Ethiopia–Tigray peace agreement explained

The Tigray war peace treaty agreement
Long Name:Agreement for Lasting Peace through a Permanent Cessation of Hostilities between the Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia and the Tigray People's Liberation Front
Type:Peace treaty
Context:Tigray War
Date Signed:2 November 2022
Location Signed:Pretoria, South Africa
Date Effective:3 November 2022
Mediators:
Negotiators:
Parties:
Language:English

The Ethiopia–Tigray peace agreement, commonly called the Pretoria Agreement or the Cessation of Hostilities Agreement (CoHA), is a peace treaty between the government of Ethiopia and the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) that was signed 2 November 2022, wherein both parties agreed to a "permanent cessation of hostilities" to end the Tigray War.[1] [2] [3] The agreement was made effective the next day on 3 November, marking the two-year anniversary of the war.[4]

Background

See main article: Tigray War and Tigrayan peace process.

Tigray War

The war began in November 2020, in the Tigray Region of Ethiopia. Primarily a conflict between the Ethiopian government and Eritrea on one side, and the TPLF on the other, the war has been characterized by war crimes, massacres of civilians, accusations of genocide,[5] and a devastating humanitarian crisis.[6] [7] [8]

On 20 December 2021, after the government successfully pushed back an incursion towards Addis Ababa, the TPLF requested a ceasefire.[9] Fighting slowed down, and on 24 March 2022, the Ethiopian government declared "an indefinite humanitarian truce."[10] Both Ethiopia and the TPLF initially agreed to negotiate an official end to the war;[11] in the intervening months, however, relations became increasingly hostile, with both parties accusing each other of having no sincere interest in peace – by late August, peace talks had deteriorated completely, and the war resumed.[12] [13] [14]

Reescalation of the war

Following the collapse of the March–August ceasefire, wartime violence surged to a level not seen in months. Joint Ethiopian–Eritrean forces and the TPLF mobilized hundreds of thousands of troops against each other, displacing 574,000 people,[15] and killing around 100,000 more within the span of a few weeks.[16] [17] [18] By October 2022, the war overall had killed around 385,000 to 600,000 people.

The scale of the violence alarmed international observers, including the United Nations and the African Union, who urged the warring parties to return to peace negotiations. UN Secretary-General António Guterres stated that "the situation in Ethiopia is spiraling out of control," and many other agencies, scholars and human rights organizations began to warn of a dramatic rise in hate speech against Tigrayans.[19] [20] [21]

New attempts at peace talks

Attempts to renegotiate for a peace deal were attempted throughout September and early October.[22] On 7 September, TPLF chairperson Debretsion Gebremichael sent a letter to the UN making a request for peace.[23] He stated that, if the UN Security Council did not intervene:On 5 October, both the Ethiopian government and Tigrayan rebel forces accepted an invitation by the AU to have peace talks in South Africa, initially scheduled to take place between 7–8 October.[24] However, talks were soon postponed, reportedly due to a combination of factors, including poor planning, logistical issues, the rapid escalation of fighting, and concerns from the TPLF about not having enough information available on how the talks would be conducted.[25] [26] Eventually, a new date for peace negotiations was set for 25 October, where talks would take place in Pretoria, at South Africa's Department of International Relations and Cooperation.[27] [28] [29]

Negotiating period

The talks were jointly mediated by AU Horn of Africa envoy and former Nigerian President Olusegun Obasanjo, former Kenyan President Uhuru Kenyatta, United States Horn of Africa envoy Mike Hammer, and former Deputy-President of South Africa Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka.[30] [31] [32] TPLF spokesperson Getachew Reda and Ethiopian national security advisor Redwan Hussien acted as the lead negotiators.[33] Though originally scheduled to last from 25 to 30 October, this was later extended by a few more days.[34]

Hopes that these talks could definitively stop the war were noted as being low; fighting did not appear to slow down, even as peace discussions began,[35] and Eritrean forces, in particular, were reportedly still engaged in the killing of civilians for most of the negotiating period. On 28 October, Ethiopia vocalized their distrust about the motives of unspecified "western entities" during the process, alleging that "unsubstantiated and politically motivated" claims were being made about the war for a "sinister" agenda, that "irresponsible propaganda" from the TPLF was being repeated uncritically, and further stated that "venerable organizations and well-meaning actors could be unwitting participants in this campaign."[36] [37] Still, despite these concerns, negotiations continued.

Conclusion

On 2 November 2022, the Ethiopian federal government and the TPLF released a joint statement,[38] in which they stated that they had "agreed to permanently silence the guns and end the two years of conflict in northern Ethiopia."[39] [40] Obasanjo explained that the agreement will involve a "systematic, orderly, smooth and coordinated disarmament."[41]

Terms of the agreement

The full agreement contains a preamble, and 15 articles, starting with the objectives of the agreement (Article 1), followed by the general principles underlying the ceasefire (Article 2). Article 13 instructs both parties to "implement this Agreement in good faith," and avoid trying to undermine it.

Permanent cessation of hostilities

The agreement forbids "all forms of hostilities," both direct and indirect; this includes participating in proxy wars, using hate speech, propaganda, airstrikes or landmines, or collaborating with any hostile "external force" against each other.[42]

Protection of civilians

Both parties agreed to follow international human rights laws and protect civilians from human rights violations. Specific condemnations were made towards acts of sexual and gender-based violence, violence against children (including the use of child soldiers), violence against women and girls, and violence against the elderly.

Humanitarian access

The Ethiopian government is to allow humanitarian aid into the country as soon as possible, and reintegrate internally displaced persons and refugees into Ethiopian society, provided it is safe enough to do so. Both parties agreed to cooperate with each other, as well as with humanitarian agencies working to reunite families. Both parties also agreed to not misappropriate aid, and make sure it is actually used for humanitarian purposes.[43]

Disarmament, demobilization and reintegration

See also: Disarmament, demobilization and reintegration.

Ethiopia and the TPLF agreed that an open communication channel should be created "within 24 hours" of signing the agreement. Both parties also needed to recognize that Ethiopia "has only one defense force," that Tigrayan rebel forces should "demobiliz[e] and reintegrat[e]", and that the TPLF must completely disarm within 30 days of signing.[44]

Confidence-building measures

See also: Confidence-building measures. The TPLF agreed to:

  1. Respect the authority of the government.
  2. "Refrain from aiding and abetting, supporting, or collaborating with any armed or subversive group in any part of the country."
  3. Respect the "constitutional mandate of the Federal Government" to send troops and security forces into Tigray.
  4. Not conscript, train or deploy military forces, or to act in "preparation for conflict."
  5. Respect Ethiopian sovereignty, and to not undermine it, either on their own, or through "relations with foreign powers."
  6. Not force a change in the government through unconstitutional means.

Meanwhile, the government agreed to:

  1. Stop all military operations against "TPLF combatants."
  2. Restore basic, essential services to Tigray as soon as possible.
  3. Stop designating the TPLF as a terrorist group.
  4. Provide unhindered humanitarian access to Tigray.
International boundaries and federal facilities

As part of the agreement, the ENDF will be deployed along the international borders of Ethiopia; the agreement states that they must "safeguard the sovereignty, territorial integrity, and security of the country from foreign incursion and ensure that there will be no provocation or incursion from either side of the border."

Federal authorities will also take "full and effective control" of all aviation space, airports and highways in Tigray.

Restoration of federal authority and Tigrayan representation

The agreement stipulates that the Ethiopian federal government must be allowed to reestablish authority in the Tigray Region, including in the capital of Mekelle, and that "the ENDF and other relevant Federal Institutions shall have an expeditious, smooth, peaceful, and coordinated entry" into the city. In exchange, government guaranteed that Tigray will be properly represented in government institutions, so as to not violate the Ethiopian constitution.

Transitional measures

"Within a week" of the TPLF's terrorist designation being removed – but before elections are held – an "Inclusive Regional Administration" should be established; a week after the removal of the "terrorist" designation, both parties must engage in a political dialogue to "find lasting solutions." Ethiopia also agreed to institute a transitional justice policy that will aim to be accountable and truthful, and give justice to victims.

Additionally, both parties pledged to resolve "issues of contested areas," in a way that complies with the Constitution of Ethiopia.

Monitoring, verification and compliance

It was agreed that this process must be monitored and observed by a "Joint Committee," with one representative each from the Ethiopian government, the TPLF and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), all while being presided over by the African Union through a "High-Level Panel."

Implementation

Nairobi Declaration
Long Name:Declaration of the Senior Commanders on the Modalities for the Implementation of the Agreement for Lasting Peace Through a Permanent Cessation of Hostilities between the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) and the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF)
Context:Implementing the peace agreement
Date Signed:12 November 2022
Location Signed:Nairobi, Kenya
Mediators:
  • Olusegun Obasanjo
  • Uhuru Kenyatta
Negotiators:
Parties:
  • TPLF
Language:English

Nairobi Declaration

On 7 November 2022, five days after the agreement was signed, Ethiopian and Tigrayan military officials – primarily, ENDF Chief of Staff Birhanu Jula and Tigray Defence Forces (TDF) Commander-in-Chief Tadesse Werede – met for a new set of talks in Nairobi, Kenya, in order to discuss restoring humanitarian access to the Tigray Region, as well as the process of Tigrayan disarmament.[45] [46] On 12 November, they signed a declaration reaffirming their commitment to the original agreement,[47] laid out the specifics of how to implement it, and agreed to begin the Tigrayan disarmament process on 15 November.[48] [49] Both parties also agreed to create a Joint Committee, per the agreement's rules on "Monitoring, Verification, and Compliance."

Humanitarian access

See main article: Famine in northern Ethiopia (2020–present).

In the immediate days after the signing of the Pretoria agreement, Tigrayan civilians,[50] international observers and humanitarian organizations expressed a hope that aid would finally be made available in the region. The agreement stated that Ethiopia must "mobilize and expedite humanitarian assistance for all those in need." Within hours of the agreement being signed, UN personnel began talks with Ethiopian officials to remove the blockade, with supplies already prepared to be sent in immediately.[51]

By 9 November, concerns were being vocalized about the continued lack of aid to Tigray,[52] as a number of humanitarian agencies were reporting that they were being prevented from delivering aid to the area.[53] [54] On 11 November, Ethiopia's Redwan Hussien responded to these concerns by saying that "aid is flowing like no other times."[55] This statement was seemingly at odds with outside reports, and was deemed to be false by Tigrayan officials and local humanitarian workers, with Getachew Reda telling Agence France-Presse (AFP) that Redwan was "plucking his facts out of thin air."[56] [57]

On 12 November, military leaders from both parties announced in a joint statement that, as part of the Nairobi declaration, they had agreed to lift the restrictions on aid to those who needed it in Tigray and the surrounding regions; Obasanjo made assurances that humanitarian access would "begin with immediate effect." Later that same day, Ethiopian authorities stated that they were making efforts to "deliver humanitarian assistance to most of the Tigray region,"[58] of which around 70% was now claimed to be under their control.

On 15 November, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) announced that, for the first time since August, their delivery of medical supplies had reached the Tigrayan capital of Mekelle.[59] The World Food Programme and World Health Organization also sent in nearly 18,000 metric tonnes of aid.[60] Even with this relaxation of restrictions, however, UN officials stated in late November that some parts of Tigray – namely in the Southern and Eastern zones – "remain constrained," and called for restrictions in these areas to be lifted.[61] In early January 2023, the biggest hospital in the region claimed that they were still short on medical supplies, and had not received enough help from the federal government to alleviate this shortage.[62]

Restoration of services

The Commercial Bank of Ethiopia stated on 12 November that access to backing services had been restored in the Western Zone of Tigray (which was still under occupation by the Amhara Region), and was planning on doing the same in Mekelle.[63] On 23 November,[64] Ethiopian Airlines announced it was prepared to have regularly scheduled flights into Tigray resume (with flights between Addis Ababa and Mekelle returning in late December).[65] [66] Ethio Telecom reestablished its telecommunication services in Shire on 2 December, and by the end of the month, they had also returned to Mekelle and 27 other towns in the region.[67] [68] [69] On 6 December, Ethiopian Electric Power said that it had restored Mekelle's access to Ethiopia's overall electrical grid.[70] [71]

On 29 November, Ethiopian official Belete Molla stated that, while they planned to restore Tigray's access to the internet eventually, they did not have a set timeline on when this would occur.[72]

Cessation of hostilities

In accordance with the agreement, a "hotline" between the two parties was established,[73] with the goal of "fully communicating with all their units to stop fighting," and prevent mistrust from developing, according to an anonymous official familiar with the Nairobi discussions. Despite these assurances, however, some Tigrayan officials alleged as early as 4 November that attacks from Ethiopian and Eritrean forces were still taking place.[74] News agencies were unable to verify these claims independently, as Tigray was reportedly still under an information blackout.[75]

On 9 November, Mohammed Idris, Director-General of the Ethiopian Media Authority (EMA), announced that new guidelines were being established for how the Ethiopian media reports on news of these negotiations. This was done as a way to keep it in line with the peace agreement's rules against hate speech and propaganda, as "false information and hateful speech are counterproductive to the ideas of peace."[76] The 12 November declaration makes a specific note about a "Responsible Use of Media," stating that media controlled by both parties should "play a constructive role" in carrying out the aims of the Pretoria agreement.

Disarmament and withdrawal

On 1 December 2022, the Ethiopian–TPLF Joint Committee met in Shire, Tigray Region to begin a new set of talks on carrying out disarmament.[77] One day later, the TPLF announced that they had withdrawn their troops from a number of towns and cities,[78] and by 4 December, Tadesse Werede stated that around 65% of their forces had withdrawn.[79] [80]

Starting on 10 January 2023, Tigrayan forces began the process of handing over their heavy weaponry to the ENDF.[81] [82] [83]

Amhara and Eritrea

The Nairobi Declaration added a corollary to the Tigrayan armament clause, which stated that the disarming of heavy weapons "will be done concurrently with the withdrawal of foreign and non-ENDF forces in the region." In spite of this, Eritrea, as well as Amhara regional forces, continued to engage in fighting, even as the federal government expressed support for peace.[84] According to eyewitnesses, aid workers and Tigrayan officials, both Eritrean and Amhara forces were responsible for killings, looting, kidnappings and mass detentions throughout November 2022, including in Shire, where disarmament talks were later held.[85] [86] [87] The Eritrean Defence Forces started withdrawing from Shire and Axum on 29 December. Despite this, humanitarian workers said that the EDF was still maintaining a presence in the region, and according to Addis Standard, both EDF and Amhara forces continued to be in Tigray by early January 2023.

Interim Regional Administration of Tigray

In mid-March 2023, the TPLF central committee voted internally in favour of recommending Getachew Reda (18 votes out of 41) as the head of the Interim Regional Administration of Tigray (IRA).[88] The federal-level Cabinet met the following day to establish guidelines for the IRA. On 23 March, prime minister Abiy Ahmed declared that Getachew Reda was appointed to the position of head of the IRA.[89]

Analysis

Potential to end the war

There is general acknowledgement among the mediators, as well as some outside observers, that the agreement represents a step towards peace, but that true peace had yet to be fully realized. Olusegun Obasanjo said, after the agreement was signed, that "this moment is not the end of the peace process. Implementation of the peace agreement signed today is critical for its success."[90] Uhuru Kenyatta said that "the lasting solution can only be through political engagement and being able to accommodate our differences," but cautioned that "the devil will be in the implementation." Rama Yade, French politician and senior director at the Atlantic Council, stated that while the agreement is a step forward, peace had not been achieved yet. She further said that in order for a cessation of hostilities to turn into peace, the agreement has to be implemented "decisively," and unresolved issues would need to be addressed.[91]

Tigrayan disarmament

Prior to this agreement, the TPLF had rejected calls to disarm by the Ethiopian government, and questions have been raised as to how it will be carried out, or if it will be successful; Eritrea's continued presence in Tigray was noted as a potential roadblock to this being achieved. Peace and conflict studies professor Kjetil Tronvoll argued the issue of disarmament would be "extremely controversial," thinking it unlikely that Tigrayan rebel forces would voluntarily disarm "in the face of an enemy they have been fighting for two years." Benjamin Petrini of the International Institute for Strategic Studies questioned what security guarantees would be provided to the TPLF, saying they would not completely disarm for "vague promises."[92]

The Global Society of Tigray Scholars and Professionals (GSTS), an organization representing 5,000 Tigrayan academics, strongly rejected the disarmament clause. While they welcomed the peace agreement overall, they argued that disarmament was "illogical" and "self-defeating," and that it could potentially undermine the ceasefire. They stated that entrusting all of Tigray's security to the ENDF made Tigrayans too vulnerable to possible violent attacks, particularly from the Eritrean military and Amhara regional forces. The GSTS argued, instead, that the TDF should be strengthened, describing the actions of Ethiopian and Eritrean allied troops as genocidal, and therefore, not to be trusted with the protection of Tigrayans.[93] [94]

Eritrea

Eritrea's absence from the peace talks was noted by many news outlets, both before[95] and after the agreement was signed.[96] Eritrean authorities made no statements on the agreement, nor did they respond to most requests for comment.[97] It was also not clear if they would agree to the ceasefire, and it was suggested that President Isaias Afwerki's long-standing antagonism to the TPLF would disincentivize him from withdrawing Eritrean forces. When asked by Reuters, Eritrean Foreign Minister Osman Saleh said that he had no comment, as "he had just received the documents."[98] Eritrea was firmly on the side of the Ethiopian government throughout the war, and was attributed responsibility for high-profile atrocities such as the Axum massacre.[99] [100] Their outsized role led to them being described by Le Monde contributor Noé Hochet-Bodin as a "shadow [that] looms over the conflict."[101]

The negotiating and mediating parties, likewise, generally chose not to address the question of Eritrea outright. When asked questions about it during the Nairobi talks, Uhuru Kenyatta said that they were "not here to talk about any particular country this way or that way," and were instead focused on the topic of peace. Ethiopia's Redwan Hussien said that Ethiopia and Tigray were so busy fighting each other that it "paved the way for a third party to undermine us further." He also said that this unnamed third party "may not be interested in this peace process"; the Associated Press interpreted this as an indirect comment about Eritrea.

While Eritrea is not mentioned by name, sections in the Pretoria document about stopping "provocation or incursion from either side of the border" were interpreted by East Africa correspondent for The New York Times, Abdi Latif Dahir, as being directed towards Eritrea. The International Crisis Group's Alan Boswell also supported this interpretation, saying that the provision may have been "designed to assure the Tigrayans that Eritrea will withdraw." Etana Habte, assistant history professor at James Madison University, said the choice to not mention Eritrea directly may have been a deliberate attempt to ease Eritrea into complying to the agreement, as the African Union "doesn't have the military ability to enforce its decisions and relies on the support and alliance of member countries."[102]

Amhara and territorial disputes

While Amhara Region security forces also played a significant role during the war, Amhara was, similarly, not included in the negotiations. In the early months of the conflict, Amhara regional forces took control of Tigray's Western Zone – an area that was already the source of intense dispute between Amhara and Tigray[103] [104] – and proceeded to commit what was described as an ethnic cleansing of Tigrayans in the area.[105] The TPLF had previously stated that the return of the Western Zone to Tigrayan control was a "non-negotiable" prerequisite to peace.[11] National Movement of Amhara founder Dessalegn Chanie Dagnew and advocacy group Amhara Association of America both welcomed news of the agreement, but also expressed opposition to any potential territorial concessions to Tigray.

Multiple news outlets described the agreement as having an unclear stance on the issue. In a speech to parliament on 15 November 2022, Prime Minister Abiy said he was looking for a constitutional solution for this dispute, and that "unless the people of Wolkait [in Western Tigray] get the opportunity to self-determination, there won't be a lasting peace."[106]

Human rights concerns

Amnesty International's Director for East and Southern Africa, Muleya Mwananyanda, expressed dissatisfaction with the peace agreement, stating that while it was "a step in the right direction," it nevertheless "fails to offer a clear roadmap on how to ensure accountability for war crimes and crimes against humanity" committed by all sides during the war. Mwananyanda further emphasized that human rights investigators must be allowed "unfettered access" in order for victims to receive proper justice.[107]

Human Rights Watch noted that the documents do not make explicit mentions of ethnic cleansing in the Western Zone, and stated that it generally "lacks details on formal accountability."[108] The government-established Ethiopian Human Rights Commission issued a statement saying that, for peace to be sustainably achieved, the implementation of the agreement "should be preceded and informed by a nation-wide, genuine, consultative, inclusive, and victim-centred conversation."

Filsan Abdi, a former member of Prime Minister Abiy's cabinet, said in an interview with PBS NewHour that reaching an agreement to end the war, while necessary, should not mean they "forgo seeking justice and accountability" for victims of human rights violations, and especially in cases of sexual violence against women and girls.[109] Filsan resigned from her position as Minister of Women, Children and Youth in September 2021, in response to what she considered to be willful obstruction by the government in regards to publishing reports on sexual violence committed during the war.[110]

Initial reactions

Signing parties

Ethiopia

TPLF

Other countries

International organizations

See also

Notes

  1. News: Winning . Alexander . Cocks . Tim . 2 November 2022 . Parties in Ethiopia conflict agree to cease hostilities . en . Reuters .
  2. Web site: 2 November 2022 . Ethiopia's gov't and Tigrayan forces agree to end two-year war . Al Jazeera.
  3. Web site: 2 November 2022 . AU announces peace deal in Ethiopia's Tigray conflict . Deutsche Welle.
  4. News: Agreement for Lasting Peace through a Permanent Cessation of Hostilities between the Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia and the Tigray People's Liberation Front . 2022-11-02 . . 2022-11-04 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221104222058/https://addisstandard.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/AU-led-Ethiopia-Peace-Agreement.pdf . 2022-11-04 . live .
  5. Web site: 19 October 2022 . Statement by Alice Wairimu Nderitu, Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide, condemning the recent escalation of fighting in Ethiopia . United Nations (press release).
  6. Web site: September 19, 2022 . UN: Warring sides committing atrocities in Ethiopia's Tigray . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20221006120857/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/9/19/un-warring-sides-committing-atrocities-in-ethiopias-tigray . October 6, 2022 . Al Jazeera.
  7. Web site: 8 May 2021 . Ethiopian patriarch pleads for international help to stop rape and genocide by government troops . 24 June 2021 . The Guardian.
  8. Web site: Paravicini . Giulia . August 20, 2022 . Nearly half the people in Ethiopia's Tigray in 'severe' need of food aid, World Food Programme says . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20221011115256/https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/nearly-half-people-ethiopias-tigray-need-food-aid-wfp-2022-08-19/ . October 11, 2022 . Reuters.
  9. Web site: December 20, 2021 . Tigrayan forces announce retreat to Ethiopia's Tigray region . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20220608155036/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/20/tplf-rebels-announce-retreat-to-ethiopias-tigray-region . June 8, 2022 . Al Jazeera . en .
  10. Web site: Akinwotu . Emmanuel . 24 March 2022 . Ethiopian government declares Tigray truce to let aid in . The Guardian . en.
  11. Web site: June 14, 2022 . Ethiopia PM says committee looking into possibility of peace talks with Tigray rebels . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20220716110042/http://www.africanews.com/2022/06/14/ethiopia-pm-says-committee-looking-into-possibility-of-peace-talks-with-tigray-rebels/ . July 16, 2022 . Africanews.
  12. Web site: August 18, 2022 . Ethiopia: Tigray Rebels Lack 'Interest' in Peace Talks . Voice of America . Agence France-Presse.
  13. Web site: August 17, 2022 . Ethiopia government proposes plan for peace in war-torn Tigray . https://web.archive.org/web/20220919190937/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/8/17/ethiopia-government-proposes-plan-for-peace-in-tigray . September 19, 2022 . Al Jazeera.
  14. Web site: August 25, 2022 . Ethiopia's return to conflict: what we know . https://web.archive.org/web/20220825135305/https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220825-ethiopia-s-return-to-conflict-what-we-know . August 25, 2022 . . AFP.
  15. News: News: Over half a million people newly displaced in Tigray, Afar and Amhara since militarized conflict resumed in August: UN . 2022-10-31 . . 2022-11-04 . https://archive.today/20221104164047/https://addisstandard.com/news-over-half-a-million-people-newly-displaced-in-tigray-afar-and-amhara-since-militarized-conflict-resumed-in-august-unicef/ . 2022-11-04 . live .
  16. News: Harper . Mary . 16 October 2022 . Ethiopia's Tigray conflict: Civilian bloodbath warning as offensive escalates . BBC News . https://web.archive.org/web/20221016230001/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-63275598 . 16 October 2022 . 'The carnage is horrendous. Likely as many as 100,000 have been slaughtered over the last weeks,' [[[peace research]]er Kjetil Tronvoll ] tweeted..
  17. Web site: Chothia . Farouk . Bekit . Teklemariam . 19 October 2022 . Ethiopia civil war: Hyenas scavenge on corpses as Tigray forces retreat . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20221022032616/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-63291747 . 22 October 2022 . . '...100,000 have probably died in this third phase,' [Horn of Africa analyst Abdurahman Sayed ] said..
  18. Web site: 20 October 2022 . War in Ethiopia . Global Conflict Tracker . en.
  19. Web site: York . Geoffrey . 21 October 2022 . Surge of dehumanizing hate speech points to mounting risk of mass atrocities in northern Ethiopia, experts say . registration . https://archive.today/20221104165616/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/world/article-surge-of-dehumanizing-hate-speech-points-to-mounting-risk-of-mass/ . 4 November 2022 . .
  20. Web site: Muhumuza . Rodney . October 19, 2022 . UN genocide official: Hate speech is fueling Ethiopia's war . ABC News . Associated Press.
  21. Web site: 20 October 2022 . A Call to Action: Averting Atrocities in Ethiopia's Tigray War . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20221029115452/https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/horn-africa/call-action-averting-atrocities-ethiopias-tigray-war . 29 October 2022 . International Crisis Group.
  22. Web site: 12 September 2022 . Ethiopia's Tigray rebels say ready for ceasefire and AU-led peace talks . France 24.
  23. Web site: 9 September 2022 . Ethiopia: Tigray rebels offer conditional truce . Africanews & Agence France-Presse.
  24. Web site: Paravicini . Giulia . October 6, 2022 . Ethiopia, Tigrayan forces accept African Union-led peace talks . Reuters.
  25. Web site: Burke . Jason . October 8, 2022 . Postponement of Tigray peace talks latest blow in Ethiopia's hidden war . . The Guardian.
  26. Web site: Anna . Cara . October 7, 2022 . Peace talks in Ethiopian conflict delayed for logistical reasons, diplomats say . limited . . Associated Press.
  27. Web site: 25 October 2022 . Empieza el diálogo de paz para acabar con la guerra en el norte de Etiopía . Peace dialogue begins to end the war in northern Ethiopia . EFE.
  28. News: Miridzhanian . Anait . Acharya . Bhargav . 25 October 2022 . Ethiopia peace talks start in South Africa . en . Reuters . https://web.archive.org/web/20221027000919/https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/ethiopia-peace-talks-start-south-africa-2022-10-25/ . 27 October 2022.
  29. Web site: 2 November 2022 . Media Briefing on AU-led negotiations for peace in Ethiopia . https://web.archive.org/web/20221115021950/http://www.dirco.gov.za/docs/2022/media1102.htm . 15 November 2022 . DIRCO.
  30. Web site: 25 October 2022 . AU launches peace talks to end the conflict in the Tigray Region of Ethiopia African Union . African Union.
  31. Web site: 26 October 2022 . Ethiopia peace talks enter day two in South Africa . France 24.
  32. Web site: October 25, 2022 . Peace talks aimed at ending Ethiopia's deadly Tigray conflict begin in South Africa . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20221027012910/https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/peace-talks-ethiopia-tigray-south-africa-1.6628808 . October 27, 2022 . . AP.
  33. Web site: York . Geoffrey . 2 November 2022 . Ethiopia and Tigray sign peace agreement in bid to end devastating war . https://web.archive.org/web/20221102204400/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/world/article-ethiopia-tigray-peace-agreement/ . 2 November 2022 . The Globe and Mail.
  34. Web site: 1 November 2022 . Tigray peace talks continue in South Africa . Radio France Internationale.
  35. Web site: Burke . Jason . October 25, 2022 . Tigray peace talks begin in South Africa but hopes low for halt to fighting . The Guardian.
  36. Web site: 28 October 2022 . News: Ethiopia cautions to weigh its options, consider relations with unnamed "states and entities" making "unsubstantiated and politically motivated" accusations . Addis Standard.
  37. Web site: Ndebele . Lenin . 29 October 2022 . Tigray conflict talks: Ethiopia threatens to cut ties with countries pushing 'sinister political agenda' . News24.
  38. News: Joint Statement between the Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia and the Tigray Peoples' Liberation Front (TPLF) . 2022-11-02 . . 2022-11-03 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221102195057/https://www.peaceau.org/uploads/joint-statement-gov-fdre-tplf-11-02-2022-19-38-33.pdf . 2022-11-02 . live .
  39. Web site: 3 November 2022 . Ethiopia: government and TPLF agree to cease-fire . . AFP.
  40. Web site: 2 November 2022 . Key Points Of Joint Ethiopia Statement . Barron's . AFP.
  41. Web site: Feleke . Bethlehem . 3 November 2022 . Warring parties in Ethiopia agree on 'permanent cessation of hostilities'. CNN World.
  42. Web site: Dahir . Abdi Latif . 3 November 2022 . Details in Ethiopia's Peace Deal Reveal Clear Winners and Losers . The New York Times.
  43. Web site: Anna . Cara . 3 November 2022 . Ethiopia asserts government got '100%' in Tigray peace deal . ABC News . Associated Press.
  44. Web site: Harter . Fred . 3 November 2022 . Ethiopia's truce is a step toward ending civil war, but there are reasons for caution . NPR.
  45. Web site: Anna . Cara . 7 November 2022 . New round of peace talks between Ethiopia, Tigray envoys . Associated Press .
  46. Web site: Kaledzi . Isaac . 8 November 2022 . Will Ethiopia's shaky Tigray truce hold? . Deutsche Welle.
  47. Web site: 12 November 2022 . Declaration of the Senior Commanders on the Modalities for the Implementation of the Agreement for Lasting Peace Through a Permanent Cessation of Hostilities between the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) and the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20221112204808/https://addisstandard.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Executive-Declaration.pdf . 12 November 2022 . Addis Standard.
  48. Web site: Mersie . Ayenat . 12 November 2022 . Ethiopia combatants sign deal to start implementing truce . Reuters.
  49. Web site: 12 November 2022 . News: Federal, Tigray military commanders to form joint committee to elaborate DDR, agree to facilitate unhindered humanitarian access, movement of humanitarian aid workers . Addis Standard.
  50. Web site: For Survivors of Ethiopia's Tigray War, Truce Brings Cautious Hope . Voice of America . 5 November 2022 . Reuters.
  51. Web site: Burke . Jason . 10 November 2022 . Tigray still without aid eight days after deal to end Ethiopia's blockade . The Guardian.
  52. Web site: 11 November 2022 . 'Nothing is moving': WHO chief decries Tigray aid blockade amid ceasefire . Africanews & AFP.
  53. Web site: 11 November 2022 . News: Ethiopia disputes reports on continued blockade of humanitarian supply to Tigray, claims aid flowing "like no other times" . Addis Standard.
  54. Web site: Wilkes . Tommy . Mersie . Ayenat . 11 November 2022 . Ethiopia says Tigray aid allowed, agencies say still no access . Reuters.
  55. Web site: 11 November 2022 . Ethiopia Govt Says Army Controls 70 Percent Of Tigray . Barron's . Agence France Presse.
  56. Web site: 11 November 2022 . Ethiopia govt says aid flowing to Tigray but rebels deny . Radio France Internationale . AFP.
  57. Web site: 12 November 2022 . Ethiopia's rival sides agree on humanitarian access for Tigray . Al Jazeera.
  58. Web site: 12 November 2022 . Ethiopia, Tigray military leaders agree on peace roadmap . ABC News . AP.
  59. Web site: 15 November 2022 . First aid trucks arrive in Ethiopia's Tigray after peace deal, says Red Cross . France 24 . AFP.
  60. Web site: 26 November 2022 . News: Despite improvements in deliveries, humanitarian aid flowing to Tigray still insufficient: UN . Addis Standard.
  61. Web site: 26 November 2022 . Food aid into Ethiopia's Tigray 'not matching needs': UN . Al Jazeera.
  62. Web site: Kristos . Mihret G. . 3 January 2023 . News: Tigray's biggest hospital remains short of medical supply despite peace deal, pleads for laboratory reagents . Addis Standard.
  63. Web site: 12 November 2022 . News: Commercial Bank restores banking services in seven branches in western Tigray . Addis Standard.
  64. Web site: 23 November 2022 . #ASDailyScoop: Ethiopian Airlines says preparations underway to resume regular flights to Tigray region . Addis Standard.
  65. Web site: 27 December 2022 . Ethiopian Airlines to resume flights to Tigray capital Mekele . France24 . AFP.
  66. Web site: 28 December 2022 . Ethiopia's Tigray conflict: Flights resume between Addis Ababa and Mekelle . BBC News.
  67. Web site: Bekit . Teklemariam . 7 December 2022 . Ethiopia restores electricity in Tigray capital . BBC News Tigrinya.
  68. Web site: 7 December 2022 . Etiopía restablece la electricidad en la capital de Tigré tras la guerra . Ethiopia restores electricity to post-war capital of Tigray . . es . EFE.
  69. Web site: 30 December 2022 . Mediators meet to bolster Ethiopia truce as Tigray conflict dims . Al Jazeera . Reuters.
  70. Web site: 6 December 2022 . Tigray Capital Back On Ethiopia Power Grid: Operator . Barron's . AFP.
  71. Web site: 6 November 2022 . Power back in Ethiopia Tigray capital . . Australian Associated Press.
  72. Web site: 29 November 2022 . Ethiopia offers no date for end to blackout in Tigray region . Associated Press.
  73. Web site: Holland . Hereward . Wilkes . Tommy . 7 November 2022 . Ethiopian and Tigray forces launch hotline as new peace talks begin . Reuters.
  74. Web site: Tekle . Tesfa-Alem . 4 November 2022 . Ethiopia government accused of drone attacks, shelling after peace deal . Sudan Tribune.
  75. Web site: 4 November 2022 . Tigray rebels accuse Ethiopia of attacks after peace deal . France 24 . AFP.
  76. Web site: 9 November 2022 . News: Authority preparing media guideline to report on Ethiopia cessation of hostilities agreement . Addis Standard.
  77. Web site: 1 December 2022 . Ethiopia says new talks begin inside Tigray on disarmament . Associated Press.
  78. Web site: Kirstos . Mercy G. . 2 December 2022 . News: Tigray forces start withdrawing from front lines as regional leader urge the people to support the peace deal . Addis Standard.
  79. Web site: 5 December 2022 . News: Tigray forces commander says nearly 65% combatants disengage from front line . Addis Standard.
  80. Web site: 4 December 2022 . Ethiopia's Tigray forces say they have withdrawn 65% of fighters from frontlines . Reuters.
  81. Web site: 11 January 2023 . Tigray forces start handing over heavy weapons in Ethiopia . DW . AFP; AP.
  82. Web site: Misikir . Maya . 11 January 2023 . Tigray Forces Start Handing Over Heavy Weapons as Part of Peace Deal . Voice of America.
  83. Web site: 11 January 2023 . News: AU Monitoring team confirm handing over of heavy weapons by Tigrayan forces; neither "foreign" nor "non-ENDF forces" reported withdrawing from Tigray . Addis Standard.
  84. Web site: 21 November 2022 . News: Tigrayan officials say peace agreement aims to "rescue people of Tigray", accuse Eritrean forces of continued atrocities on civilians . Addis Standard.
  85. Web site: Muhumuza . Rodney . 27 November 2022 . Kidnappings, looting cited in Ethiopia's Tigray after truce . Associated Press.
  86. Web site: Marks . Simon . Gebre . Samuel . 30 November 2022 . Ethiopia Peace Process Undermined as Eritrean Forces Continue Attacking Civilians . Bloomberg News.
  87. Web site: 2 December 2022 . Looting, forced removals plague Ethiopia's Tigray despite truce, witnesses say . The Globe and Mail . Reuters.
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  90. News: 3 November 2022 . Reaction to Ethiopia truce deal . en . Reuters .
  91. Web site: 4 November 2022 . What to watch next on Ethiopia's peace deal in Tigray . Atlantic Council.
  92. Web site: Vincenot . Aymeric . 4 November 2022 . Ethiopia peace deal leaves unanswered questions and concerns . Yahoo! News . AFP.
  93. Web site: 5 November 2022 . Tigrayan academics welcome Ethiopian ceasefire, but reject proposed TPLF disarmament . Sudans Post.
  94. Web site: 7 November 2022 . News: Federal army, Tigray topmost military leaders meet today amidst Tigrayan criticism on disarmament . Addis Standard.
  95. Web site: Anna . Cara . October 29, 2022 . Witnesses allege Eritrean abuses during Ethiopia peace talks . . Associated Press.
  96. Web site: Burke . Jason . 2 November 2022 . Ethiopian civil war: parties agree on end to hostilities . The Guardian.
  97. Web site: Magome . Mogomotsi . Anna . Cara . 2 November 2022 . Ethiopian govt, Tigray agree to end fighting after 2 years . The Hill . Associated Press.
  98. Web site: Shirbon . Estelle . 3 November 2022 . Analysis: Truce in Ethiopia's Tigray war just first step on long road to peace . Reuters.
  99. Web site: 26 February 2021 . Ethiopia: The Massacre in Axum . Amnesty International.
  100. Web site: 5 March 2021 . Ethiopia: Eritrean Forces Massacre Tigray Civilians . live . https://archive.today/20210308011441/https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/03/05/ethiopia-eritrean-forces-massacre-tigray-civilians%23 . 8 March 2021 . Human Rights Watch.
  101. Web site: Hochet-Bodin . Noé . 15 November 2022 . Eritrea's shadow looms over Ethiopian peace process . Le Monde.
  102. Web site: Zelalem . Zecharias . 4 November 2022 . Analysis: Can Ethiopia iron out issues after AU peace deal? . Al Jazeera.
  103. Web site: Gebre . Samuel . March 16, 2021 . Ethiopia's Amhara Seize Disputed Territory Amid Tigray Conflict . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20221013080724/https://www.bnnbloomberg.ca/ethiopia-s-amhara-seize-disputed-territory-amid-tigray-conflict-1.1577772 . October 13, 2022 . BNN Bloomberg.
  104. Web site: 12 June 2020 . Bridging the Divide in Ethiopia's North . International Crisis Group.
  105. Web site: April 6, 2022 . 'We Will Erase You from This Land': Crimes Against Humanity and Ethnic Cleansing in Ethiopia's Western Tigray Zone . https://web.archive.org/web/20221102191444/https://amnesty.ca/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/We-Will-Erase-You-From-This-Land.pdf . November 2, 2022 . Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch.
  106. Web site: 15 November 2022 . News: Peace talk in South Africa not about which side "Wolkait" should go to: PM Abiy . Addis Standard.
  107. Web site: 3 November 2022 . Ethiopia: Peace agreement must deliver justice to victims and survivors of conflict . Amnesty International.
  108. Web site: 4 November 2022 . Ethiopia: Truce Needs Robust Rights Monitoring . Human Rights Watch.
  109. Web site: Schifrin . Nick . Warsi . Zeba . Aranda . Teresa Cebrian . 3 November 2022 . Ethiopian government, Tigrayan rebels reach truce, but enormous challenges remain . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20221107083446/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/ethiopian-government-tigrayan-rebels-reach-truce-but-enormous-challenges-remain . 7 November 2022 . PBS NewsHour.
  110. News: Bearak . Max . 30 December 2021 . She was in Abiy Ahmed's cabinet as war broke out. Now she wants to set the record straight. . en-US . The Washington Post . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20220603070749/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/12/30/ethiopia-abiy-tigray-war/ . 3 June 2022 . 0190-8286.
  111. Web site: 2 November 2022 . Abiy Vows 'Strong' Commitment To Implement Ethiopia Deal . Barron's . Agence France Presse.
  112. Web site: Ahmed Ali . Abiy . 2 November 2022 . Expression of Gratitude on the Conclusion of the Peace Talks . https://web.archive.org/web/20221106133228/https://twitter.com/AbiyAhmedAli/status/1587869990006525953 . 6 November 2022 . Twitter.
  113. Web site: 3 November 2022 . News: World welcomes Ethiopia permanent cessation of hostilities with calls for swift implementation . Addis Standard.
  114. Web site: Reda . Getachew . 7 November 2022 . will do what it takes to protect our people who have suffered beyond what ordinary mortals can endure. We are fighting not because we are a trigger-happy nation but because our survival as a people is at stake. If a peace agreement can ensure our survival, why not give it a try?! . https://web.archive.org/web/20221118041248/https://twitter.com/reda_getachew/status/1589612865392369664 . 18 November 2022 . Twitter.
  115. Web site: Canada stands ready to support the implementation of the peace agreement. We call on all parties to ensure the protection of civilians and to address the pressing humanitarian needs of the Ethiopian people. . Twitter . Foreign Affairs Canada.
  116. Web site: 3 November 2022 . Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Zhao Lijian's Regular Press Conference on November 3, 2022 . Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China.
  117. Web site: Guelleh . Ismail Omar . 2 November 2022 . Je salue la conclusion heureuse à Pretoria de l'accord de cessation des hostilités sous les auspices de l'UA. Bravo aux efforts conjugués de tous en formant le vœu de voir cet accord apporter à notre région et à nos frères éthiopiens la sécurité, la paix et la prospérité. . https://web.archive.org/web/20221107113125/https://twitter.com/IsmailOguelleh/status/1588014509335232514 . 7 November 2022 . Twitter . fr.
  118. Web site: 3 November 2022 . Ethiopia – France welcomes the cessation of hostilities declared by the Federal Government and the Tigray People's Liberation Front (3 November 2022) . France Diplomacy.
  119. Web site: 8 November 2022 . Iran supports cessation of conflicts in northern Ethiopia . Iranian Foreign Ministry.
  120. Web site: 8 November 2022 . Iran Hails Ethiopia Peace Deal . Tasnim News Agency.
  121. Web site: Sirleaf . Ellen Johnson . 2 November 2022 . I welcome the news of the agreement to end hostilities in #Ethiopia. I hope this will be the first step towards sustainable peace, built on dialogue and political engagement. Thanks to H.E. Olusegun Obasanjo & H.E. Uhuru Kenyatta for their role in the @_AfricanUnion negotiations. . https://web.archive.org/web/20221103143345/https://twitter.com/MaEllenSirleaf/status/1587908680141488132 . 3 November 2022 . Twitter.
  122. Web site: 3 November 2022 . Signed Peace Agreement Can Be Solid Foundation For Nat'l Stability, Prosperity: Russia . Fana Broadcasting Corporate.
  123. Web site: 4 November 2022 . South Sudan welcomes Ethiopian peace agreement, to support parties in implementation . Sudans Post.
  124. Web site: 3 November 2022 . Ethiopian crisis: Sudan welcomes signing of peace agreement . PanaPress.
  125. Web site: 3 November 2022 . Turkey: Press Release Regarding the Developments in Ethiopia . Zawya.
  126. Web site: 4 November 2022 . الإمارات ترحب باتفاق السلام الدائم في إقليم تيغراي بإثيوبيا . UAE welcomes permanent peace agreement in Ethiopia's Tigray region . . ar.
  127. Web site: Harter . Fred . Solomon . Salem . 3 November 2022 . Ethiopia Peace Deal Hailed as First Step to End Africa's Deadliest Conflict . Voice of America.
  128. Web site: 2 November 2022 . Ethiopia: Peace agreement between Government and Tigray 'a critical first step': Guterres . UN News.
  129. Web site: Gebeyehu . Dr. Workneh . 2 November 2022 . I express my deep satisfaction at the signing of the Ethiopia peace agreement in Pretoria & congratulate @AbiyAhmedAli's leadership, mediation teams, & the AU for this momentous outcome to silence the guns! IGAD played an active role in the AU-led mediation efforts from the start . Twitter.
  130. Web site: Gebre . Samuel . 4 November 2022 . IMF Welcomes Ethiopia Truce Amid Talks on Economic Reform Plans . Bloomberg News.
  131. Web site: 2 November 2022 . Oxfam reaction to Tigray peace agreement . Oxfam.

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