Standard electrode potential (data page) explained

See main article: Standard electrode potential.

The data below tabulates standard electrode potentials (E°), in volts relative to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE), at:

The Nernst equation allows to calculate real electrode potentials by taking into account exact concentrations, gas pressure, and temperature measured under different experimental conditions.

Electrode potentials of successive elementary half-reactions, as commonly represented in Latimer diagrams, cannot be directly added, but can be correctly determined by adding the corresponding Gibbs free energy changes (∆G°) using the general formula, i.e., the product of the number of electrons transferred, the Faraday constant and the standard electrode potential (E°) in volt. In other words, volts cannot be directly summed up, but well electron-volts, or joules (coulombs × volts). .

For example, from, the energy to form one neutral atom of Fe(s) from one Fe ion and two electrons is or 84 907 J/(mol). That value is also the standard formation energy (∆Gf°) for an Fe ion, since and Fe(s) both have zero formation energy.

Data from different sources may cause table inconsistencies. For example:\begin&\ce &\rightleftharpoons&\ce(s)&\quad\quad E_1=+0.520\text \\&\ce&\rightleftharpoons&\ce(s) &\quad\quad E_2=+0.337\text \\&\ce&\rightleftharpoons&\ce &\quad\quad E_3=+0.159\text\end

In the hypothesis where the value should still be unknown because this half-reaction is an intermediate step difficult to measure or to control. It should be calculated from the two other values and .
How to best proceed in an easy way as standard electrode potentials are not additive?

The simplest way to sum the Gibbs energies is to directly work in electron-volts (eV) without having to convert them in joules. It is because when summing up, –F simplifies on both equation sides. This greatly facilitates the calculations, only requiring to know the number of electrons transferred and the standard electrode potentials:

So, quite simply the result is:

E_3=\frac=+0.154\text

Now, if the value is finally measured by an appropriate method with a good accuracy and sufficient precision under stable and properly controlled conditions and is as given here above, one would observe a slight difference between calculations and the experimental measurement.

Although the difference here is not important, nor very significant, the calculated value slightly differs (∆ = 0.005 V, or 5 mV) from the value of directly determined by experiment. The reason likely lies in small differences, or uncertainties, in the experimental conditions, or in the inconsistent use of slightly different values of physical constants needed to determine and to report the standard electrode potentials. This small discrepancy illustrates the need to correctly manage uncertainties and their propagation in such calculations.

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Table of standard electrode potentials

Legend: (s)  - solid; (l)  - liquid; (g)  - gas; (aq)  - aqueous (default for all charged species); (Hg)  - amalgam; bold  - water electrolysis equations.

ElementHalf-reactionE°
(volt)		Electrons
transferred		Reference
Oxidant⇌Reductant
Sr + ⇌Sr(s)-4.1011<-- Estimated? -->
Ca + ⇌Ca(s)-3.81<-- Estimated? -->
Th + ⇌-3.61<-- Estimated? OTOH, Greenwood & Earnshaw doesn't appear to cite any sources for this data. OTOH, this spot in the table is blank in the first edition. -->[1]
Pr + ⇌-3.11Estimated
N3(g) + 2 + 2⇌2(aq)-3.092
Li + ⇌Li(s)-3.04011
N(g) + 4 + 2⇌2(aq) + 2-3.042
Cs + ⇌Cs(s)-3.0261
Ca + 2⇌Ca(s) + 2-3.022
Er + ⇌-31
Ba + 2⇌Ba(s) + 2-2.992
Rb + ⇌Rb(s)-2.981
K + ⇌K(s)-2.9311
Ba + 2⇌Ba(s)-2.9122
La(s) + 3⇌La(s) + 3-2.93
Fr + ⇌Fr(s)-2.91
Sr + 2⇌Sr(s)-2.8992
Sr + 2⇌Sr(s) + 2-2.882
Ca + 2⇌Ca(s)-2.8682
Li + (s) + ⇌(s)-2.841
Eu + 2⇌Eu(s)-2.8122
Ra + 2⇌Ra(s)-2.82
Ho + ⇌Ho-2.81
Bk + ⇌-2.81
Yb + 2⇌Yb(s)-2.762
Na + ⇌Na(s)-2.711
Mg + ⇌Mg(s)-2.71
Nd + ⇌-2.71
Mg + 2⇌Mg(s) + 2-2.692
Sm + 2⇌Sm(s)-2.682
Be + 3 + 4⇌2Be(s) + 6-2.634
Pm + ⇌-2.61
Dy + ⇌-2.61
No + 2⇌No-2.52
Hf + + 4⇌Hf(s) + 4-2.54
Th + 4⇌Th(s) + 4-2.484
Md + 2⇌Md-2.42
Tm + 2⇌Tm(s)-2.42
La + 3⇌La(s)-2.3793
Y + 3⇌Y(s)-2.3723
Mg + 2⇌Mg(s)-2.3722
Sc (aq) + 3 + 3 ⇌ Sc(s) + 3HF(aq) -2.37 3 class=noprint
Zr(s) + + 4⇌Zr(s) + 4-2.364
Pr + 3⇌Pr(s)-2.3533
Ce + 3⇌Ce(s)-2.3363
Er + 3⇌Er(s)-2.3313
Ho + 3⇌Ho(s)-2.333
Al + + 3⇌Al(s) + 4-2.333
Nd + 3⇌Nd(s)-2.3233
Tm + 3⇌Tm(s)-2.3193
Al(s) + 3⇌Al(s) + 3-2.313
Sm + 3⇌Sm(s)-2.3043
FmFm + 2⇌Fm-2.32
Am + ⇌-2.31
Dy + 3⇌Dy(s)-2.2953
Lu + 3⇌Lu(s)-2.283
Sc ScF + 2 + 3 ⇌ Sc(s) + 2HF(l) -2.28 3 class=noprint
Tb + 3⇌Tb(s)-2.283
Gd + 3⇌Gd(s)-2.2793
H(g) + 2⇌2-2.232
Es + 2⇌Es(s)-2.232
Pm + 2⇌Pm(s)-2.22
Tm + ⇌Tm-2.21
Dy + 2⇌Dy(s)-2.22
Ac + 3⇌Ac(s)-2.23
Yb + 3⇌Yb(s)-2.193
Cf + 2⇌Cf(s)-2.122
Nd + 2⇌Nd(s)-2.12
Ho + 2⇌Ho(s)-2.12
Sc + 3⇌Sc(s)-2.0773[2]
Al + 3⇌Al(s) + 6-2.0693
Cm + 3⇌Cm(s)-2.043
Pu + 3⇌Pu(s)-2.0313
Pr + 2⇌Pr(s)-22
Er + 2⇌Er(s)-22
Eu + 3⇌Eu(s)-1.9913
Lr + 3⇌Lr-1.963
Cf + 3⇌Cf(s)-1.943
Es + 3⇌Es(s)-1.913
Pa + ⇌-1.91
Am + 2⇌Am(s)-1.92
Th + 4⇌Th(s)-1.8994
Fm + 3⇌Fm-1.893
N (g) + 2(l) + 4 + 2 ⇌ 2 -1.87 2 class=noprint
Np + 3⇌Np(s)-1.8563
Be + 2⇌Be(s)-1.8472
P + ⇌P(s) + 2-1.821
U + 3⇌U(s)-1.7983
Sr + 2⇌Sr(Hg)-1.7932
B + + 3⇌B(s) + 4-1.793
Th + 4 + 4⇌Th(s) + 2-1.7894
Hf + 2 + 4⇌Hf(s) + -1.7244
P + 2 + 3⇌P(s) + 5-1.713
Si + 3 + 4⇌Si(s) + 6-1.6974
Al + 3⇌Al(s)-1.6623
Ti + 2⇌Ti(s)-1.632
Zr(s) + 4 + 4⇌Zr(s) + 2-1.5534
Zr + 4⇌Zr(s)-1.454
Ti + 3⇌Ti(s)-1.373
TiTiO(s) + 2 + 2⇌Ti(s) + -1.312
B B(OH) + 4(l) + 8 ⇌ BH + 8 -1.24 8 class=noprint
Ga GaO(OH) + (l) + 3 ⇌ Ga(s) + 3 -1.22 3 class=noprint
Ti(s) + 2 + 2⇌2TiO(s) + -1.232
Zn + 2⇌Zn(s) + 4-1.1992
Mn + 2⇌Mn(s)-1.1852
Fe + 6 + 2⇌Fe(s) + 6HCN(aq)-1.162
C C(s) + 3(l) + 2 ⇌ (l) + 2 -1.148 2 class=noprint
Cr Cr(CN) + ⇌ Cr(CN) -1.143 1 class=noprint
TeTe(s) + 2⇌-1.1432
V + 2⇌V(s)-1.132
Nb + 3⇌Nb(s)-1.0993
SnSn(s) + 4 + 4⇌(g)-1.074
PoPo(s) + 2⇌-1.0212
Cr [Cr(edta)(H<sub>2</sub>O)]- + ⇌ [Cr(edta)(H<sub>2</sub>O)]2- -0.99 1 class=noprint
P 2(aq) + 2 + 2 ⇌ (aq) + (l) -0.933 2 class=noprint
C CO + 3 + 2 ⇌ HCO + (l) -0.93 2 class=noprint
Ti + 2 + 4⇌Ti(s) + -0.934
Si(quartz) + 4 + 4⇌Si(s) + 2-0.9094
Cr + 2 ⇌ Cr(s) -0.9 2 class=noprint
B(aq) + 3 + 3⇌B(s) + 3-0.893
Fe(s) + 2⇌Fe(s) + 2-0.892
Fe(s) + 3 + 2⇌2(s) + 2-0.862
H2 + 2⇌(g) + 2-0.82772
BiBi(s) + 3 + 3⇌-0.83
Zn + 2⇌Zn(Hg)-0.76282
Zn + 2⇌Zn(s)-0.76182
Ta(s) + 10 + 10⇌2Ta(s) + 5-0.7510
Te 2Te(s) + 2 ⇌ Te -0.74 2 class=noprint
Ni(s) + 2⇌Ni(s) + 2-0.722
Nb (s) + 10 + 10 ⇌ 2Nb(s) + 5(l) -0.7 10 class=noprint
Ag(s) + 2⇌2Ag(s) + (aq)-0.692
Te Te + 4 + 2 ⇌ 2(g) -0.64 2 class=noprint
Sb Sb(OH) + 3 ⇌ Sb(s) + 4 -0.639 3 class=noprint
Au + ⇌Au(s) + 2-0.61
Ta + 3⇌Ta(s)-0.63
PbPbO(s) + + 2⇌Pb(s) + 2-0.5802
Ti2(s) + 2 + 2⇌(s) + -0.562
Ga + 3⇌Ga(s)-0.5493
U + ⇌-0.521
P(aq) + + ⇌P(white) + 2-0.5081
P(aq) + 2 + 2⇌(aq) + -0.4992
Ni(s) + 2 + 2⇌(s) + 2-0.492
Sb Sb(OH) + 2 ⇌ Sb(OH) + 2 -0.465 2 class=noprint
P(aq) + 3 + 3⇌P(red) + 3-0.4543
Bi (s) + 3(l) + 6 ⇌ Bi(s) + 6 -0.452 6 class=noprint
Ta TaF + 7 + 5 ⇌ Ta(s) + 7HF(l) -0.45 5 class=noprint
In + 2 ⇌ -0.444 2 class=noprint
Cu + ⇌Cu(s) + 2-0.441
Fe + 2⇌Fe(s)-0.442
C2(g) + 2 + 2⇌HOOCCOOH(aq)-0.432
Cr + ⇌-0.4071
Cd + 2⇌Cd(s)-0.42
Ti + ⇌ -0.37 1 class=noprint
Cu(s) + + 2⇌2Cu(s) + 2-0.362
Pb(s) + 2⇌Pb(s) + -0.35882
Pb(s) + 2⇌Pb(Hg) + -0.35052
Eu + ⇌-0.351
In + 3⇌In(s)-0.343
Tl + ⇌Tl(s)-0.341
GeGe(s) + 4 + 4⇌(g)-0.294
Co + 2⇌Co(s)-0.282
P(aq) + 2 + 2⇌(aq) + -0.2762
N N2(g) + 8 + 6 ⇌ 2NH -0.27 6 class=noprint
V + ⇌-0.261
Ni + 2⇌Ni(s)-0.2572
S 2HSO + 2 + 2 ⇌ S2O + 2(l) -0.253 2 class=noprint
AsAs(s) + 3 + 3⇌(g)-0.233
N N2(g) + 5 + 4 ⇌ N2H -0.23 4 class=noprint
Ga + ⇌Ga(s)-0.21
AgAgI(s) + ⇌Ag(s) + -0.152241
Ge GeO2(s) + 4 + 4 ⇌ Ge(s) + 2H2O(l) -0.15 4
Mo(s) + 4 + 4⇌Mo(s) + 2-0.154
SiSi(s) + 4 + 4⇌(g)-0.144
Sn + 2⇌Sn(s)-0.132
O(g) + + ⇌(aq)-0.131
In + ⇌ In(s) -0.126 1 class=noprint
Pb + 2⇌Pb(s)-0.1262
W(s) + 4 + 4⇌W(s) + 2-0.124
Ge(s) + 2 + 2⇌GeO(s) + -0.1182
PP(red) + 3 + 3⇌(g)-0.1113
C(g) + 2 + 2⇌HCOOH(aq)-0.112
SeSe(s) + 2 + 2⇌(g)-0.112
C(g) + 2 + 2⇌CO(g) + -0.112
Sn α-SnO(s) + 2 + 2 ⇌ Sn(s) + -0.104 2
Cu + ⇌Cu(s) + 2(aq)-0.11
Nb (s) + 10 + 4 ⇌ 2 + 5(l) -0.1 4 class=noprint
W(aq) + 6 + 6⇌W(s) + 3-0.096
Sn(s) + 2 + 2⇌α-SnO(s) + -0.0882
Fe(s) + 8 + 8⇌3Fe(s) + 4-0.0858
V + + ⇌ + (l) -0.082 1 class=noprint
PP(white) + 3 + 3⇌(g)-0.0633
N (g) + (l) + 6 + 4 ⇌ 2 -0.05 4 class=noprint
Fe + 3⇌Fe(s)-0.043
CHCOOH(aq) + 2 + 2⇌HCHO(aq) + -0.0342
H2 + 2⇌(g)02
AgAgBr(s) + ⇌Ag(s) + 0.071331
S + 2⇌20.082
N(g) + 2 + 6 + 6⇌2(aq)0.0926
HgHgO(s) + + 2⇌Hg(l) + 20.09772
Cu + ⇌ + 2(aq)0.11
Ru + ⇌0.11
N(aq) + 4 + 2⇌2 + 40.112
Mo(aq) + 6 + 6⇌Mo(s) + 40.116
Ge + 4⇌Ge(s)0.124
CC(s) + 4 + 4⇌(g)0.134
CHCHO(aq) + 2 + 2⇌(aq)0.132
SS(s) + 2 + 2⇌(g)0.1442
Sb Sb2O3(s) + 6 + 6 ⇌ 2Sb(s) + 3H2O 0.15 6
Sn + 2⇌0.1512
S + 3 + 2⇌(aq) + 20.1582
Cu + ⇌0.1591
U + ⇌0.1631
S + 4 + 2⇌(aq) + 20.172
Ti + 2 + ⇌ + 0.191
Sb + 2 + 3⇌Sb(s) + 0.23
Fe3(s) + 2 + 2⇌2(s) + 0.222
AgAgCl(s) + ⇌Ag(s) + 0.222331
As(aq) + 3 + 3⇌As(s) + 30.243
Ru(aq) + ⇌(aq)0.2491
Pb (s) + + 2 ⇌ α-(s) + 2 0.254 2 class=noprint
GeGeO(s) + 2 + 2⇌Ge(s) + 0.262
Hg (s) + 2 ⇌ 2Hg(l) + 2 0.27 2 class=noprint
U + 4 + ⇌ + 20.2731
Re + 3⇌Re(s)0.3003
AtAt + ⇌At-0.31
Bi + 3⇌Bi(s)0.3083
C2HCNO + 2 + 2⇌(CN)2 + 20.3302
Cu + 2⇌Cu(s)0.3372
V + 2 + ⇌ + 0.3371
Sb (s) + 2 + 2 ⇌ (s) + (l) 0.342 2 class=noprint
AtAt+ + 2⇌At-0.362
Fe + ⇌0.37041
C(CN)2 + 2 + 2⇌2HCN0.3732
P (aq) + 2 + 2 ⇌ 2 0.38 2 class=noprint
S 2SO2(aq) + 2 + 2 ⇌ S2O + H2O(l) 0.4 2 class=noprint
O(g) + 2 + 4⇌4(aq)0.4014
Mo + 6 + 3⇌ + 40.433
Ru(aq) + 2⇌0.4552[3]
V + 2 + ⇌ + (l) 0.481 1 class=noprint
C(aq) + 2 + 2⇌(g) + 0.52
S(aq) + 4 + 4⇌S(s) + 20.54
S 4(aq) + 4 + 8 ⇌ S4O + 2(l) 0.51 8 class=noprint
Cu + ⇌Cu(s)0.521
CCO(g) + 2 + 2⇌C(s) + 0.522
I + 2⇌30.532
Te (s) + 4 + 4 ⇌ Te(s) + 2(l) 0.53 4 class=noprint
Cu + + ⇌ (s) 0.54 1 class=noprint
I(s) + 2⇌20.542
Au + 3⇌Au(s) + 40.563
As(aq) + 2 + 2⇌(aq) + 0.562
S S2O + 4 + 2 ⇌ 2 0.569 2 class=noprint
Au + ⇌Au(s) + 20.581
Mn + 2 + 3⇌(s) + 40.5953
S + 6 + 4⇌2S(s) + 30.64
Fe + ⇌ Fc(s) 0.63 1 Substantial literature variation
Mo(aq) + 2 + 2⇌(s) + 20.652
N HN3(aq) + 11 + 8 ⇌ 3NH 0.69 8 class=noprint
O(g) + 2 + 2⇌(aq)0.6952
Sb (s) + 4 + 4 ⇌ (s) + 2 0.699 4 class=noprint
C + 2 + 2⇌0.69922
V H2V10O + 24 + 10 ⇌ 10 + 8(l) 0.723 10 class=noprint
Pt + 2⇌ + 20.7262
Fe(s) + 6 + 2⇌2 + 30.7282
Se(aq) + 4 + 4⇌Se(s) + 30.744
AtAtO+ + 2 + 2⇌At+ + 0.742
Tl + 3⇌Tl(s)0.7413
No + ⇌0.751
Pt + 2⇌Pt(s) + 40.7582
Br + (l) + 2 ⇌ + 2 0.76 2 class=noprint
PoPo4+ + 4⇌Po0.764
S(SCN)2 + 2⇌2SCN-0.7692
Fe + ⇌0.7711
Hg + 2⇌2Hg(l)0.79732
Ag + ⇌Ag(s)0.79961
N2(aq) + 4 + 2⇌(g) + 20.8032
Fe2 + 5 + 6⇌(s) + 100.816
Au + 3⇌Au(s) + 40.853
Hg + 2⇌Hg(l)0.852
Ir + ⇌0.871
Mn + + ⇌0.91
PoPo4+ + 2⇌Po2+0.92
Hg2 + 2⇌0.912
Pd + 2⇌Pd(s)0.9152
Au + 3⇌Au(s) + 40.933
N NO + 3 + 2 ⇌ (aq) 0.94 2 class=noprint
Mn(s) + 4 + ⇌ + 20.951
N(aq) + 4 + 3⇌NO(g) + 2(l)0.9583
Au + ⇌Au(s) + 20.961
Fe(s) + 8 + 2⇌3 + 40.982
Xe + 2 + 2⇌ + 40.992
N (aq) + + ⇌ NO(g) + (l) 0.996 1 class=noprint
AtHAtO + + ⇌At + 1.01
V(aq) + 2 + ⇌(aq) + 11[4]
Te(aq) + 2 + 2⇌(s) + 41.022[5]
N NO2(g) + 2 + 2 ⇌ NO(g) + H2O(l) 1.03 2 class=noprint
Br Br + 2 ⇌ 3 1.05 2 class=noprint
Sb (s) + 2 + 2 ⇌ (s) + (l) 1.055 2 class=noprint
I ICl + ⇌ 2 + I(s) 1.06 1 class=noprint
Br(l) + 2⇌21.0662
N (g) + 2 + 2 ⇌ 2 1.07 2 class=noprint
Br(aq) + 2⇌21.08732
Ru + 4 + 2⇌(aq) + 21.1202
Cu + 2 + ⇌1.121
I + 5 + 4⇌HIO(aq) + 21.134
O (aq) + + ⇌ (l) + 1.14 1 class=noprint
Au + ⇌Au(s) + 21.151
Se + 3 + 2⇌(aq) + 1.152
Ag(s) + 2 + 2⇌2Ag(s) + 1.172
Cl + 2 + ⇌(g) + 1.1751
Xe + 5 + 8⇌Xe(g) + 111.188
Pt + 2⇌Pt(s)1.1882
Cl(g) + + ⇌(aq)1.191
I2 + 12 + 10⇌(s) + 61.210
Mn(s) + 4 + 2⇌ + 21.2242
O(g) + 4 + 4⇌21.2294
N N2H + 3 + 2 ⇌ 2NH 1.28 2 class=noprint
Cl + 2 + 2⇌ + 1.232
Ru + ⇌1.241
Xe + 3 + 6⇌Xe(g) + 71.246
N 2NO + 12 + 10 ⇌ (g) + 6(l) 1.25 10 class=noprint
Tl + 2⇌1.252
N 2(aq) + 4 + 4 ⇌ (g) + 3(l) 1.297 4 class=noprint
Cr + 14 + 6⇌2 + 71.386
N + 2 + 2 ⇌ NH + (l) 1.35 2 class=noprint
Cl(g) + 2⇌21.362
Ru(aq) + 8 + 5⇌(aq) + 41.3685
Ru + 4 + 4⇌ + 21.3874
Co(s) + 4 + ⇌ + 21.421
N2 + + 2⇌ + 21.422
I2HIO(aq) + 2 + 2⇌(s) + 21.442
Br + 5 + 4⇌HBrO(aq) + 21.4474
Pb(s) + 4 + 2⇌ + 21.462
Pb(s) + 4 + 2⇌ + 21.4682
Br2 + 12 + 10⇌(l) + 61.4810
AtHAtO3 + 4 + 4⇌HAtO + 21.54
Mn + 8 + 5⇌ + 41.515
O + + ⇌(aq)1.511
Au + 3⇌Au(s)1.523
Ru(aq) + 8 + 4⇌(aq) + 41.5634
N 2NO(g) + 2 + 2 ⇌ (g) + (l) 1.59 2 class=noprint
Ni(s) + 2 + 2⇌ + 21.592
Ce + ⇌1.611
Cl2HClO(aq) + 2 + 2⇌(g) + 21.632
I + 2 + 2⇌ + 1.642
Ag(s) + 6 + 4⇌2 + 31.674
Cl(aq) + 2 + 2⇌HClO(aq) + 1.672
Pb + 2⇌1.692
Mn + 4 + 3⇌(s) + 21.73
Br + 2 + 2⇌ + 1.742
AgAgO(s) + 2 + ⇌ + 1.771
N (g) + 2 + 2 ⇌ (g) + (l) 1.77 2
O(aq) + 2 + 2⇌21.782
Au + ⇌Au(s)1.831
Co + ⇌1.921
Ag + ⇌1.981
O + 2⇌22.012
O(g) + 2 + 2⇌(g) + 2.0752
Mn + 3 + 2⇌(s) + 22.092
Xe(aq) + 6 + 6⇌Xe(g) + 32.126
Xe(aq) + 8 + 8⇌Xe(g) + 62.188
Fe + 8 + 3⇌ + 42.23
Xe(aq) + 2 + 2⇌Xe(g) + 2HF(aq)2.322
O + + ⇌ (l) 2.38 1 class=noprint
Xe(aq) + 2 + 2⇌(aq) + 32.422
F(g) + 2⇌22.872
CmCm4+ + e–⇌Cm3+3.01Estimated
F(g) + 2 + 2⇌2HF(aq)3.0772
TbTb4+ + e–⇌Tb3+3.11Estimated
PrPr4+ + e–⇌Pr3+3.21Estimated
Kr(aq) + 2⇌Kr(g) + 2(aq)3.272Estimated

See also

Notes

  1. Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1263
  2. David R. Lide, ed., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, Internet Version 2005, http://www.hbcpnetbase.com, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2005.
  3. Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1077
  4. .
  5. .

[6]

References

  1. Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1263
  2. David R. Lide, ed., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, Internet Version 2005, http://www.hbcpnetbase.com, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2005.
  3. Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1077
  4. .
  5. .
  6. Not specified in the indicated reference, but assumed due to the difference between the value −0.454 and that computed by (2×(−0.499) + (−0.508))/3 = −0.502, exactly matching the difference between the values for white (−0.063) and red (−0.111) phosphorus in equilibrium with PH3.

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