Effects of climate change on biomes explained

Climate change is already now altering biomes, adversely affecting terrestrial and marine ecosystems.[1] [2] Climate change represents long-term changes in temperature and average weather patterns.[3] [4] This leads to a substantial increase in both the frequency and the intensity of extreme weather events.[5] As a region's climate changes, a change in its flora and fauna follows.[6] For instance, out of 4000 species analyzed by the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, half were found to have shifted their distribution to higher latitudes or elevations in response to climate change.[7]

Furthermore, climate change may cause ecological disruption among interacting species, via changes in behaviour and phenology, or via climate niche mismatch. For example, climate change can cause species to move in different directions, potentially disrupting their interactions with each other.

Examples of effects on some biome types are provided in the following. Research into desertification is complex, and there is no single metric which can define all aspects. However, more intense climate change is still expected to increase the current extent of drylands on the Earth's continents. Most of the expansion will be seen over regions such as "southwest North America, the northern fringe of Africa, southern Africa, and Australia".[8]

Mountains cover approximately 25 percent of the Earth's surface and provide a home to more than one-tenth of the global human population. Changes in global climate pose a number of potential risks to mountain habitats.

Boreal forests, also known as taiga, are warming at a faster rate than the global average, leading to drier conditions in the Taiga, which leads to a whole host of subsequent impacts. Climate change has a direct impact on the productivity of the boreal forest, as well as its health and regeneration.

Almost no other ecosystem is as vulnerable to climate change as coral reefs. Updated 2022 estimates show that even at a global average increase of 1.5C-change over pre-industrial temperatures, only 0.2% of the world's coral reefs would still be able to withstand marine heatwaves, as opposed to 84% being able to do so now, with the figure dropping to 0% at 2C-change warming and beyond.[9] [10]

Terminology and classification

On Earth, biomes are the main constituent parts of the biosphere, defined by a distinctive biological community and a shared regional climate.[11] [12] [13] A single biome would include multiple ecosystems and ecoregions. According to the World Wildlife Fund classification, terrestrial, marine and freshwater environments each consist of hundreds of ecoregions, around a dozen biome types, and a single-digit number of biogeographic regions.[14] [15] [16] [17]

General impacts

The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report concluded that over the last three decades human-induced warming had likely had an influence on many biological systems.[18] [19] [20] The Sixth Assessment Report found that half of all species with long-term data had shifted their ranges poleward (or upward for mountain species). Two-thirds have had their spring events occur earlier. For instance, the range of hundreds of North American birds has shifted northward at an average rate of 1.5 km/year over the past 55 years.[21]

Furthermore, climate change may disrupt the ecology among interacting species, via changes on behaviour and phenology, or via climate niche mismatch.[22] The disruption of species-species associations is a potential consequence of climate-driven movements of each individual species in opposite directions.[23] [24] Climate change may, thus, lead to another extinction, more silent and mostly overlooked: the extinction of species' interactions. As a consequence of the spatial decoupling of species-species associations, ecosystem services derived from biotic interactions are also at risk from climate niche mismatch.

Whole ecosystem disruptions will occur earlier under more intense climate change: under the high-emissions RCP8.5 scenario, ecosystems in the tropical oceans would be the first to experience abrupt disruption before 2030, with tropical forests and polar environments following by 2050. In total, 15% of ecological assemblages would have over 20% of their species abruptly disrupted if as warming eventually reaches 4C-change; in contrast, this would happen to fewer than 2% if the warming were to stay below 2C-change.[25]

Terrestrial biomes

Deserts and drylands

Research into desertification is complex, and there is no single metric which can define all aspects. However, more intense climate change is still expected to increase the current extent of drylands on the Earth's continents: from 38% in late 20th century to 50% or 56% by the end of the century, under the "moderate" and high-warming Representative Concentration Pathways 4.5 and 8.5. Most of the expansion will be seen over regions such as "southwest North America, the northern fringe of Africa, southern Africa, and Australia".

Tundra

Many of the species at risk are Arctic and Antarctic fauna such as polar bears[26] Climate change is also leading to a mismatch between the snow camouflage of arctic animals such as snowshoe hares with the increasingly snow-free landscape.[27]

Mountains

Mountains cover approximately 25 percent of earth's surface and provide a home to more than one-tenth of global human population. Changes in global climate pose a number of potential risks to mountain habitats.[28] Climate change can adversely affect both alpine tundra and montane grasslands and shrublands. It increases the number of extreme events such as the frequency and intensity of forest fires,[29] and accelerates snowmelt, which makes more water available earlier in the year and reduces availability later in the year, while the reduction in snow cover insulation can paradoxically increase cold damage from springtime frost events.[30] [31] It also causes remarkable changes in phenology.[32] [33]

Studies suggest a warmer climate would cause lower-elevation habitats to expand into the higher alpine zone.[34] Such a shift would encroach on rare alpine meadows and other high-altitude habitats. High-elevation plants and animals have limited space available for new habitat as they move higher on the mountains in order to adapt to long-term changes in regional climate. Such uphill shifts of both ranges and abundances have been recorded for various groups of species across the world.[35] In some mountain areas, such as the Himalayas, climate change appears to promote the appearance of various invasive species of shrubs, eventually converting them to shrublands.[36] Changes in precipitation appear to be the most important driver.[37] [38]

Boreal forests

See main article: Taiga. Boreal forests, also known as taiga, are warming at a faster rate than the global average.[39] leading to drier conditions in the Taiga, which leads to a whole host of subsequent issues.[40] Climate change has a direct impact on the productivity of the boreal forest, as well as health and regeneration. As a result of the rapidly changing climate, trees show declines in growth at the southern limit of their range,[41] and are migrating to higher latitudes and altitudes (northward) to remain their climatic habitat, but some species may not be migrating fast enough.[42] [43] [44] The number of days with extremely cold temperatures (e.g., −20 to −40 °C (−4 to −40 °F) has decreased irregularly but systematically in nearly all the boreal region, allowing better survival for tree-damaging insects.[45] The 10-year average of boreal forest burned in North America, after several decades of around 10,000 km2 (2.5 million acres), has increased steadily since 1970 to more than 28,000 km2 (7 million acres) annually.,[46] and records in Canada show increases in wildfire from 1920 to 1999.[47]

Early 2010s research confirmed that since the 1960s, western Canadian boreal forests, and particularly the western coniferous forests,[48] had already suffered substantial tree losses due to drought, and some conifers were getting replaced with aspen. Similarly, the already dry forest areas in central Alaska and far eastern Russia are also experiencing greater drought,[49] placing birch trees under particular stress,[50] while Siberia's needle-shedding larches are replaced with evergreen conifers - a change which also affects the area's albedo (evergreen trees absorb more heat than the snow-covered ground) and acts as a small, yet detectable climate change feedback.[51] At the same time, eastern Canadian forests have been much less affected;[52] [53] yet some research suggests it would also reach a tipping point around 2080, under the RCP 8.5 scenario which represents the largest potential increase in anthropogenic emissions.[54] It has been hypothesized that the boreal environments have only a few states which are stable in the long term - a treeless tundra/steppe, a forest with >75% tree cover and an open woodland with ~20% and ~45% tree cover. Thus, continued climate change would be able to force at least some of the presently existing taiga forests into one of the two woodland states or even into a treeless steppe - but it could also shift tundra areas into woodland or forest states as they warm and become more suitable for tree growth.[55] Consistent with that, a Landsat analysis of 100,000 undisturbed sites found that the areas with low tree cover became greener in response to warming, but areas with a lot of trees got more "brown" as some of them died due to the same.[56]

In Alaska, the growth of white spruce trees is stunted by unusually warm summers, while trees on some of the coldest fringes of the forest are experiencing faster growth than previously.[57] At a certain stage, such shifts could become effectively irreversible, making them tipping points in the climate system, and a major assessment designated both processes - reversion of southern boreal forests to grasslands and the conversion of tundra areas to boreal forest - as separate examples of such, which would likely become unstoppable around 4C-change, though they would still take at least 50 years, if not a century or more. However, the certainty level is still limited; there's an outside possibility that 1.5C-change would be enough to lock in either of the two shifts; on the other hand, reversion to grassland may require 5C-change, and the replacement of tundra 7.2C-change.

Forest expansion is likely to take longer than decline, as juveniles of boreal species are the worst-affected by the climate shifs, while the temperate species capable of replacing them have slower growth rates.[58] Disappearance of forest also causes detectable carbon emissions, while gain acts as a carbon sink: yet the changes in albedo more than outweigh that in terms of climate impact.[59] [60]

Temperate forests

In the western U.S., since 1986, longer, warmer summers have resulted in a fourfold increase in major wildfires and a sixfold increase in the area of forest burned, compared to the period from 1970 to 1986. While fire suppression policies have played a substantial role as well, both healthy and unhealthy forests now face an increased risk of forest fires because of the warming climate.[61] [62]

A 2018 study found that trees grow faster due to increased carbon dioxide levels; however, the trees are also 8–12 percent lighter and denser since 1900. The authors note, "Even though a greater volume of wood is being produced today, it now contains less material than just a few decades ago."[63]

Expansion of beetles that can harm trees

Historically, a few days of extreme cold would kill most mountain pine beetles and keep their outbreaks contained. Since 1998, the lack of severe winters in British Columbia had enabled a devastating pine beetle infestation, which had killed 33 million acres or 135,000 km2 by 2008;[64] [65] a level an order of magnitude larger than any previously recorded outbreak.[66] [67] Such losses can match an average year of forest fires in all of Canada or five years worth of emissions from its transportation.[68]

Climate change and the associated changing weather patterns occurring worldwide have a direct effect on biology, population ecology, and the population of eruptive insects, such as the mountain pine beetle. This is because temperature is a factor which determines insect development and population success.[69] Prior to climatic and temperature changes, the mountain pine beetle predominately lived and attacked lodgepole and ponderosa pine trees at lower elevations, as the higher elevation Rocky Mountains and Cascades were too cold for their survival.[70] Under normal seasonal freezing weather conditions in the lower elevations, the forest ecosystems that pine beetles inhabit are kept in balance by factors such as tree defense mechanisms, beetle defense mechanisms, and freezing temperatures. It is a simple relationship between a host (the forest), an agent (the beetle) and the environment (the weather and temperature).[71] However, as climate change causes mountain areas to become warmer and drier, pine beetles have more power to infest and destroy the forest ecosystems, such as the whitebark pine forests of the Rocky Mountains. Increased temperatures also allow the pine beetle to increase their life cycle by 100%: it only takes a single year instead of two for the pine beetle to develop. As the Rockies have not adapted to deal with pine beetle infestations, they lack the defenses to fight the beetles.

Tropical forests

See main article: Effects of climate change on the tropics.

The Amazon rainforest is the largest tropical rainforest in the world. It is twice as big as India and spans nine countries in South America. This size allows it to produce around half of its own rainfall by recycling moisture through evaporation and transpiration as air moves across the forest;[72] tree losses interfere with that capability, to the point where if enough is lost, much of the rest will likely die off and transform into a dry savanna landscape.[73] For now, deforestation of the Amazon rainforest has been the greatest threat to it, and the main reason why, as of 2022, about 20% of it had been deforested and another 6% "highly degraded".[74] Yet, climate change is also a threat as it exacerbates wildfire and interferes with precipitation. It is considered likely that hitting 3.5C-change of global warming would trigger the collapse of rainforest to savannah over the course of around a century (50-200) years, although it occur at between 2C-change to 6C-change of warming.[59] [60]

Forest fires in Indonesia have dramatically increased since 1997 as well. These fires are often actively started to clear forest for agriculture. They can set fire to the large peat bogs in the region and the CO2 released by these peat bog fires has been estimated, in an average year, to be 15% of the quantity of CO2 produced by fossil fuel combustion.[75] [76]

Research suggests that slow-growing trees are only stimulated in growth for a short period under higher CO2 levels, while faster growing plants like liana benefit in the long term. In general, but especially in rainforests, this means that liana become the prevalent species; and because they decompose much faster than trees their carbon content is more quickly returned to the atmosphere. Slow growing trees incorporate atmospheric carbon for decades.[77]

Freshwater biomes

Lakes

Warmer-than-ideal conditions result in higher metabolism and consequent reductions in body size despite increased foraging, which in turn elevates the risk of predation. Indeed, even a slight increase in temperature during development impairs growth efficiency and survival rate in rainbow trout.[78]

Rivers

Many species of freshwater and saltwater plants and animals are dependent on glacier-fed waters to ensure a cold water habitat that they have adapted to. Some species of freshwater fish need cold water to survive and to reproduce, and this is especially true with salmon and cutthroat trout. Reduced glacier runoff can lead to insufficient stream flow to allow these species to thrive. Ocean krill, a cornerstone species, prefer cold water and are the primary food source for aquatic mammals such as the blue whale.[79]

In general, freshwater bodies such as streams can be strongly affected by heatwaves. However, the impact could vary strongly depending on the presence or absence of predators in the stream community. In their absence, the impacts are much more severe and the local extinction of most species could occur, homogenizing the community.[80] Species of fish living in cold or cool water can see a reduction in population of up to 50% in the majority of U.S. freshwater streams, according to most climate change models.[81] The increase in metabolic demands due to higher water temperatures, in combination with decreasing amounts of food will be the main contributors to their decline. Additionally, many fish species (such as salmon) use seasonal water levels of streams as a means of reproducing, typically breeding when water flow is high and migrating to the ocean after spawning. Because snowfall is expected to be reduced due to climate change, water runoff is expected to decrease which leads to lower flowing streams, affecting the spawning of millions of salmon. To add to this, rising seas will begin to flood coastal river systems, converting them from fresh water habitats to saline environments where indigenous species will likely perish. In southeast Alaska, the sea rises by 3.96 cm/year, redepositing sediment in various river channels and bringing salt water inland. This rise in sea level not only contaminates streams and rivers with saline water, but also the reservoirs they are connected to, where species such as sockeye salmon live. Although this species of Salmon can survive in both salt and fresh water, the loss of a body of fresh water stops them from reproducing in the spring, as the spawning process requires fresh water.

Marine biomes

Polar waters

In the Arctic, the waters of Hudson Bay are ice-free for three weeks longer than they were thirty years ago, affecting polar bears, which prefer to hunt on sea ice.[82] Species that rely on cold weather conditions such as gyrfalcons, and snowy owls that prey on lemmings that use the cold winter to their advantage may be negatively affected.[83] [84]

Coral reefs

See also

Notes and References

  1. Web site: IPCC Special Report on Climate Change, Desertification, Land Degradation, Sustainable Land Management, Food Security, and Greenhouse gas fluxes in Terrestrial Ecosystems:Summary for Policymakers .
  2. Web site: Summary for Policymakers — Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate . 2019-12-23.
  3. Web site: 28 March 2019 . Climate Change . 1 November 2021 . National Geographic.
  4. News: Witze . Alexandra . Why extreme rains are gaining strength as the climate warms . Nature . 30 July 2021.
  5. Book: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Working Group I contribution to the WGI Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . 9 August 2021 . Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . SPM-23; Fig. SPM.6 . Summary for Policymakers . https://web.archive.org/web/20211104175351/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM_final.pdf . 4 November 2021 . live.
  6. Van der Putten . Wim H. . Macel . Mirka . Visser . Marcel E. . 2010-07-12 . Predicting species distribution and abundance responses to climate change: why it is essential to include biotic interactions across trophic levels . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences . 365 . 1549 . 2025–2034 . 10.1098/rstb.2010.0037 . 2880132 . 20513711.
  7. Parmesan, C., M.D. Morecroft, Y. Trisurat, R. Adrian, G.Z. Anshari, A. Arneth, Q. Gao, P. Gonzalez, R. Harris, J. Price, N. Stevens, and G.H. Talukdarr, 2022: Chapter 2: Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and Their Services. In Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke,V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 257-260 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.004
  8. Web site: 2019-08-06 . Explainer: Desertification and the role of climate change . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20220210001559/https://www.carbonbrief.org/explainer-desertification-and-the-role-of-climate-change . 2022-02-10 . 2019-10-22 . Carbon Brief . en.
  9. Dixon . Adele M. . Forster . Piers M. . Heron . Scott F. . Stoner . Anne M. K. . Beger . Maria . 1 February 2022 . Future loss of local-scale thermal refugia in coral reef ecosystems . PLOS Climate . en . 1 . 2 . e0000004 . 10.1371/journal.pclm.0000004 . 246512448 . free.
  10. Web site: Dunne . Daisy . 1 February 2022 . Last refuges for coral reefs to disappear above 1.5C of global warming, study finds . Carbon Brief.
  11. Web site: The world's biomes . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20081204035155/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/biomes/index.php . 2008-12-04 . 2008-11-25 . www.ucmp.berkeley.edu.
  12. Book: Cain . Michael . Ecology . Bowman . William . Hacker . Sally . Sinauer . 2014 . 9780878939084 . Third . Massachusetts . 51.
  13. Book: Bowman . William D. . Ecology . Hacker . Sally D. . . 2021 . 978-1605359212 . 5th . H3–1–51 . English.
  14. Olson, D. M. & E. Dinerstein (1998). The Global 200: A representation approach to conserving the Earth's most biologically valuable ecoregions. Conservation Biol. 12:502–515, http://planet.uwc.ac.za/nisl/Biodiversity/pdf/OlsonDinerstein1998.pdf .
  15. Olson, D. M., Dinerstein, E., Wikramanayake, E. D., Burgess, N. D., Powell, G. V. N., Underwood, E. C., D'Amico, J. A., Itoua, I., Strand, H. E., Morrison, J. C., Loucks, C. J., Allnutt, T. F., Ricketts, T. H., Kura, Y., Lamoreux, J. F., Wettengel, W. W., Hedao, P., Kassem, K. R. (2001). Terrestrial ecoregions of the world: a new map of life on Earth. Bioscience 51(11):933–938, http://wolfweb.unr.edu/~ldyer/classes/396/olsonetal.pdf .
  16. Abell, R., M. Thieme, C. Revenga, M. Bryer, M. Kottelat, N. Bogutskaya, B. Coad, N. Mandrak, S. Contreras-Balderas, W. Bussing, M. L. J. Stiassny, P. Skelton, G. R. Allen, P. Unmack, A. Naseka, R. Ng, N. Sindorf, J. Robertson, E. Armijo, J. Higgins, T. J. Heibel, E. Wikramanayake, D. Olson, H. L. Lopez, R. E. d. Reis, J. G. Lundberg, M. H. Sabaj Perez, and P. Petry. (2008). Freshwater ecoregions of the world: A new map of biogeographic units for freshwater biodiversity conservation. BioScience 58:403–414, http://www.feow.org/downloads/Abell_et_al_08_BioScience.pdf .
  17. Spalding, M. D. et al. (2007). Marine ecoregions of the world: a bioregionalization of coastal and shelf areas. BioScience 57: 573–583, http://algae.thu.edu.tw/lab/2013_Meeting_FebJune/2007_Marine_ecoregions_of_the_world.pdf .
  18. Assessment of observed changes and responses in natural and managed systems . 10.5167/uzh-33180 . 2007 . Rosenzweig . C. . Casassa . G. . Karoly . D. J. . Imeson . A. . Liu . C. . Menzel . A. . Rawlins . S. . Root . T. L. . Seguin . B. . Tryjanowski . P. . 79–131 . Cambridge University Press .
  19. Root . T. L. . MacMynowski . D. P . Mastrandrea . M. D. . Schneider . S. H. . Human-modified temperatures induce species changes: Joint attribution . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 17 May 2005 . 102 . 21 . 7465–7469 . 10.1073/pnas.0502286102 . 15899975 . 1129055 . free .
  20. Web site: Assessing Key Vulnerabilities and the Risk from Climate Change . 2007 . AR4 Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability .
  21. Martins . Paulo Mateus . Anderson . Marti J. . Sweatman . Winston L. . Punnett . Andrew J. . 2024-04-09 . Significant shifts in latitudinal optima of North American birds . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . en . 121 . 15 . e2307525121 . 10.1073/pnas.2307525121 . 38557189 . 11009622 . October 1, 2024 . 0027-8424.
  22. Sales. L. P.. Culot. L.. Pires. M.. July 2020. Climate niche mismatch and the collapse of primate seed dispersal services in the Amazon. Biological Conservation. 247. 9. 108628. 10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108628. 2020BCons.24708628S . 219764670 .
  23. Malhi . Yadvinder . Franklin . Janet . Seddon . Nathalie . Solan . Martin . Turner . Monica G. . Field . Christopher B. . Knowlton . Nancy . 2020-01-27 . Climate change and ecosystems: threats, opportunities and solutions . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences . 375 . 1794 . 20190104 . 10.1098/rstb.2019.0104 . 31983329 . 7017779 . 0962-8436.
  24. Sales. L. P.. Rodrigues. L.. Masiero. R.. November 2020. Climate change drives spatial mismatch and threatens the biotic interactions of the Brazil nut. Global Ecology and Biogeography. 30. 1. 117–127. 10.1111/geb.13200. 228875365 .
  25. Trisos . Christopher H. . Merow . Cory . Pigot . Alex L. . The projected timing of abrupt ecological disruption from climate change . Nature . 8 April 2020 . 580 . 7804 . 496–501 . 10.1038/s41586-020-2189-9 . 32322063 . 2020Natur.580..496T . 256822113 . free .
  26. Amstrup . Steven C. . Stirling . Ian . Smith . Tom S. . Perham . Craig . Thiemann . Gregory W. . 27 April 2006 . Recent observations of intraspecific predation and cannibalism among polar bears in the southern Beaufort Sea . Polar Biology . 29 . 11 . 997–1002 . 2006PoBio..29..997A . 10.1007/s00300-006-0142-5 . 34780227.
  27. Mills . L. Scott . Zimova . Marketa . Oyler . Jared . Running . Steven . Abatzoglou . John T. . Lukacs . Paul M. . 15 April 2013 . Camouflage mismatch in seasonal coat color due to decreased snow duration . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 110 . 18 . 7360–7365 . 2013PNAS..110.7360M . 10.1073/pnas.1222724110 . 3645584 . 23589881 . free.
  28. Nogués-Bravoa D. . Araújoc M.B. . Erread M.P. . Martínez-Ricad J.P. . Exposure of global mountain systems to climate warming during the 21st Century . Global Environmental Change . 17 . 3–4 . 420–8 . August–October 2007 . 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.11.007 .
  29. Alatalo. Juha M.. Impacts of different climate change regimes and extreme climatic events on an alpine meadow community. Jägerbrand. Annika K.. Molau. Ulf. Scientific Reports. 2016. 6. 21720. 10.1038/srep21720. 26888225. 4757884 . 2016NatSR...621720A. en. free.
  30. Forrest. Jessica. Inouye. David W.. Thomson. James D.. February 2010. Flowering phenology in subalpine meadows: Does climate variation influence community co-flowering patterns?. Ecology. 91. 2. 431–440. 10.1890/09-0099.1. 20392008. 2010Ecol...91..431F . 0012-9658.
  31. Sherwood. J. A.. Debinski. D. M.. Caragea. P. C.. Germino. M. J.. March 2017. Effects of experimentally reduced snowpack and passive warming on montane meadow plant phenology and floral resources. Ecosphere. 8. 3. e01745. 10.1002/ecs2.1745. 2150-8925. free. 2017Ecosp...8E1745S .
  32. Jia. Peng. Bayaerta. Twenke . Li. Xiangqian. Du. Guozhen. 1 November 2011. Relationships between Flowering Phenology and Functional Traits in Eastern Tibet Alpine Meadow. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research. 43. 4 . 585–592. 10.1657/1938-4246-43.4.585. 2011AAAR...43..585J . 86269564. 1523-0430. free.
  33. Theobald. Elli J.. Breckheimer. Ian. HilleRisLambers. Janneke. 2017-10-11 . Climate drives phenological reassembly of a mountain wildflower meadow community. Ecology. 98. 11 . 2799–2812. 10.1002/ecy.1996. 29023677. 0012-9658. free. 2017Ecol...98.2799T .
  34. http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/effects/downloads/potential_effects.pdf The Potential Effects Of Global Climate Change On The United States
  35. Chen . I-Ching . Hill . Jane K. . Ohlemüller . Ralf . Roy . David B. . Thomas . Chris D. . 2011-08-19 . Rapid Range Shifts of Species Associated with High Levels of Climate Warming . Science . en . 333 . 6045 . 1024–1026 . 2011Sci...333.1024C . 10.1126/science.1206432 . 0036-8075 . 21852500 . 206534331.
  36. Brandt . Jodi S. . Haynes . Michelle A. . Kuemmerle . Tobias . Waller . Donald M. . Radeloff . Volker C. . February 2013 . Regime shift on the roof of the world: Alpine meadows converting to shrublands in the southern Himalayas . Biological Conservation . 158 . 116–127 . 2013BCons.158..116B . 10.1016/j.biocon.2012.07.026 . 0006-3207.
  37. Debinski . Diane M. . Wickham . Hadley . Kindscher . Kelly . Caruthers . Jennet C. . Germino . Matthew . 2010 . Montane meadow change during drought varies with background hydrologic regime and plant functional group . Ecology . 91 . 6 . 1672–1681 . 2010Ecol...91.1672D . 10.1890/09-0567.1 . 0012-9658 . 20583709 . free . 1808/16593.
  38. Web site: Natural England, UK . Climate Change Adaption Manual – Lowland meadow . 10 May 2020 . Publications Natural England.
  39. Web site: 2018. SPECIAL REPORT: GLOBAL WARMING OF 1.5 °C; Chapter 3: Impacts of 1.5°C global warming on natural and human systems. live. ilcc.ch. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. https://web.archive.org/web/20190305235004/https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/chapter/chapter-3/ . 2019-03-05 .
  40. Hogg. E.H.. P.Y. Bernier. 2005. Climate change impacts on drought-prone forests in western Canada. Forestry Chronicle. 81. 5. 675–682. 10.5558/tfc81675-5. free.
  41. Reich. P.B.. J. Oleksyn. 2008. Climate warming will reduce growth and survival of Scots pine except in the far north. Ecology Letters. 11. 6. 588–597. 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2008.01172.x . 18363717. 2008EcolL..11..588R .
  42. Jump. A.S.. J. Peñuelas. 2005. Running to stand still: Adaptation and the response of plants to rapid climate change. Ecology Letters. 8. 9. 1010–1020 . 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00796.x. 34517682 . 2005EcolL...8.1010J .
  43. Aiken. S.N.. S. Yeaman. J.A. Holliday. W. TongLi. S. Curtis- McLane. 2008 . Adaptation, migration or extirpation: Climate change outcomes for tree populations. Evolutionary Applications. 1. 1. 95–111 . 10.1111/j.1752-4571.2007.00013.x. 25567494. 3352395. 2008EvApp...1...95A .
  44. McLane. S.C. . S.N. Aiken. 2012. Whiteback pine (Pinus albicaulis) assisted migration potential: testing establishment north of the species range. Ecological Applications. 22. 1. 142–153 . 10.1890/11-0329.1. 22471080. 2012EcoAp..22..142M .
  45. Forest disturbances under climate change . Nature . 7 . 6 . 395–402 . 2017-05-31. 10.1038/nclimate3303 . 28861124 . 5572641 . Seidl . Rupert . Thom . Dominik . Kautz . Markus . Martin-Benito . Dario . Peltoniemi . Mikko . Vacchiano . Giorgio . Wild . Jan . Ascoli . Davide . Petr . Michal . Honkaniemi . Juha . Lexer . Manfred J. . Trotsiuk . Volodymyr . Mairota . Paola . Svoboda . Miroslav . Fabrika . Marek . Nagel . Thomas A. . Reyer . Christopher P. O. . 2017NatCC...7..395S .
  46. http://www.usgcrp.gov/usgcrp/nacc/education/alaska/ak-edu-5.htm US National Assessment of the Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change
  47. Running SW . Climate change. Is Global Warming causing More, Larger Wildfires? . Science . 313 . 5789 . 927–8 . August 2006 . 16825534 . 10.1126/science.1130370 . 129348626 . free .
  48. Chen . Han Y. H. . Luo . Yong . 2 July 2015 . Net aboveground biomass declines of four major forest types with forest ageing and climate change in western Canada's boreal forests . Global Change Biology . en . 21 . 10 . 3675–3684 . 10.1111/gcb.12994 . 26136379 . 2015GCBio..21.3675C . 25403205 .
  49. Web site: Boreal Forests and Climate Change - Changes in Climate Parameters and Some Responses, Effects of Warming on Tree Growth on Productive Sites . 2011-03-25 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110727080310/http://www.libraryindex.com/pages/3196/Boreal-Forests-Climate-Change.html . 2011-07-27 .
  50. Morello . Lauren . Forest Changes in Alaska Reveal Changing Climate . Scientific American . 2012-01-14.
  51. Russian boreal forests undergoing vegetation change, study shows . Global Change Biology . 17 . 7 . 2370–84 . 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02417.x . 2011-03-25 . 2012-01-14. 2011GCBio..17.2370S . Shuman . Jacquelyn Kremper . Shugart . Herman Henry . O'Halloran . Thomas Liam . 86357569 .
  52. Peng . Changhui . Ma . Zhihai . Lei . Xiangdong . Zhu . Qiuan . Chen . Huai . Wang . Weifeng . Liu . Shirong . Li . Weizhong . Fang . Xiuqin . Zhou . Xiaolu . 20 November 2011 . A drought-induced pervasive increase in tree mortality across Canada's boreal forests . Nature Climate Change . en . 1 . 9 . 467–471 . 10.1038/nclimate1293 . 2011NatCC...1..467P .
  53. Ma . Zhihai . Peng . Changhui . Zhu . Qiuan . Chen . Huai . Yu . Guirui . Li . Weizhong . Zhou . Xiaolu . Wang . Weifeng . Zhang . Wenhua . 30 January 2012 . Regional drought-induced reduction in the biomass carbon sink of Canada's boreal forests . Biological Sciences . en . 109 . 7 . 2423–2427 . 10.1073/pnas.1111576109 . 22308340 . 3289349 . 2012PNAS..109.2423M . free .
  54. Boulanger . Yan . Puigdevall . Jesus Pascual . 3 April 2021 . Boreal forests will be more severely affected by projected anthropogenic climate forcing than mixedwood and northern hardwood forests in eastern Canada . Landscape Ecology . en . 36 . 6 . 1725–1740 . 10.1007/s10980-021-01241-7 . 2021LaEco..36.1725B . 226959320 .
  55. Scheffer . Marten . Hirota . Marina . Holmgren . Milena . Milena Holmgren . Van Nes . Egbert H. . Chapin . F. Stuart . 26 December 2012 . Thresholds for boreal biome transitions . . 109 . 52 . 21384–21389 . 2012PNAS..10921384S . 10.1073/pnas.1219844110 . 0027-8424 . 3535627 . 23236159 . free.
  56. Berner . Logan T. . Goetz . Scott J. . 24 February 2022 . Satellite observations document trends consistent with a boreal forest biome shift . Global Change Biology . en . 28 . 10 . 3846–3858 . 10.1111/gcb.16121 . 35199413 . 9303657 .
  57. Web site: Fairbanks Daily News-Miner – New study states boreal forests shifting as Alaska warms . Newsminer.com . 2012-01-14 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120119115807/https://www.newsminer.com/view/full_story/12094427/article-New-study-states-boreal-forests-shifting-as-Alaska-warms . 2012-01-19 .
  58. Reich . Peter B. . Bermudez . Raimundo . Montgomery . Rebecca A. . Rich . Roy L. . Rice . Karen E. . Hobbie . Sarah E. . Stefanski . Artur . 10 August 2022 . Even modest climate change may lead to major transitions in boreal forests . Nature . en . 608 . 7923 . 540–545 . 10.1038/s41586-022-05076-3 . 35948640 . 2022Natur.608..540R . 251494296 .
  59. Armstrong McKay . David. Abrams . Jesse . Winkelmann . Ricarda . Sakschewski . Boris . Loriani . Sina . Fetzer . Ingo. Cornell. Sarah . Rockström . Johan . Staal . Arie . Lenton . Timothy . 9 September 2022 . Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points . Science . en . 377 . 6611 . eabn7950 . 10.1126/science.abn7950 . 36074831 . 10871/131584 . 252161375 . 0036-8075. free .
  60. Web site: Armstrong McKay . David . 9 September 2022 . Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points – paper explainer . 2 October 2022 . climatetippingpoints.info . en.
  61. Heidari. Hadi. Arabi. Mazdak. Warziniack. Travis. August 2021. Effects of Climate Change on Natural-Caused Fire Activity in Western U.S. National Forests. Atmosphere. en. 12. 8. 981. 10.3390/atmos12080981. 2021Atmos..12..981H . free.
  62. Heidari. Hadi. Warziniack. Travis. Brown. Thomas C.. Arabi. Mazdak. February 2021. Impacts of Climate Change on Hydroclimatic Conditions of U.S. National Forests and Grasslands. Forests. en. 12. 2. 139. 10.3390/f12020139. free.
  63. Web site: Trees and climate change: Faster growth, lighter wood. 2018. ScienceDaily.
  64. Web site: Natural Resources Canada . https://web.archive.org/web/20100613003653/http://mpb.cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/index_e.html . 2010-06-13 . 2010-03-11.
  65. News: Robbins . Jim . 17 November 2008 . Bark Beetles Kill Millions of Acres of Trees in West . The New York Times.
  66. Kurz . W. A. . Dymond . C. C. . Stinson . G. . Rampley . G. J. . Neilson . E. T. . Carroll . A. L. . Ebata . T. . Safranyik . L. . April 2008 . Mountain pine beetle and forest carbon feedback to climate change . Nature . 452 . 7190 . 987–990 . 2008Natur.452..987K . 10.1038/nature06777 . 18432244 . 205212545.
  67. Cudmore TJ . Björklund N . Carrollbbb, AL . Lindgren BS. . 2010 . Climate change and range expansion of an aggressive bark beetle: evidence of higher reproductive success in naïve host tree populations . Journal of Applied Ecology . 47 . 5 . 1036–43 . 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01848.x.
  68. News: April 25, 2008 . Pine Forests Destroyed by Beetle Takeover . NPR.
  69. Sambaraju . Kishan R. . Carroll . Allan L. . Zhu . Jun . Stahl . Kerstin . Moore . R. Dan . Aukema . Brian H. . 3 . 2012 . Climate change could alter the distribution of mountain pine beetle outbreaks in western Canada . Ecography . 35 . 3 . 211–223 . 10.1111/j.1600-0587.2011.06847.x. 2012Ecogr..35..211S .
  70. Kurz . W. . April 2008 . Mountain pine beetle and forest carbon feedback to climate change . Nature . 452 . 7190 . 987–990 . 2008Natur.452..987K . 10.1038/nature06777 . 18432244 . 205212545.
  71. Book: Epstein, P. . Changing Planet, changing health . Ferber, D. . University of California Press . 2011 . 978-0-520-26909-5 . Los Angeles, California . 138–160.
  72. Web site: 10 February 2020 . Explainer: Nine "tipping points" that could be triggered by climate change . 16 July 2022 . Carbon Brief.
  73. Amigo . Ignacio . 2020 . When will the Amazon hit a tipping point? . Nature . 578 . 7796 . 505–507 . 10.1038/d41586-020-00508-4. 32099130 . 2020Natur.578..505A . 211265824 . free .
  74. Web site: Amazon Against the Clock: A Regional Assessment on Where and How to Protect 80% by 2025 . Amazon Watch . https://web.archive.org/web/20220910025229/https://amazonwatch.org/assets/files/2022-amazonia-against-the-clock-executive-summary.pdf . 10 September 2022 . 8 . September 2022 . Graphic 2: Current State of the Amazon by country, by percentage / Source: RAISG (Red Amazónica de Información Socioambiental Georreferenciada) Elaborated by authors. . live .
  75. BBC News: Asian peat fires add to warming
  76. Web site: When bogs burn, the environment takes a hit. Hamers. Laurel. 2019-07-29. Science News. en. 2019-08-15.
  77. https://web.archive.org/web/20110927151444/http://pages.unibas.ch/botschoen/scc/index.shtml Swiss Canopy Crane Project
  78. Biro . P. A. . Post . J. R. . Booth . D. J. . Mechanisms for climate-induced mortality of fish populations in whole-lake experiments . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 29 May 2007 . 104 . 23 . 9715–9719 . 10.1073/pnas.0701638104 . 17535908 . 1887605 . 2007PNAS..104.9715B . free .
  79. News: Lovell. Jeremy. 2002-09-09. Warming Could End Antarctic Species. CBS News. 2008-01-02.
  80. Ross . Samuel R. P.-J. . García Molinos . Jorge . Okuda . Atsushi . Johnstone . Jackson . Atsumi . Keisuke . Futamura . Ryo . Williams . Maureen A. . Matsuoka . Yuichi . Uchida . Jiro . Kumikawa . Shoji . Sugiyama . Hiroshi . January 2022 . Predators mitigate the destabilising effects of heatwaves on multitrophic stream communities . Global Change Biology . en . 28 . 2 . 403–416 . 10.1111/gcb.15956 . 34689388 . 239766523 . 1354-1013.
  81. Bryant . M. D. . Global climate change and potential effects on Pacific salmonids in freshwater ecosystems of southeast Alaska . Climatic Change . 14 January 2009 . 95 . 1–2 . 169–193 . 10.1007/s10584-008-9530-x . 2009ClCh...95..169B . 14764515 .
  82. http://www.lrb.co.uk/v27/n01/byer01_.html On Thinning Ice
  83. Web site: International Species Action Plan for the Gyrfalcon Falco rusticolis . BirdLife International . 1999 . Pertti Koskimies (compiler) . 2007-12-28 .
  84. Web site: Snowy Owl . University of Alaska . 2006 . 2007-12-28 . 2008-09-10 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080910214043/http://aknhp.uaa.alaska.edu/zoology/species_ADFG/ADFG_PDFs/Birds/Snowy%20Owl_ADFG_final_2006.pdf . dead .

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Effects of climate change on biomes".

Except where otherwise indicated, Everything.Explained.Today is © Copyright 2009-2024, A B Cryer, All Rights Reserved. Cookie policy.