Durio graveolens explained

Image Alt:Fruit and leaves of D. graveolens
Serving Size:100 g
Kcal:152
Fiber:21.5 g
Fat:6.2 g
Satfat:1.9 g
Transfat:0.9 g
Monofat:2.5 g
Polyfat:1.8 g
Omega6fat:1.8 g
Protein:2.6 g
Water:66.7%
Cholesterol:0 mg
Vitc Mg:10.4
Calcium Mg:10
Copper Mg:0.7
Iron Mg:0.6
Magnesium Mg:27
Manganese Mg:0.4
Phosphorus Mg:43
Potassium Mg:529
Zinc Mg:0.59
Source:(Hoe & Siong 1999)[1] (Nasaruddin, Noor, & Mamat 2013)[2]

Durio graveolens, sometimes called the red-fleshed durian, orange-fleshed durian, or yellow durian,[3] is a species of tree in the family Malvaceae.[4] It is one of six species of durian named by Italian naturalist Odoardo Beccari.[5] The specific epithet Latin: graveolens ('strong smelling' or 'rank')[6] is due to the odor. Although most species of Durio (most notably Durio dulcis) have a strong scent, the red-fleshed type of D. graveolens has a mild scent.[7] It is native to Southeast Asia.

D. graveolens is an edible durian, perhaps the most popular 'wild' species of durian, and it is sold commercially regionally.[8] However, its congener Durio zibethinus is the typical species eaten and dominates sales worldwide.

Names

This species should not be confused with the popular durian clones from Malaysia known as 'Red Flesh' (D164) and 'Red Prawn' (D175), as both of those belong to D. zibethinus.[9]

However, D. graveolens does have one registered variety, 'DQ2 nyekak (DK8)'. The color of the fruit's flesh denotes other varieties–an orange-fleshed, a red-fleshed one, and yellow-fleshed. These varieties may be different species, but currently there is no consensus. The yellow-fleshed kind is sometimes called durian simpor.

In the scientific name Durio graveolens, graveolens means 'strong smelling',[10] [6] although it has been described as having a "mild"[7] or "slight"[11] odor or even, in a book published by the US National Research Council, as "odorless".[11]

In Malay, the fruit is called Malay: durian burong, Malay: durian burung[12] (literally "bird durian"), Malay: durian rimba ("jungle durian"), Malay: durian kuning ("yellow durian"), Malay: durian merah ("red durian"),[13] or Malay: durian otak udang galah ("crayfish brain durian"). In Iban, it is Iban: durian isu. The Bidayuh call it durian umot. Among the Kenyah and Dayak peoples, it is known as durian anggang ("hornbill durian"), durian ajan, pesang, tabela or ta-bela, tabelak, taula, tuala, tuwala. On Sumatra, the Batak call it tinambela. In Karo, it is called meraan.[14] In Thailand, it is referred to as (Thai: ทุเรียนรากขา) or (Thai: ทุเรียนขั้วติด; sources differ on which name refers to this species, with the other being attributed to D. kutejensis).[15] [16] In Aceh Tamiang Regency, it can be called durian batu ("stone durian"), and elsewhere in Sumatra, it known as durian adjan. Other regional names include durian dalit (but this can apply also to Durio oxleyanus[17]) alau, dujen, durian alau, durian daun dungoh, durian hutan ("forest durian"), durian pipit, lai bengang, merang kunyit, pasang, and tongkai.

A natural hybrid of D. graveolens and D. zibethinus is called durian siunggong or durian suluk. It has the texture and flavour of the popular D. zibethinus and the burnt caramel overtones of D. graveolens.

After its initial description in 1889 by Odoardo Beccari, in 1924, Dutch botanist Reinier Cornelis Bakhuizen Van Den Brink reduced it to a synonym of D. conicus. British botanist John Wyatt-Smith combined it all under D. dulcis in 1953. Indonesian botanists André Joseph Guillaume Henri Kostermans and Wertit Soegeng-Reksodihardjo separated D. graveolens back to its own species in 1958.[18]

Distribution

Wild D. graveolens grows in Peninsular Malaysia (states of Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Malacca, Penang, Perak, Selangor, and Terengganu), Indonesian Islands of Borneo and Sumatra, Palawan, and Southern Thailand. It is cultivated in Brunei, Sarawak, Sabah, and the Northern Territory of Australia. In Brunei, its popularity outshines D. zibethinus, which is not cultivated in the country.[19]

It is occasionally grown outside the tropics. In Florida, it has been seen to survive two consecutive nights at, albeit shrouded in cloth.[20]

Description

D. graveolens is a large tree, sharing many features with D. dulcis. It inhabits the upper canopy, growing up to 50m (160feet) tall. The trunk is 85cm-100cmcm (33inches-00inchescm) in diameter and can have no branches until about 25m (82feet) high. The trunk will be smooth or flaky, grey/mauve to ruddy brown with steep buttress roots. The buttresses reach 3m (10feet) and extend out 1.5m (04.9feet).

The oblong leaves are 10cm-26cmcm (00inches-10inchescm) long without the petiole (leaf stalk), and 4cm-10cmcm (02inches-00inchescm) wide. They are perfectly rounded on both ends, rigid, and slightly coriaceous (leather-like in feel or texture). On the top, they are glabrous (smooth and hairless) and crisp, almost vernicose (varnished). Underneath, the leaves are copper-brown and lepidote (scaly), with large scales of up to 2mm in diameter, which are not very noticeable, at least when dry. The leaf scales are peltate (shield-shaped), ciliate-radiated (fringed), and deeply-lobed in three to five parts. In addition to the scales, long strands of stellate hairs and other trichomes of varying size form a soft tomentose (fuzzy) surface. The leaf midrib is very prominent on the underside and forms a crease on top. The leaf stipules are caducous (drop early). Leaves have 10-12 lateral veins per side (with some smaller ones intermixed), which are tiny and superficial above and more distinct, but still barely visible. The petiole is very large, 15mm18mm long, and tumescent (swollen) from the middle up.

Flowers grow on the branches on short cymes and a thin calyx. The base is sac-like with three to five connate lobes. It has white, spatulate (spoon-shaped) petals that are 25- long. Inside are five separate bundles of staminodes and stamens, fused for less than half of their length. The anther has small clusters of four or five elongated pollen locules that open with longitudinal slits. Ovaries are ovoid to globose (roughly spherical) and possess a yellow capitate (shaped like a pinhead) stigma and white to greenish style about 48mm. The pollen is psilate (relatively smooth), spheroidal, and 54μm in diameter.[21] The surface of the pollen includes three colporate apertures, meaning the apertures have a combined colpus (or furrow) and pore. The pollen grains are monad and do not cluster.

The fruits are up to 10cm-15cmcm (00inches-06inchescm) in diameter, and weigh about .[22] The greenish- to orange-yellow outside is densely covered with long (1cm (00inches)) and thin angular-subulate spines which are straight or slightly curved, and prickly yet slightly soft. The fruit easily breaks into five fibrous-coriaceous valves (sections) with 5- thick walls. Typically the fruit opens on the tree, but some varieties do not until they are on the ground or harvested. There are 2 bulbous or chestnut-shaped seeds per section, each completely enveloped by fleshy aril. These glossy brown seeds are 2cm×4cmcm (01inches×02inchescm). The pungent aril is the part consumed as food, though some sources note the odor is sometimes very mild.[23] It ranges in color from light yellow to orange to lipstick red.

Taxonomy

D. graveolens is in the core clade Palatadurio of the genus Durio.[24] It is most closely related to Durio kutejensis.

Ecology

See also: List of durian diseases and pests. D. graveolens is a tropical plant species that needs high heat and humidity. Typically, it is found on clay-rich soils in wet lowland dipterocarp forests, frequently along riverbanks and swamps. Because of its tolerance for wet habitats, it is possibly resistant to infection by the oomycete Phytophthora palmivora. It can also be found on hillsides and shale ridges up to 1000m (3,000feet) in elevation.

It is pollinated by bats. As it is one of the only species to naturally hybridize with D. zibethinus,[25] they are thought to share a pollinator, likely the cave nectar bat (Eonycteris spelaea).[26] Pollen from both of these durian species has been found in cave nectar bat feces, and possibly in that of the long-tongued fruit bat (Macroglossus sobrinus).[27]

After harvest, fruit can be set upon by fungi such as Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Glomerella cingulata, Geotrichum candidum, Calonectria kyotensis, and occasionally Gliocephalotrichum bulbilium.[28] Secondary or opportunistic fungal infection can be from species such as Aspergillus niger and other Aspergillus spp., Candida spp., Gibberella intricans, and Penicillium spp.

The fruit is fed on by Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus), Prevost's squirrels (Callosciurus prevostii), crab-eating macaques (Macaca fascicularis), black hornbills (Anthracoceros malayanus), possibly viverrids[29] and sun bears (Helarctos malayanus).[30] Black hornbills are also effective seed dispersers for the tree, and this is referenced in a few of the regional names for the tree

.

Biochemistry

The fatty acids in the fruit are 30% saturated and 70% unsaturated. The saturated fats include myristic acid (14.49%), arachidic acid (7.08%), pentadecanoic acid (3.61%), heptadecanoic acid (2.2%), decanoic acid (1.62%), and lauric acid (1.31%). Unsaturated fats include oleic acid (22.18%), palmitoleic acid (13.55%), linolelaidic acid (12.39%), γ-linolenic acid (12.23%), linoleic acid (4.95%), elaidic acid (2.50%), and myristoleic acid (1.89%).

Uses

The fruit's pulp is typically eaten raw and has the fragrance of roasted almonds or burnt caramel. The taste is described as sweet and cheesy or similar to eating an avocado or pimento cheese. Sometimes, it is fermented into the condiment tempoyak. The red-fleshed type is used with freshwater fish to make a type of sayur (a traditional Indonesian vegetable stew).

The seeds can also be ground into flour (Malay: tepung biji durian dalit), which then can be used to make, for example, fish crackers.[31]

The tree is also harvested for lumber in Sarawak. The Iban people there also bathe day-old infants (especially for preterm birth) in a tisane of mature bark, as they believe it strengthens the skin.

See also

External links

Notes and References

  1. Hoe. Voon Boon. Siong. Kueh Hong. The nutritional value of indigenous fruits and vegetables in Sarawak. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition. March 1999. 8. 1. 24–31. 10.1046/j.1440-6047.1999.00046.x. 24393732. 3 November 2017. en. 1440-6047. 5534067161. https://web.archive.org/web/20170815025927/http://apjcn.nhri.org.tw/server/APJCN/8/1/24.pdf. 15 August 2017. live.
  2. Nasaruddin. Mohd hanif. Noor. Noor Qhairul Izzreen Mohd. Mamat. Hasmadi. Komposisi Proksimat dan Komponen Asid Lemak Durian Kuning (Durio graveolens) Sabah. Sains Malaysiana. 2013. 42. 9. 1283–1288. 28 November 2017. Proximate and Fatty Acid Composition of Sabah Yellow Durian (Durio graveolens). ms. 0126-6039. 857479186. https://web.archive.org/web/20171201034400/http://www.ukm.my/jsm/pdf_files/SM-PDF-42-9-2013/11%20Mohd%20Hanif.pdf. 1 December 2017. live.
  3. Book: Lim. Tong Kwee. Edible Medicinal and Non-Medicinal Plants. limited. 29 September 2011. Springer. Dordrecht. 978-90-481-8661-7. 552–555. en. Durio graveolens. 10.1007/978-90-481-8661-7_74. 253915304 . 988813302.
  4. Web site: . Durio graveolens. NCBI taxonomy. National Center for Biotechnology Information. 26 October 2017. Bethesda, MD. en. Lineage(full) cellular organisms; Eukaryota; Viridiplantae; Streptophyta; Streptophytina; Embryophyta; Tracheophyta; Euphyllophyta; Spermatophyta; Magnoliophyta; Mesangiospermae; eudicotyledons; Gunneridae; Pentapetalae; rosids; malvids; Malvales; Malvaceae; Helicteroideae; Durio. https://web.archive.org/web/20180514164404/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?id=140963. 14 May 2018. live.
  5. Web site: . Durio. The Plant List. 9 November 2017. England. en. 23 March 2012. 1.1. https://web.archive.org/web/20170905172513/http://www.theplantlist.org/1.1/browse/A/Malvaceae/Durio/. 5 September 2017. live.
  6. Web site: Dictionary of Botanical Epithets . Griffith . Chuck . 2005 . Dictionary of Botanical Epithets . en . 27 October 2017 . graveolens graveolens graveolens strong smelling graveolens graveolent adj strong smelling; rank Ruta graveolens L. . https://web.archive.org/web/20170919233501/http://www.winternet.com/~chuckg/dictionary/dictionary.96.html . 19 September 2017 . live .
  7. Web site: Gasik. Lindsay. Durio graveolens. Year of the Durian. yearofthedurian.com. 4 November 2017. en. May 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20171014215922/http://www.yearofthedurian.com/2013/05/durio-graveolens.html. 14 October 2017. live.
  8. News: . Wild durians of Borneo. 5 November 2017. Daily Express. Sabah Publishing House Sdn. Bhd.. 5 February 2012. Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia. en. https://web.archive.org/web/20171201045858/http://www.dailyexpress.com.my/read.cfm?NewsID=834. 1 December 2017. live.
  9. Web site: . Varieties Registered For National Crop List. Plant Variety Protection Malaysia. Department of Agriculture, Malaysia. 2 November 2017. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 15–6, 52. en. D164 Durian Durio zibethinus Linn. D175 Durian Durio zibethinus Linn. DQ2 Durian Sarawak Durio graveolens Becc Nyekak (DK8). https://web.archive.org/web/20171201080916/http://pvpbkkt.doa.gov.my/NationalList/Fruits.php?page=16. 1 December 2017. live.
  10. Book: Lewis . Charlton T. . Short . Charles . A Latin Dictionary . 1879 . Clarendon Press . Oxford . 10 October 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20191010050924/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text%3Fdoc%3DPerseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry%3Dgraveolens . 10 October 2019 . live .
  11. Book: National Research Council . Underexploited Tropical Plants with Promising Economic Value . 1975 . The Minerva Group . New York; Hong Kong . 9780894991868 . 65 . 2002 . 10 October 2019.
  12. Book: http://aciar.gov.au/files/node/598/mn114-part3.pdf . Occurrence, Distribution and Utilisation of Durian Germplasm . 2004 . O'Gara . E. . Guest . D. I. . Hassan . N. M. . Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) . Diversity and Management of Phytophthora in Southeast Asia ACIAR Monograph No. 114 . 978-1-86320-405-7 . Drenth, A. . Guest, D. I. . 187–193 . 2017-11-10 . 2018-02-19 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180219153235/http://aciar.gov.au/files/node/598/mn114-part3.pdf . dead .
  13. Lim. Tong Kwee. Luders. L.. Boosting Durian Productivity. Research Report, Chicken Meat & Egg Programs. July 1997. Rural Industries Research Development Corporation (RIRDC). Barton, ACT. 9780724530151. 10 November 2017. en. 38412745. 1440-6845. RIRDC Project DNT - 13A. https://web.archive.org/web/20180419120957/http://www.agrifutures.com.au/wp-content/uploads/publications/97-001W.pdf. 19 April 2018. live.
  14. Mackinnon. John. The behaviour and ecology of wild orang-utans (Pongo pygmaeus). Animal Behaviour. February 1974. 22. 1. 3–74. 10.1016/S0003-3472(74)80054-0. en. 0003-3472.
  15. Web site: ชื่อพรรณไม้ เต็ม สมิตินันทน์ . Forest Herbarium . Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation . 14 May 2020 . th.
  16. Songpol Somsri . Interspecific Hybridization of Durian . Thai Agricultural Research Journal . 1999 . 17 . 3 . 294–302 . th.
  17. Web site: Ng. Murphy. Red and Orange Durians of Sabah. MySabah.com. 29 November 2017. Sabah, Malaysia. en. 19 December 2012. Durian Dalit (Orange-flesh Durian), Species: Durio oxleyanus The husk of Durian Dalit is green color, with long and thick thorns outside. Durian Sukang (Red-flesh Durian), Species: Durio graveolens When ripe, the husk of Durian Sukang turns yellow, with short and sharp spines.. https://web.archive.org/web/20180207123151/http://www.mysabah.com/wordpress/red-and-orange-durians-of-sabah/. 7 February 2018. live.
  18. Book: Brown. Michael J.. Arora. R.K.. Ramanatha Rao. V.. Rao. A.N.. [{{google books|plainurl=yes|id=3AcGwT0CdSwC|page=13}} Durio, a Bibliographic Review]. 1997. International Plant Genetic Resource Institute. New Delhi, India. 9789290433187. 13. 11 November 2017. en. 38754437.
  19. Book: Tropical fruit production and genetic resources in Southeast Asia: Identifying the priority fruit species . M. B. . Osman . Z. A. . Mohamed . S. . Idris . R. . Aman . 1995 . International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) . 978-92-9043-249-4 . 10 November 2017 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20080930210417/http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/publications/HTMLPublications/655/ch08.htm . 2008-09-30 . 723476105 . In Brunei Darussalam, D. zibethinus does not occur locally. The people in Brunei prefer the other species, such as D. graveolens, D. kutejensis and D. oxyleyanus. These species are quite commonly distributed in the country and together with other species like D. testudinarium and D. dulcis, represent rich genetic diversity..
  20. Whitman. William F.. Cockshutt. Nicholas. Ultra Tropicals vs. Freezing Point. Tropical Fruit World. November 1990. 1. 5. 147–148. en. 1053-850X. 22610361.
  21. Stroo. A. Pollen morphological evolution in bat pollinated plants. Plant Systematics and Evolution. March 2000. 222. 1–4. 225–242. 10.1007/BF00984104. 42391364. en. 1615-6110. 197044000.
  22. Yumoto. Takakazu. Bird-Pollination of Three Durio Species (Bombacaceae) in a Tropical Rainforest in Sarawak, Malaysia. American Journal of Botany. August 2000. 87. 8. 1185. 10.2307/2656655 . 2656655. 10948003. en. 1537-2197. Wet masses of fruits recorded in Lambir Hills National Park were as follows: D. graveolens, 757. 5 g;... (T. Yumoto, unpublished data).
  23. Kostermans. André Joseph Guillaume Henri. André Joseph Guillaume Henri Kostermans. Dilmy. A.. Van Steens. C. G. G. J.. The Genus Durio Adans. (Bombac.). Reinwardtia. December 1958. 4. 3. 91–95. 10.14203/reinwardtia.v4i3.1008. 10 November 2017. en. PDF. 2337-8824. 4142407. 31 January 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20171202092634/http://e-journal.biologi.lipi.go.id/index.php/reinwardtia/article/view/1008. 2 December 2017. live.
  24. Nyffeler. Reto. Baum. David A.. Systematics and character evolution in Durio s. lat. (Malvaceae/Helicteroideae/Durioneae or Bombacaceae-Durioneae). Organisms Diversity & Evolution. 2001. 1. 3. 165–178. 10.1078/1439-6092-00015. en. 1439-6092. 199110722. free.
  25. Book: Hambali. GG. Yatazawa. M. Sunarto. AT. Siemonsma. J.S.. Wulijarni-Soetjipto. N.. Wild Durio Germplasm for improving fruit quality and performance of Durio zibethinus. Plant Resources of South-East Asia Proceedings of the First PROSEA International Symposium May 22–25, 1989, Jakarta, Indonesia. Pudoc . Wageningen, Netherlands. 1989. 261. 12 November 2017. en. PDF. 978-90-220-0999-4. 956468165. Four hybrid seedlings were obtained in the crosses between D. zibethinus and D. graveolens, whereas no fruit set was observed in the crosses between D. zibethinus and D. oxleyanus, and between D. oxleyanus and D. graveolens..
  26. Soepadmo. Engkik. Eow. BK. Mabberley. DJ. Lan. Chang Kiaw. The Reproductive Biology of Durio zibethinus Murr. The Gardens' Bulletin, Singapore. 31 August 1977. 29. 25–33. 12 November 2017. en. pdf. 2382-5812. 918436212. https://web.archive.org/web/20181231143801/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/43625482. 31 December 2018. live.
  27. Book: Start. A.N.. Marshall. A.G.. Burley. J.. Styles. B.T.. Tropical Trees: Variation, Breeding and Conservation. 1976. Academic Press. London, UK. 978-0121451509. 141–159. en. Nectarivorous Bats as Pollinators of Trees in West Malaysia. 476102040. Linnean Society Symposium Series. 2.
  28. Sivapalan. A.. Metussin. Rosidah. Harndan. Fuziah. Zain. Rokiah Mohd. Fungi associated with postharvest fruit rots of Durio graveolens and D. kutejensis in Brunei Darussalam. Australasian Plant Pathology. December 1998. 27. 4. 274–277. 10.1071/AP98033. 37024997. en. 1448-6032. 204773204.
  29. Nakashima. Yoshihiro. Lagan. Peter. Kitayama. Kanehiro. A Study of Fruit–Frugivore Interactions in Two Species of Durian (Durio, Bombacaceae) in Sabah, Malaysia. Biotropica. March 2008. 40. 2. 255–258. 10.1111/j.1744-7429.2007.00335.x. 82212472. en. 1744-7429. 5155811169.
  30. Fredriksson. Gabriella M.. Wich. Serge A.. Trisno. Frugivory in sun bears (Helarctos malayanus) is linked to El Niño-related fluctuations in fruiting phenology, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 1 November 2006. 89. 3. 489–508. 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2006.00688.x. en. 1095-8312. Durio graveolens Bombacaceae S fr Tree. 14 December 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20190219091716/https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/4018412/46921_Fredriksson2006.pdf. 19 February 2019. live.
  31. Book: Yong. Yen Cze. Aplikasi Tepung Biji Durian Dalit (Durio graveolens) Dalam Keropok Ikan. 2015. Universiti Malaysia Sabah. Kota Kinabalu. ms. Application of Durian Dalit (Durio graveolens) Seed Flour in Fish Crackers. 973237888.

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