| Espiritu Santo | |
| Also Known As: | Santo |
| Region: | Espiritu Santo Island in northern Vanuatu |
| Familycolor: | Austronesian |
| Fam3: | Oceanic |
| Fam4: | Southern Oceanic |
| Fam5: | North Vanuatu |
| Glotto: | espi1234 |
| Glottorefname: | Espiritu Santo |
The Espiritu Santo languages (alternatively Santo languages) are a group of North Vanuatu languages spoken on Espiritu Santo Island in northern Vanuatu. Tryon (2010) considers the Espiritu Santo languages to be a coherent group.
Two lists of Espiritu Santo languages from Tryon (2010) and François (2015) are provided below.
Tryon (2010) recognizes 33 living languages and 2 extinct languages. They are:[1]
| Language | Speakers | Area | Villages | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Valpei (Tavanlav) | 300 | North-West Santo | Wunpuko, Valpei, Petani, Matalip, Pwar, Molpoe, Hakua, Maroa, Pwat, Pwatmwel (Onmwertev), Mwalovuko, Wunapak | |
| Nokuku (Vevatot) | 250 | North-West Santo | Olpoe, Nokuku, Lajmoli, Vunon, Penaoru, Petawota | |
| 300 | North-West Santo | Tasmate, Sulesal, Vasalea | ||
| 250? | North-West Santo | Vunapu, Pesena | ||
| 250? | North-West Santo | Piamatsina, Piamaeto, Peavot | ||
| Tolomako (Big Bay) | 900 | North-West Santo | Jureviu, Tuturu, Tavunamalo, Peavot, Vasi, Pialulup, Matantas | |
| 350 | West Santo | Wusi, Kerepua, Elia 1 | ||
| 300 | West Santo | Linduri, Putonro, Saktui, Maram, Patiare, Mapten, Nukupospos | ||
| 300 | West Santo | Vuimele, Navura, Papaisale, Arumalate, Latavoa, Pilipili, Lepurpuri, Potlavaisevu | ||
| 4000 | West Santo | Toramaori, Lalaolo, Tovotovo, Kerevinumbu, Tasiriki, Ukoro, Malovira, Tasmalum | ||
| 100? | West Santo | Pelmol | ||
| 100 | South Santo | Tanovusivusi | ||
| 500 | South Santo | Fimele, Wailapa | ||
| 10 | South Santo | Patunmevu, Nambaka, Wunamoli | ||
| 500 | South Santo | Tanmet, Lotunai, Ipayato, Tasmalum, Morouas | ||
| 10 | South Santo | Araki Island | ||
| 370 | South Santo | Tangoa Island | ||
| 400 | South Santo | Nambel, Tanovoli, Narango, Funafosi, Nambauk | ||
| Tiale / Merei | 400 | Central Santo | Tavuimoli, Nazaraka, Mataipevu, Patuitano, Morokari, Angoru, Tombet, Navele, Vusvogo | |
| 450 | Central Santo | Wailapa, Fortsenale, Namoru | ||
| Ko / Mores (Farmores) | 200? | Central Santo | Tanmet, Lemben, Tsarailan, Namafun, Patmarifu, Sarete, Mavunlif | |
| 100 | Central Santo | Moriuli | ||
| Toksiki / Soisoru | 200 | Central Santo | Morkriv, Pilnuri, Bengie | |
| 4000 | East Santo | Malo | ||
| extinct | East Santo | Aore | ||
| 3 | East Santo | Tambotalo, Belnatsa, Beleru, Belembut, Lambue | ||
| 300? | East Santo | Butmas, Tur, Maniok, Shark Bay, Naturuk | ||
| 250 | East Santo | Vanafo (Tanafo), Mon Exil, Palon, Shark Bay | ||
| Ati (Meris / Miris) | 85 | East Santo | Fumbak, Naturuk, Nambauk | |
| 20 | East Santo | Vanafo, Butmas | ||
| Atin (Farnanatin) | 120 | East Santo | Nambauk (Patunfarambu), Fumatal | |
| 100 | East Santo | Nambauk, Tanmet, Tafua | ||
| Mavea (Lonavu) | 500 | East Santo | Mavea, Aissi, Tutuba | |
| extinct | East Santo | Lorediakarkar | ||
| 4000 | East Santo | Hog Harbour, Port Olry, Kole 1 |
The following list of 38 Espiritu Santo languages is from Alexandre François (2015:18-21).
| No. | Language | Other names | Speakers | Region | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 27 | 900 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 28 | 250 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 29 | 380 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 30 | 300 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 31 | 250 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 32 | 300 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 33 | 350 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 34 | 300 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 35 | 400 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 36 | 200 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 37 | 500 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 38 | 200 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 39 | 450 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 40 | 100 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 41 | 300 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 42 | 100 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 43 | 4000 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 44 | 100 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 45 | 500 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 46 | 400 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 47 | 300 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 48 | 220 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 49 | 3 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 50 | 120 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 51 | 85 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 52 | 100 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 53 | 20 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 54 | 520 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 55 | 520 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 56 | 450 | Espiritu Santo, Litaro | ||||
| 57 | 0 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 58 | 4000 | Espiritu Santo | ||||
| 59 | 34 | Espiritu Santo, Mavea | ||||
| 60 | 500 | Espiritu Santo, Tutuba | ||||
| 61 | 0 | Espiritu Santo, Aore | ||||
| 62 | 4000 | Espiritu Santo, Malo | ||||
| 63 | 370 | Espiritu Santo, Tangoa | ||||
| 64 | 8 | Espiritu Santo, Araki |
John Lynch (2019)[2] proposes the following classification scheme for the Espiritu Santo languages, with the development of bilabial consonants to linguolabials as the primary marker of the "Nuclear Santo" group: