Kam language explained

Kam
Nativename:Gaeml
States:China
Region:Guizhou, Hunan, Guangxi
Ethnicity:Kam people
Speakers: million
Date:2003
Ref:e16
Familycolor:Kradai
Fam2:Kam–Sui
Script:Latin
Lc1:doc
Ld1:Northern Dong
Lc2:kmc
Ld2:Southern Dong
Lc3:cov
Ld3:Cao Miao
Glotto:kami1255
Glottorefname:Kamic
Notice:IPA

The Kam or Gam language (lix Gaeml), also known as Dong, is a Kam–Sui language spoken by the Dong people. Ethnologue distinguishes three Kam varieties as separate but closely related languages.

Demographics

Southern Dong

Almost 1.5 million speakers of Southern Dong were counted in the 1990 language census, from a total of 2.5 million people in the Dong ethnic group. The Southern Dong live primarily in Rongjiang, Jinping, Liping, Zhenyuan, and Congjiang counties in Guizhou Province; Longsheng, Sanjiang, and Rongshui counties in northeastern Guangxi; and Tongdao County in Hunan Province. Two Dong villages are also located in northern Vietnam, although only one individual in Vietnam is still able to speak Dong.[1]

Dialects

The Kam language can be divided into two major subdivisions: Southern Kam and Northern Kam.[2] Northern Kam displays more Chinese influence and lacks vowel length contrast, while Southern Kam is more conservative. Language varieties closely related to or part of Kam include Cao Miao and Naxi Yao. A northern Pinghua variety called Tongdao Pinghua, spoken in Tongdao County, Hunan, has also been significantly influenced by Kam.

Southern Kam
Northern Kam

Long (2012:19-20)[4] classifies the Kam lectal areas (dialects) as follows.

Southern Kam
Northern Kam

In Congjiang County, Dong consists of three dialects: Jiudong Chinese: 九洞 (similar to Chejiang Chinese: 车江 Dong), Liudong Chinese: 六洞 (similar to Liping Chinese: 黎平 Dong), and another dialect spoken in Xishan Chinese: 西山, Bingmei Chinese: 丙梅, and Guandong Chinese: 贯洞 (similar to Sanjiang Chinese: 三江 Dong) (Congjiang County Gazetteer 1999:109).

In Suining County, Hunan, Dong is spoken in Lianfeng Chinese: 联丰 (including Duolong Chinese: 多龙村), Huangsangping Chinese: 黄桑坪, Le'anpu Chinese: 乐安铺, and other nearby locations.[5] In Chengbu County, Hunan, Dong is spoken in Yanzhai Chinese: 岩寨, Chang'anying Chinese: 长安营, and Jiangtousi Chinese: 江头司.[6]

Kam is also spoken in the single village of Đồng Mộc, Trung Sơn Commune, Yên Sơn District, Tuyên Quang Province, northern Vietnam,[7] where there are about 35 Kam people (Edmondson & Gregerson 2001).[8] The Kam of Đồng Mộc had migrated to Vietnam from China about 150 years ago. The Kam variety spoken in Đồng Mộc is most similar to that of Lípíng Shuǐkǒu (Chinese: 黎平县水口镇) in southeastern Guizhou.

In China, a total of seven counties designated as Dong Autonomous Counties (Chinese: 侗族自治县).

Others

According to the Shaoyang Prefecture Gazetteer (1997), language varieties closely related to Southern Kam are spoken in Naxi Chinese: 那溪, Dongkou County (which had 4,280 ethnic Yao in 1982 (Chen 2013:39)) and Lianmin Chinese: 联民, Suining County. However, they are officially classified by the Chinese government as ethnic Yao, not Dong. Chen Qiguang (2013:39)[9] reports that the ancestors of Naxihua Chinese: 那溪话 speakers had migrated to their current location from Tianzhu, Liping, and Yuping counties of southeastern Guizhou during the early 15th century.

Phonology and orthography

Kam has two main orthographies: the Chinese academic developed system and the independently developed system by Ngo Van Lyong for Southern Kam as spoken in Rongjiang.[10] The Chinese system is most commonly used by linguists and has similarities to other Chinese Kra–Dai language orthographies (such as Zhuang). The Ngo Van Lyong system was inspired by the Vietnamese alphabet and is made for speakers and learners.

While the Chinese system is the most well known, most Kam speakers are not literate.

Initials

LabialAlveolar(Alveolo-)
palatal
VelarGlottal
plainpal.plainlab.
Nasalpronounced as /ink/pronounced as /ink/pronounced as /ink/pronounced as /ink/pronounced as /ink/pronounced as /ink/
Stop/
Affricate
voicelesspronounced as /ink/pronounced as /ink/pronounced as /ink/pronounced as /ink/pronounced as /ink/pronounced as /ink/
aspiratedpronounced as /ink/pronounced as /ink/pronounced as /ink/pronounced as /ink/pronounced as /ink/pronounced as /ink/
Fricativepronounced as /ink/pronounced as /ink/pronounced as /ink/
Approximantcentralpronounced as /ink/pronounced as /ink/pronounced as /ink/
lateralpronounced as /ink/pronounced as /ink/
The Chinese orthography for Kam orthography has 32 syllable-initial consonants; seven of them (pronounced as /tʃ-/, pronounced as /tʃʰ-/, pronounced as /ʃ-/, pronounced as /ɻ-/, pronounced as /f-/, pronounced as /ts-/ and pronounced as /tsʰ-/) only occur in recent loanwords from Chinese.
Gaeml IPA Gaeml IPA Gaeml IPA Gaeml IPA Gaeml
pronounced as /link/ b pronounced as /link/ d pronounced as /link/ j pronounced as /link/ g pronounced as /link/ zh
pronounced as /link/ p pronounced as /link/ t pronounced as /link/ q pronounced as /link/ k pronounced as /link/ ch
pronounced as /link/ m pronounced as /link/ n pronounced as /link/ ny pronounced as /link/ ng pronounced as /link/ sh
pronounced as /link/ w pronounced as /link/ l pronounced as /link/ ly pronounced as /link/ h pronounced as /link/ r
pronounced as /link/ bi pronounced as /link/ s pronounced as /link/ x pronounced as /link/ gu pronounced as /link/ f
pronounced as /link/ pi pronounced as /link/ y pronounced as /link/ ku pronounced as /link/ z
pronounced as /link/mipronounced as /link/ ngu pronounced as /link/ c
pronounced as /link/wi

The Ngo Van Lyong orthography for Southern Kam has 28 syllable-initial consonants.

IPA Gảm IPA Gảm IPA Gảm IPA Gảm IPA Gảm IPA Gảm IPA Gảm
pronounced as /link/ b pronounced as /link/ d pronounced as /link/ g pronounced as /link/ h pronounced as /link/ y pronounced as /link/ s pronounced as /link/ z
pronounced as /link/ p pronounced as /link/ t pronounced as /link/ k pronounced as /link/ f pronounced as /link/ w pronounced as /link/ x pronounced as /link/ c
pronounced as /link/ j pronounced as /link/ ng pronounced as /link/ ly pronounced as /link/ ny pronounced as /link/ l pronounced as /link/ n pronounced as /link/ m
pronounced as /link/ q pronounced as /link/ ngh pronounced as /link/ lhy pronounced as /link/ nhy pronounced as /link/ lh pronounced as /link/ nh pronounced as /link/ mh

Finals

The Chinese orthography for Kam has 64 syllable finals; 14 of them occur only in Chinese loans and are not listed in the table below.

IPA Gaeml IPA Gaeml IPA Gaeml IPA Gaeml IPA Gaeml IPA Gaeml IPA Gaeml
pronounced as /a/ a pronounced as /ə/ e pronounced as /e/ ee pronounced as /i/ i pronounced as /o/ o pronounced as /u/ u/uu
pronounced as /aɪ/ ai pronounced as /əɪ/ ei pronounced as /oɪ/ oi pronounced as /uɪ/ ui
pronounced as /aʊ/ ao pronounced as /eʊ/ eeu pronounced as /iʊ/ iu pronounced as /oʊ/ ou
pronounced as /am/ am pronounced as /ɐm/ aem pronounced as /əm/ em pronounced as /em/ eem pronounced as /im/ im pronounced as /om/ om pronounced as /um/ um
pronounced as /an/ an pronounced as /ɐn/ aen pronounced as /ən/ en pronounced as /en/ een pronounced as /in/ in pronounced as /on/ on pronounced as /un/ un
pronounced as /aŋ/ ang pronounced as /ɐŋ/ aeng pronounced as /əŋ/ eng pronounced as /eŋ/ eeng pronounced as /iŋ/ ing pronounced as /oŋ/ ong pronounced as /uŋ/ ung
pronounced as /ap/ ab pronounced as /ɐp/ ab pronounced as /əp/ eb pronounced as /ep/ eb pronounced as /ip/ ib pronounced as /op/ ob pronounced as /up/ ub
pronounced as /at/ ad pronounced as /ɐt/ ad pronounced as /ət/ ed pronounced as /et/ ed pronounced as /it/ id pronounced as /ot/ od
pronounced as /ak/ ag pronounced as /ɐk/ ag pronounced as /ək/ eg pronounced as /ek/ eg pronounced as /ik/ ig pronounced as /ok/ og pronounced as /uk/ ug
The phonetic value of the vowel in the finals spelled -ab, -ad and -ag, is pronounced as /[ɐ]/ in syllables that have the tones -l, -p and -c (see table below); in syllables with tones -s, -t and -x, it is pronounced as /[a]/. The phonetic value of the vowel in the finals spelled -eb, -ed and -eg, is pronounced as /[ə]/ in syllables that have the tones -l, -p and -c; in syllables with tones -s, -t and -x, it is pronounced as /[e]/.

The Ngo Van Lyong orthography for Southern Kam has 116 syllable finals.

IPA Gảm IPA Gảm IPA Gảm IPA Gảm IPA Gảm IPA Gảm
pronounced as /a/ a pronounced as /ɔ/ o pronounced as /e/ e pronounced as /u/ u pronounced as /i/ i
pronounced as /ɐ/ ă pronounced as /o/ ô pronounced as /ə/ ơ pronounced as /ɿ/ ư pronounced as /y/ ü
pronounced as /ai/ ai pronounced as /oi/ oi pronounced as /ɐi/ ei pronounced as /əi/ ơi pronounced as /ui/ ui
pronounced as /au/ au pronounced as /ɐu/ ou pronounced as /ɛu/ eu pronounced as /əu/ ơu pronounced as /iu/ iu
pronounced as /ʲa/ ia pronounced as /ʲo/ io pronounced as /ʲe/ ie pronounced as /ʷa/ ua pronounced as /ʷo/ uo pronounced as /ʷe/ ue
pronounced as /ʲai/ iai pronounced as /ʲoi/ ioi pronounced as /ʲɐi/ iei pronounced as /ʲəi/ iơi pronounced as /ʲui/ iui pronounced as /ʲau/ iau
pronounced as /ʲɐu/ iou pronounced as /ʲeu/ ieu pronounced as /ʲəu/ iơu pronounced as /ʷai/ uai pronounced as /ʷoi/ uoi pronounced as /ʷɐi/ uei
pronounced as /ʷau/ uau pronounced as /ʷɐu/ uou pronounced as /ʷeu/ ueu pronounced as /ʷəu/ uơu pronounced as /ʷiu/ uiu pronounced as /ʷəi/ uơi
pronounced as /an/ an pronounced as /am/ am pronounced as /aŋ/ ang pronounced as /ak/ ak pronounced as /ap/ ap pronounced as /at/ at
pronounced as /ʲan/ ian pronounced as /ʲam/ iam pronounced as /ʲaŋ/ iang pronounced as /ʲak/ iak pronounced as /ʲap/ iap pronounced as /ʲat/ iat
pronounced as /ʷan/ uan pronounced as /ʷam/ uam pronounced as /ʷaŋ/ uang pronounced as /ʷak/ uak pronounced as /ʷap/ uap pronounced as /ʷat/ uat
pronounced as /ɐn/ ăn pronounced as /ɐm/ ăm pronounced as /ɐŋ/ ăng pronounced as /ɐk/ ăk pronounced as /ɐp/ ăp pronounced as /ɐt/ ăt
pronounced as /ʲɐn/ iăn pronounced as /ʲɐm/ iăm pronounced as /ʲɐŋ/ iăng pronounced as /ʲɐk/ iăk pronounced as /ʲɐp/ iăp pronounced as /ʲɐt/ iăt
pronounced as /ʷɐn/ uăn pronounced as /ʷɐm/ uăm pronounced as /ʷɐŋ/ uăng pronounced as /ʷɐk/ uăk pronounced as /ʷɐp/ uăp pronounced as /ʷɐt/ uăt
pronounced as /ɔn/ on pronounced as /ɔm/ om pronounced as /ɔŋ/ ong pronounced as /ɔk/ ok pronounced as /ɔp/ op pronounced as /ɔt/ ot
pronounced as /ʲɔn/ ion pronounced as /ʲɔm/ iom pronounced as /ʲɔŋ/ iong pronounced as /ʲɔk/ iok pronounced as /ʲɔp/ iop pronounced as /ʲɔt/ iot
pronounced as /ʷɔn/ uon pronounced as /ʷɔm/ uom pronounced as /ʷɔŋ/ uong pronounced as /ʷɔk/ uok pronounced as /ʷɔp/ uop pronounced as /ʷɔt/ uot
pronounced as /on/ ôn pronounced as /om/ ôm pronounced as /oŋ/ ông pronounced as /ok/ ôk pronounced as /op/ ôp pronounced as /ot/ ôt
pronounced as /ʲon/ iôn pronounced as /ʲom/ iôm pronounced as /ʲoŋ/ iông pronounced as /ʲok/ iôk pronounced as /ʲop/ iôp pronounced as /ʲot/ iôt
pronounced as /ʷon/ uôn pronounced as /ʷom/ uôm pronounced as /ʷoŋ/ uông pronounced as /ʷok/ uôk pronounced as /ʷop/ uôp pronounced as /ʷot/ uôt
pronounced as /en/ en pronounced as /em/ em pronounced as /eŋ/ eng pronounced as /ek/ ek pronounced as /ep/ ep pronounced as /et/ et
pronounced as /ʲen/ ien pronounced as /ʲem/ iem pronounced as /ʲeŋ/ ieng pronounced as /ʲek/ iek pronounced as /ʲep/ iep pronounced as /ʲet/ iet
pronounced as /ʷen/ uen pronounced as /ʷem/ uem pronounced as /ʷeŋ/ ueng pronounced as /ʷek/ uek pronounced as /ʷep/ uep pronounced as /ʷet/ uet
pronounced as /ən/ ơn pronounced as /əm/ ơm pronounced as /əŋ/ ơng pronounced as /ək/ ơk pronounced as /əp/ ơp pronounced as /ət/ ơt
pronounced as /ʲən/ iơn pronounced as /ʲəm/ iơm pronounced as /ʲəŋ/ iơng pronounced as /ʲək/ iơk pronounced as /ʲəp/ iơp pronounced as /ʲət/ iơt
pronounced as /ʷən/ uơn pronounced as /ʷəm/ uơm pronounced as /ʷəŋ/ uơng pronounced as /ʷək/ uơk pronounced as /ʷəp/ uơp pronounced as /ʷət/ uơt
pronounced as /un/ un pronounced as /um/ um pronounced as /uŋ/ ung pronounced as /uk/ uk pronounced as /up/ up pronounced as /ut/ ut
pronounced as /ʲun/ iun pronounced as /ʲum/ ium pronounced as /ʲuŋ/ iung pronounced as /ʲuk/ iuk pronounced as /ʲup/ iup pronounced as /ʲut/ iut
pronounced as /in/ in pronounced as /im/ im pronounced as /iŋ/ ing pronounced as /ik/ ik pronounced as /ip/ ip pronounced as /it/ it
pronounced as /ʷin/ uin pronounced as /ʷim/ uim pronounced as /ʷiŋ/ uing pronounced as /ʷik/ uik pronounced as /ʷip/ uip pronounced as /ʷit/ uit

Tones

Kam is a tonal language. Open syllables can occur in one of nine different tones, checked syllables in six tones (so-called entering tones), so that the traditional approach counts fifteen tones. As with the Hmong alphabet, the Chinese orthography marks tones with a consonant at the end of each syllable.

tone contour: high high rising low dipping low rising low falling high falling peaking mid
pronounced as //˥// (55) pronounced as //˧˥// (35) pronounced as //˨// (11) pronounced as //˨˦// (24) pronounced as //˩˧// (13) pronounced as //˧˩// (31) pronounced as //˥˧// (53) pronounced as //˦˥˧// (453) pronounced as //˧// (33)
Orthography: -l -p -c -s -t -x -v -k -h
example
(open syllable)
bal pap bac bas qat miax bav pak bah
"fish" "grey" "rake" "aunt" "light" "knife" "leaf" "destroy" "chaff"
example
(checked syllable)
bedl sedp medc bads pads bagx
"duck" "seven" "ant" "can"? "blood" "white"

The Ngô Văn Lương orthography marks tones via diacritics written above or below the vowel as with the Vietnamese alphabet and only features 6 tones.

tone contour: high flat low flat high falling low falling high rising low rising
pronounced as //˧// (33) pronounced as //˨// (11) pronounced as //˥˩// (51) pronounced as //˧˩// (31) pronounced as //˧˥// (45) pronounced as //˨˦// (24)
Example: ba bạ bả

References

Further reading

External links

Notes and References

  1. Joshua Project
  2. Yang Tongyin and Jerold A. Edmondson (2008). "Kam." In Diller, Anthony, Jerold A. Edmondson, and Yongxian Luo ed. The Tai–Kadai Languages. Routledge Language Family Series. Psychology Press, 2008.
  3. Tu, Guanglu 涂光禄; Yang, Jun 杨军. 2008. Jinpingxian Han, Dong, Miao yu fangyan zhi 锦屏县汉侗苗语方言志. Guiyang: Guizhou University Press 贵州大学出版社.
  4. Long Yaohong [{{lang|zh|龙耀宏}}]. 2012. A study of Dong dialectology [{{lang|zh|侗语方音研究}} Dongyu fangyin yanjiu]. Ph.D. dissertation, Shanghai Normal University [{{lang|zh|上海师范大学}}]. http://www.taodocs.com/p-5926320.html
  5. Suining County Gazetteer (1997)
  6. Shaoyang Prefecture Gazetteer (1997)
  7. Web site: Những hương vị thân thương gần gũi ở quê nhà mà không nơi nào có. danviet.vn. danviet.vn. 10 April 2018.
  8. Edmondson, J.A. and Gregerson, K.J. 2001, "Four Languages of the Vietnam-China Borderlands", in Papers from the Sixth Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society, ed. K.L. Adams and T.J. Hudak, Tempe, Arizona, pp. 101-133. Arizona State University, Program for Southeast Asian Studies.
  9. Chen, Qiguang [{{lang|zh|陈其光}}] (2013). Miao and Yao language [{{lang|zh|苗瑶语文}}]. Beijing: China Minzu University Press.
  10. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/kam.htm Article in Omniglot