
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Frankreich . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Griechenland . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Georgien . 26 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Heiliger Stuhl / Vatikan . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Hungarian embassy in Berlin (in German and Hungarian only). Mfa.gov.hu. https://web.archive.org/web/20101231205142/http://www.mfa.gov.hu/kulkepviselet/de/de. 31 December 2010. dead. 31 December 2010.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Ungarn . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Island . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Irland . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Italien . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Kosovo . 21 April 2024 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: July 2008-kosovogeberkonferenz__en.html . 23 December 2022 . 5 August 2009 . https://web.archive.org/web/20090805231133/http://www.bundesregierung.de/nn_6562/Content/EN/Artikel/2008/07/11 . live .
- Text in League of Nations Treaty Series, vol. 2, pp. 92–99
- Web site: Latvian embassy in Berlin (in German and Latvian only). 25 September 2010. Mfa.gov.lv. 31 December 2010.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Lettland . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: German embassy in Riga (in German and Latvian only) . lv . Riga.diplo.de . 31 December 2010 . https://web.archive.org/web/20090627074335/http://www.riga.diplo.de/Vertretung/riga/lv/Startseite.html . 27 June 2009 . dead .
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Liechtenstein . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Litauen . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: deutschebotschaft-wilna.lt . German embassy in Vilnius (in German and Lithuanian only) . Deutschebotschaft-wilna.lt . 31 December 2010.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Luxemburg . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Maltese embassy in Berlin. https://web.archive.org/web/20110717034054/http://www.mfa.gov.mt/images/files/file/45E_GERMANY.pdf . 17 July 2011 . live. 30 September 2014.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Malta . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Republik Moldau . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Monaco . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Montenegro . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Niederlande . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Nordmazedonien . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Norwegen . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Informacje o Polsce – informacje ogólne . Page gives Polish PWN Encyklopedia as reference.
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- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Portugal . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Rumänien . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Russische Föderation . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – San Marino . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Serbian embassy in Berlin (in German and Serbian only). Embassy of Serbia, Berlin. 31 December 2010.
- Web site: Serbian general consulates in Germany (in German and Serbian only). Konzulati-rs.de. 31 December 2010.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Serbien . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Slowakei. Auswärtiges Amt. de. 27 March 2019.
- Web site: Germany embassy in Bratislava (in German and Slovakian only) . sk . Pressburg.diplo.de . 9 December 2010 . 31 December 2010.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Slowenien . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Official Visit of the German Foreign Minister Sigmar Gabriel, for the opening of diplomatic relations between Germany and the Order of Malta. Orderofmalta.int . 15 November 2017.
- Web site: Diplomatische Beziehungen zum Malteserorden (in German only). Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany to the Holy See . 7 June 2018.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Spanien . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Schweden . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Schweiz . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Ukraine . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Großbritannien / Vereinigtes Königreich . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
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- Web site: 22 May 2023. Post-Brexit UK investments drive FDI in Germany to record level.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Australien . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Fidschi . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Kiribati . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Marshallinseln . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Mikronesien . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Nauru . 27 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Neuseeland . 28 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Palau . 28 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Papua-Neuguinea . 28 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Samoa . 28 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Salomonen . 28 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Tonga . 28 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Tuvalu . 28 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
- Web site: Auswärtiges Amt – Vanuatu . 28 March 2019 . Auswärtiges Amt . de.
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