| Enigma tornado outbreak | |
| Duration: | February 19–20, 1884 |
| Tornadoes: | ~60± |
| Fujitascale: | F4 |
| Largest Hail: | 5inches |
| Year: | 1884 |
| Damages: | $3–4 million ($ in USD) |
| Fatalities: | ≥ ~180 (unofficial estimates of 800–1,200) |
| Injuries: | ≥ 1,056 |
| Affected: | Southeastern United States |
| Season: | tornadoes and tornado outbreaks of 1884 |
On February 19–20, 1884, one of the largest and most widespread tornado outbreaks in American history occurred over the Southeastern United States, known as the Enigma tornado outbreak due to the uncertain number of total tornadoes and fatalities. Nonetheless, an inspection of newspaper reports and governmental studies published in the aftermath reveals successive, long-tracked tornado families striking Alabama, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee and Virginia, with an estimation of at least 51—and possibly 60 or more—tornadoes.
The majority of reported tornado activity was seen across Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina and North Carolina, which were all struck severely by multiple waves of tornado families. In the Southeast, the outbreak began during the late morning in Mississippi, preceded by severe thunderstorms in Louisiana. Shortly thereafter, the outbreak widened and intensified, progressing from Alabama to Virginia between noon and midnight. The outbreak also produced the deadliest individual tornado in North Carolina history, an F4 which swept through the Rockingham area, killing 23.
The ratings for these tornadoes were done by meteorologist tornado expert Thomas P. Grazulis and are not official ratings.
| Location | County / Parish | State | Date | Time (UTC) | Path length | Width | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| F2 | Louisville | Winston | Mississippi | 17:00–? | 200abbr=onNaNabbr=on | |||
| A mill and a pair of small homes were destroyed. | ||||||||
| F2 | NE of Crawford (MS) to NW of Carrollton (AL) | Lowndes (MS), Pickens (AL) | Mississippi, Alabama | 17:30–? | 25abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 300abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| 1+ death – Sharecroppers' cabins were destroyed, and plantations near Columbus heavily damaged. Multiple people may have died in Mississippi. 20 injuries occurred.[1] [2] | ||||||||
| F2 | SW of Clarksville to ENE of Hampton Station | Montgomery | Tennessee | 17:45–? | 800abbr=onNaNabbr=on | |||
| Many homes lost their roofs, and trees and fencing were felled. A large, domed warehouse lost its cupola and much of its roofing. Several other warehouses were unroofed, along with a number of businesses. Skylights and windows were shattered as well, a carriage house and carriage destroyed, chimneys knocked down, and a church twisted on its foundation. Half a dozen homes occupied by blacks were leveled, at least one of them a robust, frame structure. Three injuries were reported.[3] | ||||||||
| F2 | Cumming | Forsyth | Georgia | 18:20–? | 10abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 100abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| 1 death – 20 or more homes were destroyed or damaged. Entire swaths were reportedly leveled. 40 injuries occurred. | ||||||||
| F2 | E of Columbus to Geneva | Muscogee, Talbot | Georgia | 18:30–? | 25abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 100abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| This was probably a family of two tornadoes. Heavy damage occurred in the Columbus area, to mostly industrial property, totaling $85,000. Five injuries occurred. 5adj=midNaNadj=mid hailstones were reported in Harris County, just north of Columbus.[4] | ||||||||
| F2 | N of Tallapoosa | Haralson | Georgia | 18:30–? | ||||
| Many homes were destroyed. Several fatalities may have occurred. Two people were injured. | ||||||||
| F2 | S of Rockford to E of Goodwater | Coosa | Alabama | 18:30–? | 20abbr=onNaNabbr=on | |||
| Schools and homes were wrecked. 15 injuries occurred, a number of which were by students. Fires erupted in Goodwater after the passing of the storm, damaging several homes. | ||||||||
| F4 | S of Cartersville to Mount Oglethorpe | Bartow, Cherokee, Pickens, Dawson | Georgia | 19:00–? | 40abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 1500abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| 22 deaths – This large, violent, long-tracked tornado formed from the same storm as the Tallapoosa F2. The tornado and downbursts combined to damage 3adj=midNaNadj=mid areas. Most of the fatalities occurred near Jasper, Cagle and Tate, where numerous spacious, well-built homes belonging to "prominent" owners were swept away; a publication by meteorologist Thomas P. Grazulis in 1984 indicated that these homes may have incurred F5 damage. Three of the dead were schoolchildren who had been dismissed early and sheltered in an old home. A 15adj=midNaNadj=mid stretch of farmland and timberland was obliterated, and some of the dead were found NaNmiles distant. The tornado and downbursts altogether destroyed 50mi2 of woodland. In all, 100 people were injured. | ||||||||
| F4 | Oxmoor to SE of Branchville | Jefferson, St. Clair | Alabama | 19:20–? | 30abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 400abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| 13+ deaths – This extremely intense tornado, which formed just south of Birmingham, crossed the Cahaba Valley near Shades Mountain, injuring 15 people and wrecking nine homes at Brock Gap. At Leeds the tornado damaged a newly-built industrial area, where 27 homes, mostly constructed of brick, were destroyed, many of which were well built and obliterated, some along with their foundations. All known fatalities occurred in the Leeds area, but additional deaths may have occurred elsewhere, and the total number of dead may have exceeded 18. 30 people were injured along the path. | ||||||||
| F2 | N of Lincoln | Talladega, Calhoun | Alabama | 19:45–? | 5abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 200abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| Several homes were destroyed. 15 people were injured. | ||||||||
| F2 | N of Watkinsville to Sandy Cross | Oconee, Clarke, Oglethorpe | Georgia | 20:00–? | 20abbr=onNaNabbr=on | |||
| This strong tornado damaged several small homes, injuring five people. A well-built barn was shattered and timberland flattened. | ||||||||
| F4 | N of Jacksonville (AL) to N of Cave Spring (GA) | Calhoun (AL), Cherokee (AL), Floyd (GA) | Alabama, Georgia | 20:30–? | 35abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 400abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| 30+ deaths – This violent, long-lived tornado ravaged six or more rural communities in Alabama, causing 26 deaths, 10 of which occurred just north of Piedmont. 14 deaths were reported at Goshen, where a schoolmaster died and 25 pupils were injured; half a dozen of the latter may have died later. Frail housing "literally vanished," and cotton bales were moved NaNmiles. In Georgia the tornado obliterated many large homes, killing four more people. In all, 100 people were injured.[5] Another F4 tornado, closely following the path of this one, hit the Piedmont–Goshen area and killed 20 people in a single church on March 27, 1994. | ||||||||
| F2 | Indian Springs to Smithboro | Butts, Jasper, Putnam, Greene | Georgia | 20:30–? | 30abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 300abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| 2+ deaths – This strong, long-tracked tornado wrecked several dozen tenant homes. Several people were severely injured. A third death may have been tornado-related but was not definitively attributable. The path was up to NaNmiles wide at times and passed north of Monticello. 30 people were injured. | ||||||||
| F3 | E of Doraville to Hix | Gwinnett, Barrow, Jackson, Madison | Georgia | 20:30–? | 50abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 500abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| 2 deaths – This was probably an intense tornado family, individual members of which left NaNadj=midNaNadj=mid swaths of destruction. Damage may have begun in DeKalb County, where structures were felled. Farmhouses—some of which were reportedly "leveled"—and miles of forest were destroyed. The deaths occurred in a boarding house. 35 people were injured. | ||||||||
| F2 | Franklin to Palmetto | Heard, Coweta, Fulton | Georgia | 20:30–? | ≥ 20abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 400abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| 1+ death – Damage occurred northwest of Newnan and in Palmetto. At least three strong tornadoes, occurring in quick succession, affected the same area, each of which was likely of at least F2 status. At least five fatalities may have occurred. 30 injuries were reported. | ||||||||
| F3 | NW of Lula to S of Toccoa | Hall, Banks, Habersham, Stephens | Georgia | 20:30–? | 25abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 300abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| 2+ deaths – This intense tornado passed south of Mount Airy, sweeping away a home in Banks County. A third death was unconfirmed. The tornado wrecked 14 or more homes, along with many miles of timberland. 20 people were injured. | ||||||||
| F3 | Hillsboro to SE of Eatonton | Jasper, Putnam, Hancock | Georgia | 21:00–? | 30abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 400abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| 8+ deaths – This intense tornado destroyed a plantation, killing seven or more tenants and a woman. Many small homes were leveled on the plantation. 10 or more additional deaths may have taken place among sharecroppers elsewhere, but were never verified. 50 injuries were confirmed. In 1984 Grazulis listed this tornado as an F4, but downgraded it to F3 in his later work. | ||||||||
| F3 | Maynard to Blountsville to NW of Milledgeville | Monroe, Jones, Baldwin | Georgia | 21:15–? | 30abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 200abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| 12 deaths – Large homes were swept away in Jones County, along with many smaller homes. Eyewitnesses north of Macon described a multiple-vortex storm, preceded by 3adj=midNaNadj=mid hail. 50 injuries occurred. In 1984 Grazulis listed this tornado as an F4, but downgraded it to F3 in his later work. | ||||||||
| FU | Marietta | Pickens, Greenville | South Carolina | 21:30–? | ||||
| A church and many small homes destroyed in the Marietta area, at the foot of the Blue Ridge Mountains in northwestern Greenville County. Damage from downbursts or a series of small tornadoes continued into Rutherford County, North Carolina. | ||||||||
| FU | Brevard to S of Marion | Transylvania, Henderson, Buncombe, McDowell | North Carolina | 21:30–? | ||||
| This complex series of small, short-lived tornadoes and/or violent downbursts originated in the upper French Broad valley, before descending the Blue Ridge. | ||||||||
| F2 | N of Woodruff to Pacolet | Spartanburg, Cherokee | South Carolina | 21:30–? | ||||
| Many barns and small homes were wrecked, and a larger home was unroofed. Six people were injured. The tornado passed near Glenn Springs. | ||||||||
| F2 | S of Highgrove to E of Fairfield | Nelson, Spencer | Kentucky | 21:30–? | 9abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 200abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| 1 death – Six or more homes were destroyed and 30 people injured in the Highgrove area. The sole fatality occurred in a barn. | ||||||||
| F3 | N of Sparta to N of Thomson | Hancock, Warren, McDuffie, Columbia | Georgia | 22:00–? | 45abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 200abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| 2+ deaths – This tornado family formed from the same storm as the Hillsboro F3. Farms and small homes were destroyed at multiple locations. A train derailed northwest of Augusta. Substantial hail accumulations were reported in Warren County. At least two additional deaths may have occurred. 15 people were injured. In 1984 Grazulis listed this tornado as an F4, but downgraded it to F3 in his later work. | ||||||||
| F3 | S of Anderson | Anderson, Greenville | South Carolina | 22:30–? | 10abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 400abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| 2+ deaths – This multiple-vortex tornado or family passed through a mill/village complex, destroying at least 12 small homes, along with several larger homes and a tenant home. One or more additional deaths may have occurred. 20 people were injured. | ||||||||
| F2 | S of Washington to S of Lincolnton | Wilkes, Lincoln | Georgia | 22:30–? | 20abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 600abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| 7+ deaths – Deaths, mainly those of children, occurred on a pair of plantations. Some reports indicated as many as 20 fatalities. 40 people were injured. | ||||||||
| FU | Chester | Chester | South Carolina | 23:00–? | ||||
| Severe damage occurred in downtown Chester, with 40 homes damaged or destroyed elsewhere in town. Losses totaled $50,000. | ||||||||
| F2 | S of Thomson to Harlem | McDuffie, Columbia | Georgia | 23:00–? | 10abbr=onNaNabbr=on | |||
| This tornado hit five plantations, destroying many cotton gins, mills, tenant homes, and small homes. Seven injuries occurred. | ||||||||
| F3 | S of Tennille to Davisboro | Washington, Jefferson | Georgia | 23:00–? | 35abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 500abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| 4 deaths – This intense tornado family occurred within a wider complex of downbursts, which combined to create a broad damage swath. The business district of Davisboro was devastated, with every business in downtown destroyed; losses there totaled 30 stores and homes. Debris was carried for 52miles. 30 people were injured and losses totaled at least $100,000. | ||||||||
| F2 | S of Shelton to Woodward to S of Lancaster | Fairfield, Chester, Lancaster | South Carolina | 23:15–? | 35abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 200abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| 3 deaths – A damage swath peaked at NaNmiles wide; eyewitness accounts from Lancaster (the storm passed immediately south of town) would suggest that this was a tornado/downburst complex and likely a family of multiple tornadoes. The parent supercell later produced the Polkton F3 in North Carolina, and small tornadoes or downbursts linked the paths of these larger storms. 10 people were injured.[6] | ||||||||
| F2 | Phoenix to Silverstreet | Greenwood, Newberry | South Carolina | 23:30–? | 35abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 400abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| 5 deaths – 12 plantations were heavily damaged; a large home was destroyed near Ninety Six, and most buildings in Chappells were damaged or destroyed. Eight train cars were thrown. 30 people were injured. | ||||||||
| F2 | N of Newberry to N of Winnsboro | Newberry, Fairfield | South Carolina | 23:45–? | 25abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 400abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| 2 deaths – Several hundred acres of timber were destroyed in eastern Newberry and western Fairfield counties, particularly near the Broad River. Deaths were in tenant homes in the White Oak area. 15 injuries occurred. | ||||||||
| F2 | S of Wrightsville to Herndon | Johnson, Emanuel, Jenkins | Georgia | 00:00–? | 35abbr=onNaNabbr=on | |||
| 1 death – This was a probable tornado family. Four people were injured. | ||||||||
| F2 | N of Waynesboro (GA) to Jackson (SC) | Burke (GA), Richmond (GA), Aiken (SC) | Georgia, South Carolina | 00:00–? | 20abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 200abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| 5 deaths – This storm passed south of Augusta, beginning at the McBean railroad depot; most damage occurred near Ellenton, South Carolina, where numerous structures and farms were impacted. The depot at Jackson was leveled, and many other structures were damaged or destroyed in and near town, including tenant homes. 30 people were injured. | ||||||||
| FU | Olin | Iredell | North Carolina | 00:30–? | 7abbr=onNaNabbr=on | |||
| Damage occurred to a church and to farm buildings.[7] | ||||||||
| F3 | SE of Monroe to S of Troy | Union, Anson, Richmond, Montgomery | North Carolina | 01:00–? | 35abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 400abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| 4 deaths – See section on this tornado – 50 people were injured. | ||||||||
| F2 | Pioneer Mills to W of Troy | Cabarrus, Stanly, Montgomery | North Carolina | 02:00–? | 25abbr=onNaNabbr=on | |||
| 1+ death – See section on this tornado – 25 people were injured. | ||||||||
| F4 | Morven to Johnsonville | Anson, Richmond, Moore, Harnett | North Carolina | 02:30–? | 50abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 500abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| 23+ deaths – See section on this tornado – 100 people were injured. | ||||||||
| FU | Laurinburg | Scotland | North Carolina | 03:00–? | ||||
| "Severe damage" was reported. | ||||||||
| F2 | Cary | Wake | North Carolina | 03:00–? | 6abbr=onNaNabbr=on | |||
| 1 death –, and was illuminated by continual lightning and unusual optical phenomena. Several small homes were destroyed in Cary. Five people were injured. | ||||||||
| F2 | Lillington to W of Smithfield | Harnett, Johnston | North Carolina | 04:00–? | 10abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 400abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| 2+ deaths – A NaNadj=midNaNadj=mid swath of damage was reported. Five or more small farmhouses were destroyed in Johnston County, including tenant homes. Four additional fatalities may have occurred. 20 injuries occurred. | ||||||||
| FU | SE of Zebulon to NE of Rocky Mount | Johnston, Nash, Edgecombe | North Carolina | 04:30–? | ||||
| Two churches and several homes in Rocky Mount were damaged. | ||||||||
| F3 | Darlington | Darlington | South Carolina | 04:30–? | 5abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 150abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| 6+ deaths – This intense tornado passed very close to downtown Darlington, destroying at least 30 homes, one of whose debris was carried for miles, and unroofing a railroad depot. Five-sixths of the homes were small. Downburst damage continued to Robeson County, North Carolina. Four more people may have died of injuries. 50 people were injured.[8] | ||||||||
| FU | Marion | Perry | Alabama | |||||
| 1 death – Damage was reported in Marion. | ||||||||
| FU | Guntersville | Cullman, Marshall | Alabama | |||||
| Details are unavailable. | ||||||||
| FU | Caseyville | St. Clair | Illinois | |||||
| Details are unavailable. | ||||||||
| FU | Metropolis | Massac | Illinois | |||||
| Many homes were destroyed, along with a church. | ||||||||
| FU | Paducah | McCracken | Kentucky | |||||
| A tobacco warehouse and other large buildings were damaged or destroyed. | ||||||||
| FU | Franklin | Simpson | Kentucky | |||||
| A factory was destroyed. | ||||||||
| FU | W of Petersburg | Dinwiddie, Chesterfield | Virginia | 06:00–? | ||||
| A tornado/downburst complex of unknown magnitude passed near Petersburg, where downburst damage was noted throughout the city. | ||||||||
| F2 | S of Branchville | Orangeburg | South Carolina | 06:00–? | ||||
| Five homes were destroyed. A dozen people were injured. | ||||||||
| F2 | S of Foreston | Clarendon, Williamsburg | South Carolina | 07:00–? | 10abbr=onNaNabbr=on | 600abbr=onNaNabbr=on | ||
| 4 deaths – Most of the severest damage was south of Foreston. Six homes were wrecked. 10 people were injured. | ||||||||
| Polkton–Ansonville–Mangum–Pekin, North Carolina | |
| Fujitascale: | F3 |
| Casualties: | 4 fatalities, 50 injuries |
| Enhanced: | no |
This was the first of a number of destructive North Carolina storms. Detailed coverage in a Wadesboro-based newspaper provides an unusually (by 19th-century standards) precise survey of the movement and damage produced by three of those storms in the southern Piedmont of North Carolina. This storm first formed in southeastern Union County, from a supercell that had produced significant damage in South Carolina earlier. Most of the path of this storm was in rural areas, with injuries and major damage along Beaverdam Creek, south of Marshville in Union County, and along Brown Creek in Anson County, northeast of Polkton.
Significant damage also occurred in and around the towns of Polkton and Ansonville, where structures in both towns were widely damaged, with homes and farm buildings destroyed south of Ansonville. A total of four people were killed: a pair in a "'mansion'" that was destroyed, and another pair in one of 28 homes that were wrecked on a plantation. Eyewitnesses in Polkton noted that the storm "crossed the railroad about a mile east of Polkton last night prostrating everything in its course. Could see the storm from Polkton by lightning, looked like a cloud of dense smoke and sounded like thunder. Hail stones measuring NaNinches long, NaNinches wide and 1inches thick fell."
Homes were also destroyed near Mangum in Richmond County and near Pekin in Montgomery County.[9]
| Pioneer Mills, North Carolina | |
| Fujitascale: | F2 |
| Casualties: | ≥ 1 fatality, 25 injuries |
| Enhanced: | no |
This storm was preceded and followed by a wide area of downburst damage – with scattered areas of damage to farms and small structures reported across a wide area of southern Cabarrus County, eastern Mecklenburg County (northeast of Mint Hill) and the Goose Creek area of northwestern Union County.
The first tornado-specific damage occurred in the Pioneer Mills community between Harrisburg and Midland in Cabarrus County, where a mill was destroyed and estimated F2 damage was inflicted upon several residences, including several small and a few larger homes that were wrecked. The storm passed within 2miles of Albemarle; little damage was recorded elsewhere in Stanly County. Several poorly constructed buildings were destroyed along the Uwharrie River in Montgomery County, and damage to farms was widespread in the county. One person was killed, but there may have been other deaths. Downburst damage continued to southwest of Asheboro.[10]
| Pee Dee–Rockingham–Philadelphia–Manly, North Carolina | |
| Fujitascale: | F4 |
| Casualties: | ≥ 23 fatalities, 100 injuries |
| Enhanced: | no |
Spawned late in the outbreak, the storm which swept from Anson to Harnett Counties in North Carolina passed through the Rockingham area, and became the deadliest tornado in recorded North Carolina history. This storm first touched down east of the town of McFarlan, in southeastern Anson County. The storm produced little damage in Anson County, but caused two deaths south of Pee Dee.
Tracking to the northeast, it crossed the Pee Dee River into Richmond County and produced sporadic damage until just southeast of Rockingham. Extreme damage to pine forests was first noted just south of town. Strengthening considerably, the storm swept through the southeast edge of Rockingham, where large homes were destroyed to their foundations, and large hardwood trees were snapped at ground level. The Philadelphia Church community (presently on U.S. Highway 1, 3miles northeast of downtown Rockingham) was devastated, with most of the poorly constructed dwellings in the community completely destroyed. 15 or more deaths occurred there. The storm had widened to nearly 1miles in width at this point.
Forests and rural homes were flattened in and beyond Philadelphia. The storm then tracked through what is now the town of Hoffman, before entering Moore County. Severe damage was again seen in the communities of Keyser and Manly (presently at the northeast corner of the city of Southern Pines), along the southeast edge of Moore County. The storm then curved slightly to the east, dissipating into a wide area of downburst damage near the community of Johnsonville. A total of at least 23 people were killed, for many of the injured may have died later. Eyewitnesses reported large hail and intense lightning displays preceding the storm.
An unusually detailed accounting of the storm's passage through Richmond County was provided two days later: a local resident undertook an informal, but detailed survey of the damage produced by the storm, and this account was published in an Anson County newspaper. This accounting establishes a steady southwest-to-northeast movement through the county, with a number of buildings—sharecropper cabins, large homes, and a mill—swept away along the path. As the storm passed 1miles southeast of downtown Rockingham, it may have peaked in intensity; it was noted that all structures along a 5adj=midNaNadj=mid segment of the path (beginning at this point) were destroyed. The surveyor noted a path width of NaN–, with the most extreme damage (and most deaths) in the Philadelphia Church community. The surveyor noted that:
Trees were taken up by the roots and hurled with fearful rapidity through the air and those not uprooted had all the bark taken off. The scene after the storm, particularly the position of the prostrate trees, indicated a convergence toward the center, as if a vacuum was created there and the wind rushed in from either side to fill it.
A second, detailed survey of the path was made 10 days later by J. A. Holmes; his findings were published in the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society journal for 1884.[11]
Elsewhere, wind damage, flash floods and derecho-like effects were also reported in published accounts of the outbreak. Homes were swept away by water in Louisville, Kentucky, New Albany, Indiana, and Jeffersonville, Indiana, as well as in other towns along the Ohio River. Blizzard conditions occurred in the eastern Midwest. In Tennessee the mid-latitude system associated with the outbreak generated severe thunderstorms that produced strong, destructive winds on February 19. These winds caused "great" damage to forestland, fencing, and housing, especially in and near Clarksville.
The total impact of the outbreak was never adequately quantified and hence has been considered enigmatic. Individual deaths may have been counted multiple times, leading to an exaggerated death toll, but on the other hand rural Black dead may have been undercounted, many of whom were undocumented sharecroppers. Of thousands reported dead, the names of fewer than 100 could be verified. According to an article appearing in the Statesville (NC) Landmark three days later, the damage tally in Georgia alone was estimated to be $1 million, in 1884 dollars. Tabulations from 1884 estimate a total of $3–4 million in tornado damage (with an unknown amount of flood and other damage), with 10,000 structures destroyed, as many as 800 dead, and up to 2,500 injured. The same reported an estimated 60 tornadoes and called the outbreak the worst in U.S. history to date. Between 10,000 and 15,000 people were reportedly rendered homeless and even said to be "starving". The outbreak produced the largest 24-hour total of killer tornadoes until the 1974 Super Outbreak. The precise number of tornadoes as well as fatalities incurred during the outbreak is unknown, but the death toll was variously estimated to range from 370 to 2,000 at the time. A reliable survey by the Signal Corps in 1889 located 182 fatalities, and a reanalysis by tornado researcher Thomas P. Grazulis in 1993 counted 178 deaths.[12]