Deng Xiaoping Explained

Native Name Lang:zh-Hans-CN
Office:Chairman of the Central Advisory Commission
1Namedata1:
  • Hu Yaobang
  • Zhao Ziyang
  • Jiang Zemin
Deputy1:
Predecessor1:Hua Guofeng
Successor1:Jiang Zemin
Predecessor2:Office established
Successor2:Jiang Zemin
Office1:Chairman of the Central Military Commission
1Namedata:
President:Li Xiannian
Premier:Zhao Ziyang
Deputy:
Term Start:13 September 1982
Term End:2 November 1987
Predecessor:Office established
Successor:Chen Yun
Order3:3rd
Office3:Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference
Term Start3:8 March 1978
Term End3:17 June 1983
Predecessor3:Zhou Enlai (until 1976)
Successor3:Deng Yingchao
Office4:Secretary-General of the Central Secretariat
Term Start4:13 September 1956
Term End4:25 March 1967
1Namedata4:Mao Zedong
Predecessor4:Office established
Successor4:Hu Yaobang (from 1980)
Office5:Chief of the General Staff of the
Term Start5:5 January 1975
Term End5:7 April 1976
Predecessor5:Huang Yongsheng (until 1971)
Successor5:Himself (from 1977)
Term Start6:7 July 1977
Term End6:2 March 1980
Predecessor6:Himself (until 1977)
Successor6:Yang Dezhi
Office7:Minister of Finance
Term Start7:18 September 1953
Term End7:19 June 1954
Premier7:Zhou Enlai
Predecessor7:Bo Yibo
Successor7:Li Xiannian
Birth Date:Deng Xiansheng (鄧先勝) 22 August 1904
Birth Place:Guang'an, Sichuan, Qing China
Death Place:Beijing, China
Party:Chinese Communist (from 1924)
Spouse:
    Children:
    Relatives:Deng Zhuodi (grandson)
    Allegiance:People's Republic of China
    Branch:
    Signature:Signature of Deng Xiaoping 19840126.svg
    Footnotes:--------

    Paramount Leader of
    the People's Republic of China

    Website:
    Child:yes
    P:Dèng Xiǎopíng
    Order:st

    Deng Xiaoping (; 22 August 1904 – 19 February 1997) was a Chinese revolutionary and statesman who served as the paramount leader of the People's Republic of China (PRC) from December 1978 to November 1989. After Chinese Communist Party chairman Mao Zedong's death in 1976, Deng rose to power and led China through its process of Reform and Opening Up and the development of the country's socialist market economy. Deng developed a reputation as the "Architect of Modern China" and his ideological contributions to socialism with Chinese characteristics are described as Deng Xiaoping Theory.[1]

    Born in Sichuan near the end of the Qing dynasty, Deng went to France in 1921 on a work-study program that placed students in factory jobs; seeing working conditions he became attracted to the theories of Vladimir Lenin, and in 1924 he joined the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). In early 1926, Deng travelled to Moscow to study political science, becoming a commissar for the Red Army upon his return to China. Near the end of 1929, Deng led local Red Army uprisings in Guangxi. In 1931, he was demoted within because of his support for Mao, but was again promoted during the Zunyi Conference. Deng was an important figure throughout the Chinese Civil War (1927–1949), including during the Long March (1934–1935) and in fighting against the Japanese (1937–1945). He, Liu Bocheng and Chen Yi led the newly formed People's Liberation Army (PLA) into the former Kuomintang capital of Nanjing during the final stretch of the civil war.

    Following the proclamation of the People's Republic of China on 1 October 1949, Deng served in Tibet and southwestern China as the regional party chief, working to consolidate party control. In 1952, he returned to Beijing and held a central position in the State Council. As the party's Secretary-General under Chairman Mao Zedong, and Vice Premier under Premier Zhou Enlai during the 1950s, Deng presided over Mao's Anti-Rightist Campaign and became instrumental in China's economic reconstruction following the Great Leap Forward (1958–1960). However, his right-leaning political and economic stances eventually caused him to fall out of favor with Mao, and he was the target of purges twice during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). Following Mao's death in September 1976, Deng outmaneuvered Mao's chosen successor Hua Guofeng, and became China's paramount leader during the 3rd Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee in December 1978.

    Upon coming to power, Deng began a massive overhaul of China's infrastructure and political system. Because of the institutional disorder and political turmoil from the later Mao-era, he and his allies launched the Boluan Fanzheng program which sought to restore order by rehabilitating veteran CCP leadership as well as millions of people who were persecuted during the Cultural Revolution. He also initiated a Reform and Opening-up program that introduced elements of market capitalism to the Chinese economy by designating special economic zones throughout the country. In August 1980, Deng embarked on a series of political reforms, setting constitutional term limits for state officials and other systematic revisions, which were incorporated in the country's fourth constitution. Deng later championed a one-child policy to deal with China's perceived overpopulation crisis, helped establish China's nine-year compulsory education, and oversaw the launch of the 863 Program to promote science and technology. The reforms carried out by Deng and his allies gradually led China away from a command economy and Maoist dogma, opened it up to foreign investments and technology, and introduced its vast labor force to the global market thereby transforming China into one of the world's fastest-growing economies.[2]

    Still embroiled in the Sino-Soviet split that began during the 1960s, Deng's China fought a one-month war with Vietnam. On 1 January 1979, the PRC officially established diplomatic relations with the United States after years of prelude, and Deng became the first paramount leader of China to visit the US. In the 1980s, Deng also proposed the One Country, Two Systems principle for the governance of Hong Kong and Macau, as well as the future unification with Taiwan.

    Despite never holding office as either the PRC's head of state or head of government nor as the Communist Party's leader, Deng is generally viewed as the "core" of the CCP's second-generation leadership, a status enshrined within the party's constitution.[3] During the course of his leadership, he was named the Time Person of the Year for 1978 and 1985.[4] [5] Under Deng's leadership, his protégés Hu Yaobang and Zhao Ziyang were leader of the party and head of government respectively, but both were later ousted from power. However, by November 1989, Deng ultimately stepped down from all his official positions in the wake of the protests in Tiananmen Square.

    Deng and his chosen successors Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao significantly contributed to China becoming the world's second-largest economy by nominal GDP in 2010.[6] [7] He was praised for his reaffirmation of the reform program in his Southern Tour of 1992 as well as the reversion of Hong Kong to Chinese control in 1997 and the return of Macau in 1999. Nevertheless, he was criticized for ordering a military crackdown in response to the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests as well as the important role he played during the Anti-Rightist Campaign.

    Early life and family

    Deng's ancestors can be traced back to Jiaying County (now renamed as Meixian), Guangdong,[8] a prominent ancestral area for the Hakka people, and had settled in Sichuan for several generations.[9] Deng's daughter Deng Rong wrote in the book My Father Deng Xiaoping (Chinese: 我的父亲邓小平) that his ancestry was probably, but not definitely, Hakka. Sichuan was originally the origin of the Deng lineage until one of them was hired as an official in Guangdong during the Ming dynasty, but when the Qing dynasty planned to increase the population in 1671, they moved back to Sichuan. Deng was born in Guang'an District, Guang'an on 22 August 1904 in Sichuan province.[10]

    Deng's father, Deng Wenming, was a mid-level landowner who had studied at the University of Law and Political Science in Chengdu, Sichuan. He was locally prominent. His mother, surnamed Dan, died early in Deng's life, leaving Deng, his three brothers, and three sisters.[11] At the age of five, Deng was sent to a traditional Chinese-style private primary school, followed by a more modern primary school at the age of seven.

    Deng's first wife, one of his schoolmates from Moscow, died aged 24 a few days after giving birth to their first child, a baby girl who also died. His second wife, Jin Weiying, left him after Deng came under political attack in 1933. His third wife, Zhuo Lin, was the daughter of an industrialist in Yunnan. She became a member of the Communist Party in 1938, and married Deng a year later in front of Mao's cave dwelling in Yan'an. They had five children: three daughters (Deng Lin, Deng Nan and Deng Rong) and two sons (Deng Pufang and Deng Zhifang). Deng quit smoking when he was 86.[12]

    Education and early career

    When Deng first attended school, his tutor objected to his having the given name "Xiansheng" (Chinese: 先圣), calling him "Xixian" (Chinese: 希贤), which includes the characters "to aspire to" and "goodness", with overtones of wisdom.[13] [14]

    In the summer of 1919, Deng graduated from the Chongqing School. He and 80 schoolmates travelled by ship to France (travelling steerage) to participate in the Diligent Work-Frugal Study Movement, a work-study program[15] in which 4,001 Chinese would participate by 1927. Deng, the youngest of all the Chinese students in the group, had just turned 15.[16] Wu Yuzhang, the local leader of the Movement in Chongqing, enrolled Deng and his paternal uncle, Deng Shaosheng, in the program. Deng's father strongly supported his son's participation in the work-study abroad program. The night before his departure, Deng's father took his son aside and asked him what he hoped to learn in France. He repeated the words he had learned from his teachers: "To learn knowledge and truth from the West in order to save China." Deng was aware that China was suffering greatly, and that the Chinese people must have a modern education to save their country.[17]

    On 19 October 1920, a French packet ship, the André Lebon, sailed into Marseille with 210 Chinese students aboard including Deng. The sixteen-year-old Deng briefly attended middle schools in Bayeux and Châtillon, but he spent most of his time in France working, including at a Renault factory and as a fitter at the Le Creusot Iron and Steel Plant in La Garenne-Colombes, a north-western suburb of Paris where he moved in April 1921.[18] Coincidentally, when Deng's later political fortunes were down and he was sent to work in a tractor factory in 1969 during the Cultural Revolution, he found himself a fitter again and proved to still be a master of the skill.[19]

    In La Garenne-Colombes Deng met future CCP leaders Zhou Enlai, Chen Yi, Nie Rongzhen, Li Fuchun, Li Lisan and Li Weihan.[20] In June 1923 he joined the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe. In the second half of 1924, he joined the Chinese Communist Party and became one of the leading members of the General Branch of the Youth League in Europe. In 1926 Deng traveled to the Soviet Union and studied at Moscow Sun Yat-sen University, where one of his classmates was Chiang Ching-kuo, the son of Chiang Kai-shek.[21]

    Return to China

    In late 1927, Deng left Moscow to return to China, where he joined the army of Feng Yuxiang, a military leader in northwest China, who had requested assistance from the Soviet Union in his struggle with other local leaders in the region. At that time, the Soviet Union, through the Comintern, an international organization supporting the Communist movements, supported the Communists' alliance with the Nationalists of the Kuomintang (KMT) party founded by Sun Yat-sen.

    He arrived in Xi'an, the stronghold of Feng Yuxiang, in March 1927. He was part of the Fengtian clique's attempt to prevent the break of the alliance between the KMT and the Communists. This split resulted in part from Chiang Kai-shek's forcing them to flee areas controlled by the KMT. After the breakup of the alliance between Communists and Nationalists, Feng Yuxiang stood on the side of Chiang Kai-shek, and the Communists who participated in their army, such as Deng Xiaoping, were forced to flee.

    Political rise

    Although Deng got involved in the Marxist revolutionary movement in China, the historian Mobo Gao has argued that "Deng Xiaoping and many like him [in the Chinese Communist Party] were not really Marxists, but basically revolutionary nationalists who wanted to see China standing on equal terms with the great global powers. They were primarily nationalists and they participated in the Communist revolution because that was the only viable route they could find to Chinese nationalism."[22]

    Activism in Shanghai and Wuhan

    After leaving the army of Feng Yuxiang in the northwest, Deng ended up in the city of Wuhan, where the Communists at that time had their headquarters. At that time, he began using the nickname "Xiaoping" and occupied prominent positions in the party apparatus. He participated in the historic emergency session on 7 August 1927 in which, by Soviet instruction, the Party dismissed its founder Chen Duxiu, and Qu Qiubai became the general secretary. In Wuhan, Deng first established contact with Mao Zedong, who was then little valued by militant pro-Soviet leaders of the party.

    Between 1927 and 1929, Deng lived in Shanghai, where he helped organize protests that would be harshly persecuted by the Kuomintang authorities. The death of many Communist militants in those years led to a decrease in the number of members of the Communist Party, which enabled Deng to quickly move up the ranks. During this stage in Shanghai, Deng married a woman he met in Moscow, Zhang Xiyuan.

    Military campaign in Guangxi

    From 1929 to 1931, Deng served as the chief representative of the Central Committee in Guangxi, where he helped lead the Baise and Longzhou Uprisings. Both at the time and later, Deng Xiaoping's leadership during the rebellion has come under serious criticism. He followed the "Li Lisan Line" that called for aggressive attacks on cities. In practice, this meant that the rural soviet in Guangxi was abandoned and that the Seventh Red Army under Deng's political leadership fought and lost several bloody battles. Eventually, Deng and the other Communist leaders in Guangxi decided to retreat to Jiangxi to join Mao Zedong. However, after a costly march across rough terrain, Deng left the army leaderless without prior authorization to do so. A Central Committee post-mortem in 1931 singled out Deng's behavior as an example of "rightist opportunism and a rich peasant line". In 1945, several former commanders of the Seventh Red Army spoke out against Deng for his actions during the uprising, although Mao Zedong protected Deng from any serious repercussions. During the Cultural Revolution, Red Guards learned about the events of the Baise Uprising and accused Deng of desertion. Deng admitted that leaving the army was one of the "worst mistakes of [his] life" and that "although this action was allowed by the party, it was politically horribly wrong." Modern historians and biographers tend to agree. Uli Franz calls leaving the army a "serious error". Benjamin Yang calls it a "tragic failure and dark period in [Deng's] political life." On the other hand, Diana Lary places blame for the disaster more broadly on the "ineptitude" of both the local leaders and the CCP Central Committee.

    At the Jiangxi Soviet

    The campaigns against the Communists in the cities represented a setback for the party and in particular to the Comintern Soviet advisers, who saw the mobilization of the urban proletariat as the force for the advancement of communism. Contrary to the urban vision of the revolution, based on the Soviet experience, the Communist leader Mao Zedong saw the rural peasants as the revolutionary force in China. In a mountainous area of Jiangxi province, where Mao went to establish a communist system, there developed the embryo of a future state of China under communism, which adopted the official name of the Chinese Soviet Republic, but was better known as the "Jiangxi Soviet".

    In one of the most important cities in the Soviet zone, Ruijin, Deng took over as secretary of the Party Committee in the summer of 1931. In the winter of 1932, Deng went on to play the same position in the nearby district of Huichang. In 1933 he became director of the propaganda department of the Provincial Party Committee in Jiangxi. It was then that he married a young woman he had met in Shanghai named Jin Weiying.

    The successes of the Soviet in Jiangxi made the party leaders decide to move to Jiangxi from Shanghai. The confrontation among Mao, the party leaders, and their Soviet advisers was increasingly tense and the struggle for power between the two factions led to the removal of Deng, who favored the ideas of Mao, from his position in the propaganda department. Despite the strife within the party, the Jiangxi Soviet became the first successful experiment of communist rule in rural China. It even issued stamps and paper money under the letterhead of the Soviet Republic of China, and the army of Chiang Kai-shek finally decided to attack the communist area.

    Long March

    See main article: Long March. Surrounded by the more powerful nationalist army, the Communists fled Jiangxi in October 1934. Thus began the epic movement that would mark a turning point in the development of Chinese communism. The evacuation was difficult because the Army of the nationalists had taken positions in all areas occupied by the Communists. Advancing through remote and mountainous terrain, some 100,000 men managed to escape Jiangxi, starting a long strategic retreat through the interior of China, which ended one year later when between 8,000 and 9,000 survivors reached the northern province of Shaanxi.

    During the Zunyi Conference at the beginning of the Long March, the so-called 28 Bolsheviks, led by Bo Gu and Wang Ming, were ousted from power and Mao Zedong, to the dismay of the Soviet Union, became the new leader of the Chinese Communist Party. The pro-Soviet Chinese Communist Party had ended and a new rural-inspired party emerged under the leadership of Mao. Deng had once again become a leading figure in the party.

    The confrontation between the two parties was temporarily interrupted, however, by the Japanese invasion, forcing the Kuomintang to form an alliance for the second time with the Communists to defend the nation against external aggression.

    Japanese invasion

    The invasion of Japanese troops in 1937 marked the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War. During the invasion, Deng remained in the area controlled by the Communists in the north, where he assumed the role of deputy political director of the three divisions of the restructured Communist army. From September 1937 until January 1938, he lived in Buddhist monasteries and temples in the Wutai Mountains. In January 1938, he was appointed as Political Commissar of the 129th division of the Eighth Route Army commanded by Liu Bocheng, starting a long-lasting partnership with Liu.

    Deng stayed for most of the conflict with the Japanese in the war front in the area bordering the provinces of Shanxi, Henan and Hebei, then traveled several times to the city of Yan'an, where Mao had established the basis for Communist Party leadership. While in Henan, he delivered the famous report, "The Victorious Situation of Leaping into the Central Plains and Future Policies and Strategies", at a Gospel Hall where he lived for some time.[23] [24] In one of his trips to Yan'an in 1939, he married, for the third and last time in his life, Zhuo Lin, a young native of Kunming, who, like other young idealists of the time, had traveled to Yan'an to join the Communists.

    Deng was considered a "revolutionary veteran" because of his participation in the Long March.[25] He took a leading role in the Hundred Regiments Offensive which boosted his standing among his comrades.[26]

    Resumed war against the Nationalists

    After Japan's defeat in World War II, Deng traveled to Chongqing, the city in which Chiang Kai-shek established his government during the Japanese invasion, to participate in peace talks between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party. The results of those negotiations were not positive and military confrontation between the two antagonistic parties resumed shortly after the meeting in Chongqing.

    While Chiang Kai-shek re-established the government in Nanjing, the capital of the Republic of China, the Communists were fighting for control in the field. Following up with guerrilla tactics from their positions in rural areas against cities under the control of the government of Chiang and their supply lines, the Communists were increasing the territory under their control, and incorporating more and more soldiers who had deserted the Nationalist army.

    Deng played a major part in the Huaihai Campaign against the nationalists.[26]

    In the final phase of the war, Deng again exercised a key role as political leader and propaganda master as Political Commissar of the 2nd Field Army commanded by Liu Bocheng where he was instrumental in the PLA's march into Tibet. He also participated in disseminating the ideas of Mao Zedong, which turned into the ideological foundation of the Communist Party. His political and ideological work, along with his status as a veteran of the Long March, placed him in a privileged position within the party to occupy positions of power after the Communist Party managed to defeat Chiang Kai-shek and founded the People's Republic of China.

    Political career under Mao

    Local leadership

    On 1 October 1949, Deng attended the proclamation of the People's Republic of China in Beijing. At that time, the Communist Party controlled the entire north, but there were still parts of the south held by the Kuomintang regime. He became responsible for leading the pacification of southwest China, in his capacity as the first secretary of the Department of the Southwest. This organization had the task of managing the final takeover of that part of the country still held by the Kuomintang; Tibet remained independent for another year.

    The Kuomintang government was being forced to leave Guangzhou (Canton), and established Chongqing (Chungking) as a new provisional capital. There, Chiang Kai-shek and his son Chiang Ching-kuo, a former classmate of Deng in Moscow, wanted to stop the advance of the Communist Party forces.

    Under the political control of Deng, the Communist army took over Chongqing in late November 1949 and entered Chengdu, the last bastion of power of Chiang Kai-shek, a few days later. At that time Deng became mayor of Chongqing, while he simultaneously was the leader of the Communist Party in the southwest, where the Communist army, now proclaiming itself the People's Liberation Army, suppressed resistance loyal to the old Kuomintang regime. In 1950, the Communist Party-ruled state also seized control over Tibet.

    In a 1951 speech to cadres preparing to supervise campaigns in the land reform movement, Deng instructed that while cadres should help peasants carry out nonviolent "speak reason struggle", they also had to remember that as a mass movement, land reform was not a time to be "refined and gentle".[27] Expressing his view as a rhetorical question, Deng stated that while ideally no landlords would die in the process, "If some tightfisted landlords hang themselves, does that mean our policies are wrong? Are we responsible?"[28]

    Deng Xiaoping would spend three years in Chongqing, the city where he had studied in his teenage years before going to France. In 1952 he moved to Beijing, where he occupied different positions in the central government.

    Political rise in Beijing

    See main article: Anti-Rightist Movement and Great Leap Forward.

    In July 1952, Deng came to Beijing to assume the posts of Vice Premier and Deputy Chair of the Committee on Finance. Soon after, he took the posts of Minister of Finance and Director of the Office of Communications. In 1954, he was removed from all these positions, holding only the post of Vice Premier. In 1956, he became Head of the Communist Party's Organization Department and member of the Central Military Commission.

    After officially supporting Mao Zedong in his Anti-Rightist Movement of 1957, Deng acted as Secretary-General of the Secretariat and ran the country's daily affairs with President Liu Shaoqi and Premier Zhou Enlai. Deng and Liu's policies emphasized economics over ideological dogma, an implicit departure from the mass fervor of the Great Leap Forward.

    Both Liu and Deng supported Mao in the mass campaigns of the 1950s, in which they attacked the bourgeois and capitalists, and promoted Mao's ideology.[29] However, the economic failure of the Great Leap Forward was seen as an indictment on the ability of Mao to manage the economy. Peng Dehuai openly criticized Mao, while Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping, though more cautious, began to take charge of economic policy, leaving Mao out of day-to-day affairs of the party and state. Mao agreed to cede the presidency of the People's Republic of China (China's de jure head of state position) to Liu Shaoqi, while retaining his positions as leader of the party and the army.

    In 1955, he was considered as a candidate for the PLA rank of Marshal of the People's Republic of China but he was ultimately not awarded the rank.

    At the 8th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party in 1956, Deng supported removing all references to "Mao Zedong Thought" from the party statutes.[26]

    In 1963, Deng traveled to Moscow to lead a meeting of the Chinese delegation with Stalin's successor, Nikita Khrushchev. Relations between the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union had worsened since the death of Stalin. After this meeting, no agreement was reached and the Sino–Soviet split was consummated; there was an almost total suspension of relations between the two major communist powers of the time.[30]

    After the "Seven Thousand Cadres Conference" in 1962, Liu and Deng's economic reforms of the early 1960s were generally popular and restored many of the economic institutions previously dismantled during the Great Leap Forward. Mao, sensing his loss of prestige, took action to regain control of the state. Appealing to his revolutionary spirit, Mao launched the Cultural Revolution, which encouraged the masses to root out the right-wing capitalists who had "infiltrated the party". Deng was ridiculed as the "number two capitalist roader".[31]

    Deng was one of the primary drafters of the Third Five Year Plan.[32] In draft form, it emphasized a consumer focus and further development in China's more industrialized coastal cities. When Mao argued for a massive campaign to develop basic and national security industry in China's interior as a Third Front in case of invasion by the United States or Soviet Union, Deng was among the key leadership that did not support the idea. Following increased concerns of attack from the United States after the Gulf of Tonkin incident, Deng and other key leadership ultimately supported the Third Front construction, and the focus of the Third Year Plan changed to industrialization of the interior.

    Target of two purges

    Cultural Revolution

    Mao feared that the reformist economic policies of Deng and Liu could lead to restoration of capitalism and end the Chinese Revolution.[33] For this and other reasons, Mao launched the Cultural Revolution in 1966, during which Deng fell out of favor and was forced to retire from all his positions.

    During the Cultural Revolution, he and his family were targeted by Red Guards, who imprisoned Deng's eldest son, Deng Pufang. Deng Pufang was tortured and jumped out, or was thrown out, of the window of a four-story building in 1968, becoming a paraplegic. In October 1969 Deng Xiaoping was sent to the Xinjian County Tractor Factory in rural Jiangxi province to work as a regular worker.[34] In his four years there,[35] Deng spent his spare time writing. He was purged nationally, but to a lesser scale than President Liu Shaoqi.

    In 1971, Mao's second official successor and the sole Vice Chairman of the party, Lin Biao, was killed in an air crash. According to official reports, Lin was trying to flee from China after a failed coup against Mao. Mao purged all of Lin's allies, who made up nearly all of the senior ranks of the PLA, leaving Deng (who had been political commissar of the 2nd Field Army during the civil war) the most influential of the remaining army leaders. In the time that followed, Deng wrote to Mao twice to say that he had learned a lesson from the Lin Biao incident, admitted that he had "capitalist trends" and did not "hold high the great banner of Mao Zedong Thought", and expressed the hope that he could work for the Party to make up for his mistakes.[36] Premier Zhou Enlai was Mao's third successor but he fell ill with cancer and made Deng his choice as successor. In February 1973, Deng returned to Beijing, after Zhou brought him back from exile in order for Deng to focus on reconstructing the Chinese economy.[37] Zhou was also able to convince Mao to bring Deng back into politics in October 1974 as First Vice-Premier, in practice running daily affairs.[38] He remained careful, however, to avoid contradicting Maoist ideology on paper. In January 1975, he was additionally elected Vice Chairman of the party by the 10th Central Committee for the first time in his party career; Li Desheng had to resign in his favour. Deng was one of five Vice Chairmen, with Zhou being the First Vice Chairman.

    During his brief ascendency in 1973, Deng established the Political Research Office, headed by intellectuals Hu Qiaomu, Yu Guangyuan and Hu Sheng, delegated to explore approaches to political and economic reforms. He led the group himself and managed the project within the State Council, in order to avoid rousing the suspicions of the Gang of Four.

    In 1975, Deng sought to re-orient Chinese Academy of Sciences towards more theoretical research, which had not been a focus during the Cultural Revolution.[39] Deng described scientific research in China as lagging behind the needs of socialist construction and the state of the advanced countries, and stated that to catch up, China should emphasize basic science in order to develop a sound theoretical foundation. Although this approach fell out of political favor when Deng was purged, Deng's approach to balancing applied and basic research was adopted as CAS's official policy in June 1977.

    The Cultural Revolution was not yet over, and a radical leftist political group known as the Gang of Four, led by Mao's wife Jiang Qing, competed for power within the Party. The Gang saw Deng as their greatest challenge to power.[40] Mao, too, was suspicious that Deng would destroy the positive reputation of the Cultural Revolution, which Mao considered one of his greatest policy initiatives. Beginning in late 1975, Deng was asked to draw up a series of self-criticisms. Although he admitted to having taken an "inappropriate ideological perspective" while dealing with state and party affairs, he was reluctant to admit that his policies were wrong in essence. His antagonism with the Gang of Four became increasingly clear, and Mao seemed to lean in the Gang's favour. Mao refused to accept Deng's self-criticisms and asked the party's Central Committee to "discuss Deng's mistakes thoroughly".

    "Criticize Deng" campaign

    See also: Counterattack the Right-Deviationist Reversal-of-Verdicts Trend. Zhou Enlai died in January 1976, to an outpouring of national grief. Zhou was a very important figure in Deng's political life, and his death eroded his remaining support within the Party's Central Committee. After Deng delivered Zhou's official eulogy at the state funeral,[26] the Gang of Four, with Mao's permission, began the "Counterattack the Right-Deviationist Reversal-of-Verdicts Trend" campaign. Hua Guofeng, not Deng, was selected to become Zhou's successor as Premier on 4 February 1976.

    On 2 February 1976, the Central Committee issued a Top-Priority Directive, officially transferring Deng to work on "external affairs" and thus removing him from the party's power apparatus. Deng stayed at home for several months, awaiting his fate. The Political Research Office was promptly dissolved, and Deng's advisers such as Yu Guangyuan suspended. As a result, the political turmoil halted the economic progress Deng had labored for in the past year.[41] On 3 March, Mao issued a directive reaffirming the legitimacy of the Cultural Revolution and specifically pointed to Deng as an internal, rather than external, problem. This was followed by a Central Committee directive issued to all local party organs to study Mao's directive and criticize Deng.

    Deng's reputation as a reformer suffered a severe blow when the Qingming Festival, after the mass public mourning of Zhou on a traditional Chinese holiday, culminated in the Tiananmen Incident on 5 April 1976, an event the Gang of Four branded as counter-revolutionary and threatening to their power. Furthermore, the Gang deemed Deng the mastermind behind the incident, and Mao himself wrote that "the nature of things has changed".[42] This prompted Mao to remove Deng from all leadership positions, although he retained his party membership. As a result, on 6 April 1976 Premier Hua Guofeng was also appointed to Deng's position as Vice Chairman and at the same time received the vacant position of First Vice Chairman, which Zhou had held, making him Mao's fourth official successor.

    Leadership

    Paramount leader

    Following Mao's death on 9 September 1976 and the purge of the Gang of Four in October 1976, Premier Hua Guofeng succeeded as Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party and gradually emerged as the de facto leader of China. Prior to Mao's death, the only governmental position Deng held was that of First Vice Premier of the State Council,[43] but Hua Guofeng wanted to rid the Party of extremists and successfully marginalised the Gang of Four. On 22 July 1977, Deng was restored to the posts of vice-chairman of the Central Committee, Vice-chairman of the Military Commission and Chief of the General Staff of the People's Liberation Army.[44]

    By carefully mobilizing his supporters within the party, Deng outmaneuvered Hua, who had pardoned him, then ousted Hua from his top leadership positions by 1980. In contrast to previous leadership changes, Deng allowed Hua to retain membership in the Central Committee and quietly retire, helping to set the precedent that losing a high-level leadership struggle would not result in physical harm.

    During his paramount leadership, his official state positions were Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference from 1978 to 1983 and Chairman of the Central Military Commission (an ad hoc body comprising the most senior members of the party elite) of the People's Republic of China from 1983 to 1990, while his official party positions were Vice Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party from 1977 to 1982, Chairman of the Central Military Commission of the Chinese Communist Party from 1981 to 1989 and Chairman of the Central Advisory Commission from 1982 to 1987. He was offered the rank of General First Class in 1988 when the PLA restored military ranks, but as in 1955, he once again declined. Even after retiring from the Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party in 1987 and the Central Military Commission in 1989, Deng continued to exert influence over China's policies until his death in 1997.

    Important decisions were always taken in Deng's home in Zhongnanhai with a caucus of eight senior party cadres, called "Eight Elders", especially with Chen Yun and Li Xiannian. Despite Deng's recognition as paramount leader, in practice these elders governed China as a small collective leadership.[45] Deng ruled as "paramount leader" although he never held the top title of the party, and was able to successively remove three party leaders, including Hu Yaobang.[46] Deng stepped down from the Central Committee and its Politburo Standing Committee. However, he remained as the chairman of the State and Party's Central Military Commission and was still seen as the paramount leader of China rather than General Secretary Zhao Ziyang and Presidents Li Xiannian and Yang Shangkun.

    Boluan Fanzheng

    See main article: Boluan Fanzheng. Deng repudiated the Cultural Revolution and, in 1977, launched the "Beijing Spring", which allowed open criticism of the excesses and suffering that had occurred during the period, and restored the National College Entrance Examination (Gao Kao) which was cancelled for ten years during the Cultural Revolution. Meanwhile, he was the impetus for the abolition of the class background system. Under this system, the CCP removed employment barriers to Chinese deemed to be associated with the former landlord class; its removal allowed a faction favoring the restoration of the private market to enter the Communist Party.

    Deng gradually outmaneuvered his political opponents. By encouraging public criticism of the Cultural Revolution, he weakened the position of those who owed their political positions to that event, while strengthening the position of those like himself who had been purged during that time. Deng also received a great deal of popular support. As Deng gradually consolidated control over the CCP, Hua was replaced by Zhao Ziyang as premier in 1980, and by Hu Yaobang as party chairman in 1981, despite the fact that Hua was Mao Zedong's designated successor as the "paramount leader" of the Chinese Communist Party and the People's Republic of China. During the "Boluan Fanzheng" period, the Cultural Revolution was invalidated, and victims of more than 3 million "unjust, false, wrongful cases" by 1976 were officially rehabilitated.[47]

    Deng's elevation to China's new number-one figure meant that the historical and ideological questions around Mao Zedong had to be addressed properly. Because Deng wished to pursue deep reforms, it was not possible for him to continue Mao's hard-line "class struggle" policies and mass public campaigns. In 1982 the Central Committee of the Communist Party released a document entitled On the Various Historical Issues since the Founding of the People's Republic of China. Mao retained his status as a "great Marxist, proletarian revolutionary, militarist, and general", and the undisputed founder and pioneer of the country and the People's Liberation Army. "His accomplishments must be considered before his mistakes", the document declared. Deng personally commented that Mao was "seven parts good, three parts bad". The document also steered the prime responsibility of the Cultural Revolution away from Mao (although it did state that "Mao mistakenly began the Cultural Revolution") to the "counter-revolutionary cliques" of the Gang of Four and Lin Biao.

    International affairs

    Deng prioritized China's modernization and opening up to the outside world, stating that China's "strategy in foreign affairs is to seek a peaceful environment" for the Four Modernizations.[48] Under Deng's leadership, China opened up to the outside world, to learn from more advanced countries. Deng developed the principle that in foreign affairs, China should keep a low-profile and bide its time. He continued to seek an independent position between the United States and the Soviet Union. Although Deng retained control over key national security decisions, he also delegated power to bureaucrats in routine matters, ratifying consensus decisions and stepping in if a bureaucratic consensus could not be reached. In contrast to the Mao-era, Deng involved more parties in foreign policy decision-making, decentralizing the foreign policy bureaucracy.[49] This decentralized approach led to consideration of a number of interests and views, but also fragmentation of policy institutions and extensive bargaining between different bureaucratic units during the policy-making process.

    In November 1978, after the country had stabilized following political turmoil, Deng visited Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur and Singapore and met with Singapore's Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew. Deng was very impressed with Singapore's economic development, greenery and housing, and later sent tens of thousands of Chinese to Singapore and countries around the world to learn from their experiences and bring back their knowledge. Lee Kuan Yew, on the other hand, advised Deng to stop exporting Communist ideologies to Southeast Asia, advice that according to Lee, Deng later followed.[50] [51] In late 1978, the aerospace company Boeing announced the sale of 747 aircraft to various airlines in the PRC, and the beverage company Coca-Cola made public their intention to open a production plant in Shanghai.

    On 1 January 1979, the United States recognized the People's Republic of China, leaving the (Taiwan) Republic of China's nationalist government to one side, and business contacts between China and the West began to grow.[52]

    In early 1979, Deng undertook an official visit to the United States, meeting President Jimmy Carter in Washington as well as several Congressmen. The Chinese insisted that former President Richard Nixon be invited to the formal White House reception, a symbolic indication of their assertiveness on the one hand, and their desire to continue with the Nixon initiatives on the other. As part of the discussions with Carter, Deng sought United States approval for China's contemplated invasion of Vietnam in the Sino-Vietnamese war.[53] According to United States National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski, Carter reserved judgment, an action which Chinese diplomats interpreted as tacit approval, and China launched the invasion shortly after Deng's return.

    During the visit, Deng visited the Johnson Space Center in Houston, as well as the headquarters of Coca-Cola and Boeing in Atlanta and Seattle, respectively. With these visits so significant, Deng made it clear that the new Chinese regime's priorities were economic and technological development.

    Deng took personal charge of the final negotiations with the United States on normalizing foreign relations between the two countries.[54] In response to criticism from within the Party regarding his United States policy, Deng wrote, "I am presiding over the work on the United States. If there are problems, I take full responsibility."

    Sino-Japanese relations improved significantly.[55] Deng used Japan as an example of a rapidly progressing power that set a good example for China economically.[56]

    Deng initially continued to adhere to the Maoist line of the Sino–Soviet split era that the Soviet Union was a superpower as "hegemonic" as the United States, but even more threatening to China because of its close proximity.[57] Relations with the Soviet Union improved after Mikhail Gorbachev took over the Kremlin in 1985, and formal relations between the two countries were finally restored at the 1989 Sino-Soviet Summit.[58]

    Deng responded to the Western sanctions following the Tiananmen Square protests by adopting the "twenty-four character guidelines" for China's international affairs: observe carefully (冷静观察), secure China's positions (稳住阵脚), calmly cope with the challenges (沉着应付), hide China's capacities and bide its time (韬光养晦), be good at maintaining a low profile (善于守拙), and never claim leadership (绝不当头).[59]

    The end of the Cold War and dissolution of the Soviet Union removed the original motives underlying rapprochement between China and the United States.[60] Deng was motivated by concerns that the United States might curtail support for China's modernization, and adopted a low-profile foreign policy to live with the fact of United States hegemony and focus primarily on domestic development. In this period of its foreign policy, China focused on building good relations with its neighbors and actively participating in multi-lateral institutions. As academic Suisheng Zhao writes in evaluating Deng's foreign policy legacy, "Deng's developmental diplomacy helped create a favorable external environment for China's rise in the twenty-first century. His hand-picked successors, Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao, faithfully followed his course."

    In 1990 when he met Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau he stated "The key principle governing the new international order should be noninterference in other countries’ internal affairs and social systems. It won't work to require all the countries in the world to copy the patterns set by the United States, Britain and France."[61] Deng championed the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence stating that they should be used as the "guiding norms of international relations".[62]

    Reform and Opening-up

    See main article: Chinese economic reform. At the outset of China's reform and opening up, Deng set out the Four Cardinal Principles that had to be maintained in the process: (1) the leadership of the Communist Party, (2) the socialist road, (3) Marxism, and (4) the dictatorship of the proletariat.[63] Overall, reform proceeded gradually, with Deng delegating specific issues to proteges such as Hu Yaobang or Zhao Ziyang, who in turn addressed them under the guiding principle of "seeking truth from facts" - meaning that the correctness of an approach had to be gauged by its economic results. Deng described reform and opening up as a "large scale experiment" requiring thorough "experimentation in practice" instead of textbook knowledge.[64]

    Four modernizations

    See main article: Four Modernizations. Deng quoted the old proverb "it doesn't matter whether a cat is black or white, if it catches mice it is a good cat." The point was that capitalistic methods worked.[65] Deng worked with his team, especially as Zhao Ziyang, who in 1980 replaced Hua Guofeng as premier, and Hu Yaobang, who in 1981 did the same with the post of party chairman. Deng thus took the reins of power and began to emphasize the goals of "four modernizations" (economy, agriculture, scientific and technological development and national defense). He announced an ambitious plan of opening and liberalizing the economy.[66]

    The last position of power retained by Hua Guofeng, chairman of the Central Military Commission, was taken by Deng in 1981. However, progress toward military modernization went slowly. A border war with Vietnam in 1977–1979 made major changes unwise. The war puzzled outside observers, but Xiaoming Zhang argues that Deng had multiple goals: stopping Soviet expansion in the region, obtain American support for his four modernizations, and mobilizing China for reform and integration into the world economy. Deng also sought to strengthen his control of the PLA, and demonstrate to the world that China was capable of fighting a real war. Zhang thinks punishment of Vietnam for its invasion of Cambodia was a minor factor.[67] In the event, the Chinese forces did poorly, in terms of equipment, strategy, leadership, and battlefield performance. Deng subsequently used the PLA's poor performance to overcome resistance by military leaders to his military reforms.

    China's primary military threat came from the Soviet Union, which was much more powerful despite having fewer soldiers, owing to its more advanced weapons technology. In March 1981, Deng deemed a military exercise necessary for the PLA, and in September, the North China Military Exercise took place, becoming the largest exercise conducted by the PLA since the founding of the People's Republic. Moreover, Deng initiated the modernization of the PLA and decided that China first had to develop an advanced civilian scientific infrastructure before it could hope to build modern weapons. He therefore concentrated on downsizing the military, cutting 1 million troops in 1985 (百万大裁军),[68] retiring the elderly and corrupt senior officers and their cronies. He emphasized the recruitment of much better educated young men who would be able to handle the advanced technology when it finally arrived. Instead of patronage and corruption in the officer corps, he imposed strict discipline in all ranks. In 1982 he established a new Commission for Science, Technology, and Industry for National Defense to plan for using technology developed in the civilian sector.[69]

    Three steps to economic development

    In 1986, Deng explained to Mike Wallace on 60 Minutes that some people and regions could become prosperous first in order to bring about common prosperity faster.[70] In October 1987, at the Plenary Session of the National People's Congress, Deng was re-elected as Chairman of the Central Military Commission, but he resigned as Chairman of the Central Advisory Commission and was succeeded by Chen Yun. Deng continued to chair and develop the reform and opening up as the main policy, and he advanced the three steps suitable for China's economic development strategy within seventy years: the first step, to double the 1980 GNP and ensure that the people have enough food and clothing, was attained by the end of the 1980s; the second step, to quadruple the 1980 GNP by the end of the 20th century, was achieved in 1995 ahead of schedule; the third step, to increase per capita GNP to the level of the medium-developed countries by 2050, at which point, the Chinese people will be fairly well-off and modernization will be basically realized.[71]

    Further reforms

    See main article: Socialist market economy.

    Improving relations with the outside world was the second of two important philosophical shifts outlined in Deng's program of reform termed Gaige Kaifang (lit. Reforms and Openness). China's domestic social, political, and most notably, economic systems would undergo significant changes during Deng's time. The goals of Deng's reforms were summed up by the Four Modernizations, those of agriculture, industry, science and technology, and the military.

    The strategy for achieving these aims of becoming a modern, industrial nation was the socialist market economy. Deng argued that China was in the primary stage of socialism and that the duty of the party was to perfect so-called "socialism with Chinese characteristics",[72] and "seek truth from facts". (This somewhat resembles the Leninist theoretical justification of the New Economic Policy (NEP) in the 1920s, which argued that the Soviet Union had not gone deeply enough into the capitalist phase and therefore needed limited capitalism in order to fully evolve its means of production.) The "socialism with Chinese characteristics" settles a benign structure for the implementation of ethnic policy and forming a unique method of ethnic theory.[73]

    Deng's economic policy prioritized developing China's productive forces.[74] In Deng's view, this development "is the most fundamental revolution from the viewpoint of historical development[,]" and "[p]oor socialism" is not socialism. His theoretical justification for allowing market forces was:

    Unlike Hua Guofeng, Deng believed that no policy should be rejected outright simply because it was not associated with Mao. Unlike more conservative leaders such as Chen Yun, Deng did not object to policies on the grounds that they were similar to ones that were found in capitalist nations.

    This political flexibility towards the foundations of socialism is strongly supported by quotes such as:

    Although Deng provided the theoretical background and the political support to allow economic reform to occur, the general consensus amongst historians is that few of the economic reforms that Deng introduced were originated by Deng himself. Premier Zhou Enlai, for example, pioneered the Four Modernizations years before Deng. In addition, many reforms would be introduced by local leaders, often not sanctioned by central government directives. If successful and promising, these reforms would be adopted by larger and larger areas and ultimately introduced nationally. An often cited example is the household responsibility system, which was first secretly implemented by a poor rural village at the risk of being convicted as "counter-revolutionary". This experiment proved very successful.[75] Deng openly supported it and it was later adopted nationally. Many other reforms were influenced by the experiences of the East Asian Tigers.[76]

    This was in sharp contrast to the pattern of perestroika undertaken by Mikhail Gorbachev, in which most major reforms originated with Gorbachev himself. The bottom-up approach of Deng's reforms, in contrast to the top-down approach of perestroika, was likely a key factor in the success of the former.[77]

    Deng's reforms actually included the introduction of planned, centralized management of the macro-economy by technically proficient bureaucrats, abandoning Mao's mass campaign style of economic construction. However, unlike the Soviet model, management was indirect through market mechanisms. Deng sustained Mao's legacy to the extent that he stressed the primacy of agricultural output and encouraged a significant decentralization of decision making in the rural economy teams and individual peasant households. At the local level, material incentives, rather than political appeals, were to be used to motivate the labor force, including allowing peasants to earn extra income by selling the produce of their private plots at free market value.

    Export focus

    In the move toward market allocation, local municipalities and provinces were allowed to invest in industries that they considered most profitable, which encouraged investment in light manufacturing. Thus, Deng's reforms shifted China's development strategy to an emphasis on light industry and export-led growth. Light industrial output was vital for a developing country coming from a low capital base. With the short gestation period, low capital requirements, and high foreign-exchange export earnings, revenues generated by light manufacturing were able to be reinvested in technologically more advanced production and further capital expenditures and investments.

    However, in sharp contrast to the similar, but much less successful reforms in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the People's Republic of Hungary, these investments were not government mandated. The capital invested in heavy industry largely came from the banking system, and most of that capital came from consumer deposits. One of the first items of the Deng reforms was to prevent reallocation of profits except through taxation or through the banking system; hence, the reallocation in state-owned industries was somewhat indirect, thus making them more or less independent from government interference. In short, Deng's reforms sparked an industrial revolution in China.[78]

    These reforms were a reversal of the Maoist policy of economic self-reliance. China decided to accelerate the modernization process by stepping up the volume of foreign trade, especially the purchase of machinery from Japan and the West. In October 1978, to exchange the instruments of ratification for the "Treaty of Peace and Friendship between Japan and the People's Republic of China", Deng Xiaoping visited Japan for the first time and was warmly received by Prime Minister Takeo Fukuda and others. Deng Xiaoping was only Vice Premier during the time of his meetings with Japanese officials, but the Japanese government received Deng as the effective paramount leader of China due to his long history with the CCP, nonetheless. Deng was deemed the first Chinese leader to receive an audience in addition to Japanese Emperor Showa. A news article from NHK Japan in 1978 reported that Deng diplomatically stated "we talked about our past, but His Majesty's focus on building a better future is something I noticed." Deng’s statement suggests the new era of China’s political reform through foreign economic diplomacy.[79]

    Treaty of Peace and Friendship between Japan and the People's Republic of China is an ongoing pact between the two nations to this day. Article 1 of the treaty describes mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity, mutual non-aggression, and mutual non-interference in internal affairs. Article 2 proclaims anti-hegemony. Article 3 discusses the further development of economic and cultural relations between the two countries, and Article 4 addresses the relationship of this treaty with third countries. Although it took six years from the restoration of diplomatic relations for the peace treaty negotiations to be concluded as the "anti-hegemony" clause and the "third country" clause were considered the most contentious, the agreement still informs much of contemporary Sino-Japanese relations.[80] By participating in such export-led growth, China was able to step up the Four Modernizations by attaining certain foreign funds, market, advanced technologies and management experiences, thus accelerating its economic development. From 1980, Deng attracted foreign companies to a series of Special Economic Zones, where foreign investment and market liberalization were encouraged.[81] [82]

    The reforms sought to improve labor productivity. New material incentives and bonus systems were introduced. Rural markets selling peasants' homegrown products and the surplus products of communes were revived. Not only did rural markets increase agricultural output, they stimulated industrial development as well. With peasants able to sell surplus agricultural yields on the open market, domestic consumption stimulated industrialization as well and also created political support for more difficult economic reforms.

    There are some parallels between Deng's market socialism especially in the early stages, and Vladimir Lenin's NEP as well as those of Nikolai Bukharin's economic policies, in that both foresaw a role for private entrepreneurs and markets based on trade and pricing rather than central planning. As academics Christopher Marquis and Kunyuan Qiao observe, Deng had been present in the Soviet Union when Lenin implemented the NEP, and it is reasonable to infer that it may have impacted Deng's view that markets could exist within socialism. In first meeting between Deng and Armand Hammer, Deng pressed the industrialist and former investor in Lenin's Soviet Union for as much information on the new economic policy as possible.

    Return of Hong Kong and Macau

    From 1980 onwards, Deng led the expansion of the economy, and in political terms took over negotiations with the United Kingdom to return Hong Kong, meeting personally with then-Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. Thatcher had participated in the meetings with the hopes of keeping British rule over Hong Kong Island and Kowloon—two of the three constituent territories of the colony—but this was firmly rejected by Deng.[83] The result of these negotiations was the Sino-British Joint Declaration, signed on 19 December 1984, which formally outlined the United Kingdom's return of the whole Hong Kong colony to China by 1997. The Chinese government pledged to respect the economic system and civil liberties of the British colony for fifty years after the handover.[84] [85]

    Deng's theory of one country, two systems applied to Hong Kong and Macau and Deng intended to also present it as an attractive option to the people of Taiwan for eventual incorporation of that island, where sovereignty over the territory is still disputed.[86] In 1982, Deng first explained the concept of one country, two systems in relation to Taiwan.[87]

    Deng's statements during the 1987 drafting of the Basic Law of Hong Kong showed his view of the principle in the Hong Kong context.[88] At that time, Deng stated that the central government would not intervene in the daily business of Hong Kong, but predicted Hong Kong would sometimes have issues affecting national interests that would require the central government's involvement. Deng said, "after 1997, we shall still allow people in Hong Kong to attack the Communist Party of China and China verbally, but what if the words were turned into action, trying to convert Hong Kong into a base of opposition to the Chinese mainland under the pretext of 'democracy'? Then there’s no choice but intervention."[89] [90] In June 1988, Deng stated that "Hong Kong's political system today is neither the British system nor the American system, and it should not transplant the Western ways in the future."

    Population control and crime control

    See main article: Family planning policy. China's rapid economic growth presented several problems. The 1982 census revealed the extraordinary growth of the population, which already exceeded a billion people. Deng continued the plans initiated by Hua Guofeng to restrict birth to only one child, limiting women to one child under pain of administrative penalty.[91] The policy applied to urban areas, and included forced abortions.[92]

    In August 1983, Deng launched the "Strike hard" Anti-crime Campaign due to the worsening public safety after the Cultural Revolution.[93] It was reported that the government set quotas for 5,000 executions by mid-November, and sources in Taiwan claimed that as many as 60,000 people were executed in that time,[94] although more recent estimates have placed the number at 24,000 who were sentenced to death (mostly in the first "battle" of the campaign).[95] A number of people arrested (some even received death penalty) were children or relatives of government officials at various levels, including the grandson of Zhu De, demonstrating the principle of "all are equal before the law".[96] [97] [98] The campaign had an immediate positive effect on public safety, while controversies also arose such as whether some of the legal punishments were too harsh and whether the campaign had long-term positive effect on public safety.[99]

    Increasing economic freedom was being translated into a greater freedom of opinion, and critics began to arise within the system, including the famous dissident Wei Jingsheng, who coined the term "fifth modernization" in reference to democracy as a missing element in the renewal plans of Deng Xiaoping. In the late 1980s, dissatisfaction with the authoritarian regime and growing inequalities caused the biggest crisis to Deng's leadership.

    Crackdown of Tiananmen Square protests

    See main article: 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and June 9 Deng speech.

    The 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, culminating in the June Fourth Massacre, were a series of demonstrations in and near Tiananmen Square in the People's Republic of China (PRC) between 15 April and 5 June 1989, a year in which many other communist governments collapsed.

    The protests were sparked by the death of Hu Yaobang, a reformist official backed by Deng but ousted by the Eight Elders and the conservative wing of the politburo. Many people were dissatisfied with the party's slow response and relatively subdued funeral arrangements. Public mourning began on the streets of Beijing and universities in the surrounding areas. In Beijing, this was centered on the Monument to the People's Heroes in Tiananmen Square. The mourning became a public conduit for anger against perceived nepotism in the government, the unfair dismissal and early death of Hu, and the behind-the-scenes role of the "old men". By the eve of Hu's funeral, the demonstration had reached 100,000 people on Tiananmen Square. While the protests lacked a unified cause or leadership, participants raised the issue of corruption within the government and some voiced calls for economic liberalization and democratic reform[100] within the structure of the government while others called for a less authoritarian and less centralized form of socialism.[101] [102]

    During the demonstrations, Deng's pro-market ally General Secretary Zhao Ziyang supported the demonstrators and distanced himself from the Politburo. Martial law was declared on 20 May by the socialist hardliner, Chinese premier Li Peng, but the initial military advance on the city was blocked by residents. The movement lasted seven weeks. On 3–4 June, over two hundred thousand soldiers in tanks and helicopters were sent into the city to quell the protests by force, resulting in hundreds to thousands of casualties. Many ordinary people in Beijing believed that Deng had ordered the intervention, but political analysts do not know who was actually behind the order. However, Deng's daughter defends the actions that occurred as a collective decision by the party leadership.[103]

    To purge sympathizers of Tiananmen demonstrators, the Communist Party initiated a one-and-a-half-year-long program similar to the Anti-Rightist Movement. Old-timers like Deng Fei aimed to deal "strictly with those inside the party with serious tendencies toward bourgeois liberalization", and more than 30,000 communist officers were deployed to the task.

    Zhao was placed under house arrest by hardliners and Deng himself was forced to make concessions to them. He soon declared that "the entire imperialist Western world plans to make all socialist countries discard the socialist road and then bring them under the monopoly of international capital and onto the capitalist road". A few months later he said that the "United States was too deeply involved" in the student movement, referring to foreign reporters who had given financial aid to the student leaders and later helped them escape to various Western countries, primarily the United States through Hong Kong and Taiwan.

    Although Deng initially made concessions to the socialist hardliners, he soon resumed his reforms after his 1992 southern tour. After his tour, he was able to stop the attacks of the socialist hardliners on the reforms through their "named capitalist or socialist?" campaign.[104] Deng privately told former Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau that factions of the Communist Party could have grabbed army units and the country had risked a civil war.[105] Two years later, Deng endorsed Zhu Rongji, a Shanghai Mayor, as a vice-premier candidate. Zhu Rongji had refused to declare martial law in Shanghai during the demonstrations even though socialist hardliners had pressured him.[106]

    Resignation and 1992 southern tour

    See main article: Deng Xiaoping's southern tour. Officially, Deng decided to retire from top positions when he stepped down as Chairman of the Central Military Commission in November 1989 and his successor Jiang Zemin became the new Chairman of the Central Military Commission and paramount leader.[107] [108] China, however, was still in the era of Deng Xiaoping. He continued to be widely regarded as the de facto leader of the country, believed to have backroom control despite no official position apart from being chairman of the Chinese Contract Bridge Association,[109] and appointed Hu Jintao as Jiang's successor at the 14th Party Congress in 1992. Deng was recognized officially as "the chief architect of China's economic reforms and China's socialist modernization". To the Communist Party, he was believed to have set a good example for communist cadres who refused to retire at old age. He broke earlier conventions of holding offices for life. He was often referred to as simply Comrade Xiaoping, with no title attached.

    Because of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, Deng's power had been significantly weakened and there was a growing formalist faction opposed to Deng's reforms within the Communist Party. To reassert his economic agenda, in the spring of 1992, Deng made a tour of southern China, visiting Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Zhuhai and spending the New Year in Shanghai, using his travels as a method of reasserting his economic policy after his retirement from office.[110] [111] The 1992 Southern Tour is widely regarded as a critical point in the modern history of China, as it saved the Chinese economic reform and preserved the stability of the society.[112] [113] [114] [115] [116] Deng's health deteriorated drastically since 1994. In January 1995, Deng's daughter told the press that "A year ago, he could walk for 30 minutes twice a day, but now he cannot walk … He needs two people to support him."[117] It was also reported that Parkinson's experts were sent to Beijing to help him in 1995.[118]

    Death

    See main article: Death and state funeral of Deng Xiaoping. Deng died on 19 February 1997 at 9:08 p.m. Beijing time, aged 92 from a lung infection and Parkinson's disease.[119] [120] The public was largely prepared for his death, as there had been rumors that his health was deteriorating. At 10:00 on the morning of 24 February, people were asked by Premier Li Peng to pause in silence for three minutes. The nation's flags flew at half-mast for over a week. The nationally televised funeral, which was a simple and relatively private affair attended by the country's leaders and Deng's family, was broadcast on all cable channels. After the funeral, his organs were donated to medical research, the remains were cremated at Babaoshan Revolutionary Cemetery, and his ashes were subsequently scattered at sea, according to his wishes. For the next two weeks, Chinese state media ran news stories and documentaries related to Deng's life and death, with the regular 19:00 National News program in the evening lasting almost two hours over the regular broadcast time.

    Deng's successor, Jiang Zemin, maintained Deng's political and economic philosophies. Deng was eulogized as a "great Marxist, great Proletarian Revolutionary, statesman, military strategist, and diplomat; one of the main leaders of the Chinese Communist Party, the People's Liberation Army of China, and the People's Republic of China; the great architect of China's socialist opening-up and modernized construction; the founder of Deng Xiaoping Theory".[121] Some elements, notably modern Maoists and radical reformers (the far left and the far right), had negative views, however. In the following year, songs like "Story of Spring" by Dong Wenhua, which were created in Deng's honour shortly after Deng's southern tour in 1992, once again were widely played.

    Deng's death drew international reaction. UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan said Deng was to be remembered "in the international community at large as a primary architect of China's modernization and dramatic economic development". French President Jacques Chirac said "In the course of this century, few men have, as much as Deng, led a vast human community through such profound and determining changes"; British Prime Minister John Major commented about Deng's key role in the return of Hong Kong to Chinese control; Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien called Deng a "pivotal figure" in Chinese history. The Kuomintang chair in Taiwan also sent its condolences, saying it longed for peace, cooperation, and prosperity. The Dalai Lama voiced regret that Deng died without resolving questions over Tibet.[122]

    Legacy

    Deng's view that "development is the absolute principle" continues to shape the Chinese approach to governance.[123] At the Fourth Plenary Session of the 13th Central Committee, Jiang Zemin and the third generation of leaders stated, "Development is the Party's top priority in governing and rejuvenating the country." Likewise, Deng's emphasis on development as the absolute principle also shaped Hu Jintao's Scientific Outlook on Development and Xi Jinping's Chinese Dream, which emphasizes development as China's core task.

    Memorials

    Memorials to Deng have been low profile compared to other leaders, in keeping with Deng's image of pragmatism. Rather than being embalmed, as was Mao, he was cremated and his ashes were scattered at sea. There are some public displays, however. A bronze statue was erected on 14 November 2000, at the grand plaza of Lianhua Mountain Park in Shenzhen. This statue is dedicated to Deng's role as a planner and contributor to the development of the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone. The statue is 6m (20feet) high, with an additional 3.68-meter base, and shows Deng striding forward confidently. Many CCP high level leaders visit the statue. In addition, in coastal areas and on the island province of Hainan, Deng appeared on roadside billboards with messages emphasizing economic reform or his policy of one country, two systems.

    A bronze statue to commemorate Deng's 100th birthday was dedicated 13 August 2004 in the city of Guang'an, Deng's hometown, in southwest China's Sichuan. Deng is dressed casually, sitting on a chair and smiling. The Chinese characters on the pedestal were written by Jiang Zemin, then General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party and Chairman of the Central Military Commission.[124]

    Deng Xiaoping's Former Residence in his hometown of Paifang Village in Sichuan has been preserved as an historical museum.

    In Bishkek, capital of Kyrgyzstan, there is a six-lane boulevard, 25m (82feet) wide and 3.5km (02.2miles) long, the Deng Xiaoping Prospekt, which was dedicated on 18 June 1997. A two-meter high red granite monument stands at the east end of this route. The epigraph is written in Chinese, Russian and Kirghiz.[125] [126]

    The documentary, Deng Xiaoping, released by CCTV in January 1997, presents his life from his days as a student in France to his "Southern Tour" of 1993.[127] In 2014, CCTV released a TV series, Deng Xiaoping at History's Crossroads, in anticipation of the 110th anniversary of his birth.

    Assessment

    Deng has been called the "architect of contemporary China"[128] [129] and is widely considered to have been one of the most influential figures of the 20th century.[130] He was the Time Person of the Year in 1978 and 1985, the third Chinese leader (after Chiang Kai-shek and his wife Soong Mei-ling) and the fourth time for a communist leader (after Joseph Stalin, picked twice; and Nikita Khrushchev) to be selected.[131]

    Deng is remembered primarily for the economic reforms he initiated while paramount leader of the People's Republic of China, which pivoted China towards a market economy, led to high economic growth, increased standards of living of hundreds of millions,[132] expanded personal and cultural freedoms, and substantially integrated the country into the world economy.[133] [134] [135] More people were lifted out of poverty during his leadership than during any other time in human history, attributed largely to his reforms. For this reason, some have suggested that Deng should have been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.[136] [137] [138] Deng is also credited with reducing the cult of Mao Zedong and with bringing an end to the chaotic era of the Cultural Revolution.[139] Furthermore, his strong-handed tactics have been credited with keeping the People's Republic of China unified, in contrast to the other major Communist power of the time, the Soviet Union, which collapsed in 1991.[140]

    However, Deng is also remembered for human rights violations and for numerous instances of political violence.[141] As paramount leader, he oversaw the Tiananmen Square massacre; afterwards, he was influential in the Communist Party's domestic cover-up of the event.[142] [143] [144] Furthermore, he is associated with some of the worst purges during Mao Zedong's rule; for instance, he ordered an army crackdown on a Muslim village in Yunnan which resulted in the deaths of 1,600 people, including 300 children.

    As paramount leader, Deng also negotiated an end to the British colonial rule of Hong Kong and normalized relations with the United States and the Soviet Union.[145] In August 1980, he started China's political reforms by setting term limits for officials and proposing a systematic revision of China's third Constitution which was made during the Cultural Revolution; the new Constitution embodied Chinese-style constitutionalism and was passed by the National People's Congress in December 1982, with most of its content still being effective as of today.[146] [147] [148] [149] He helped establish China's nine-year compulsory education,[150] [151] and revived China's political reforms.[152]

    Works

    See also

    References

    General and cited sources

    Further reading

    External links

    Notes and References

    1. Web site: Deng Xiaoping .
    2. News: Denmark . Abraham . 40 years ago, Deng Xiaoping changed China — and the world . en-US . . live . 19 April 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190508043643/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2018/12/19/40-years-ago-deng-xiaoping-changed-china-and-the-world/ . 8 May 2019 . 0190-8286.
    3. Web site: Constitution of the Communist Party of China . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20211026032331/http://www.xinhuanet.com//english/download/Constitution_of_the_Communist_Party_of_China.pdf . 26 October 2021 . 18 February 2021 . Xinhuanet.
    4. 1 January 1979 . Man of the Year: Teng Hsiao-p'ing: Visions of a New China . live . . https://web.archive.org/web/20210419041030/http://content.time.com/time/covers/0,16641,19790101,00.html . 19 April 2021 . 19 April 2021.
    5. 6 January 1986 . Man of the Year: Deng Xiaoping . live . Time . https://web.archive.org/web/20191209202013/http://content.time.com/time/covers/0,16641,19860106,00.html . 9 December 2019 . 19 April 2021.
    6. Web site: 16 August 2010 . China overtakes Japan as world's second-largest economy . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20220612191236/https://www.theguardian.com/business/2010/aug/16/china-overtakes-japan-second-largest-economy1 . 12 June 2022 . 12 June 2022 . The Guardian.
    7. News: Barboza . David . 16 August 2010 . China Passes Japan as Second-Largest Economy . en-US . The New York Times . live . 12 June 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210411041855/https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/16/business/global/16yuan.html . 11 April 2021 . 0362-4331.
    8. Web site: 29 December 1997 . The arrival of the Hakkas in Sichuan Province . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20101104074554/http://www.asiawind.com/pub/forum/fhakka/mhonarc/msg00475.html . 4 November 2010 . 13 March 2010 . Asiawind.com.
    9. Web site: 14 January 2008 . Luodai, a Hakkanese town in Sichuan Province . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20180917215533/http://www.gov.cn/english/2008-01/14/content_857292.htm . 17 September 2018 . 14 May 2010 . GOV.cn.
    10. Book: Yingcong Dai . The Sichuan Frontier and Tibet: Imperial Strategy in the Early Qing . University of Washington Press . 2009 . 978-0-295-98952-5 . 25– . 20 July 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20161128154047/https://books.google.com/books?id=DYHfVVAAf_kC&pg=PA25 . 28 November 2016 . live.
    11. Web site: Deng Xiaoping – Childhood . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20180917215455/http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/dengxiaoping/103417.htm . 17 September 2018 . 14 May 2010 . China.org.cn.
    12. Web site: Deng Xiaoping quits smoking . UPI . 1 Apr 1991 . 23 Oct 2023.
    13. Book: Evans, Richard . Deng Xiaoping and the Making of Modern China . Deng Xiaoping and the Making of Modern China . 1995 . Penguin . 978-0-14-013945-7 . 2 . 5.
    14. Book: Xia, Zhengnong . Shanghai Dictionary Publishing House . 2003 . 9787532612369 . Chinese: 哲學卷 . Shanghai . 38 . zh:大辭海.
    15. Book: Marquis . Christopher . Mao and Markets: The Communist Roots of Chinese Enterprise . Qiao . Kunyuan . 2022 . . 978-0-300-26883-6 . New Haven . 10.2307/j.ctv3006z6k . j.ctv3006z6k . 1348572572 . Christopher Marquis . 253067190.
    16. Spence, Jonathan (1999), "In Search of Modern China", 310
    17. Book: Stewart, Whitney . Deng Xiaoping: Leader in a Changing China . 2001 . Twenty-First Century Books . 9780822549628 . 23.
    18. Book: Mair, Victor H. . Chinese Lives: The people who made a civilization . 2013 . Thames & Hudson . 9780500251928 . London . 215.
    19. http://www.sacu.org/dengfrance.html
    20. Bailey . Paul . 1988 . The Chinese Work-Study Movement in France . live . The China Quarterly . 115 . 115 . 441–461 . 10.1017/S030574100002751X . 654865 . 154375449 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210413085436/https://www.jstor.org/stable/654865 . 13 April 2021 . 19 February 2021. subscription .
    21. 22 March 2002 . Exiled son who saved the state . live . . https://web.archive.org/web/20121201132001/http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=167965&sectioncode=22 . 1 December 2012 . 2 December 2010.
    22. [#Gao08|Gao 2008]
    23. Web site: 豫西革命纪念馆和鲁山邓小平旧居扩建工程竣工 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20220711211823/http://www.gov.cn/jrzg/2008-04/25/content_954586.htm . 11 July 2022 . 11 July 2022.
    24. Web site: 西关大街,从历史中走来 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20220711211824/https://www.pds.gov.cn/contents/5380/181.html . 11 July 2022 . 11 July 2022.
    25. Book: Cheng Li . China's leaders . Rowman & Littlefield . 2001 . 9780847694976 . 131 . 6 March 2016 . registration.
    26. Web site: GREGOR BENTON . Assessing Deng Xiaoping . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20190129064154/https://www.jacobinmag.com/2019/01/deng-xiaoping-china-mao-communist-party . 29 January 2019 . 28 January 2019 . jacobinmag.com.
    27. Book: DeMare, Brian James . Land wars : the story of China's agrarian revolution . 2019 . . 978-1-5036-0849-8 . Stanford, California . 117 . 1048940018.
    28. Book: DeMare, Brian James . Land wars : the story of China's agrarian revolution . 2019 . . 978-1-5036-0849-8 . Stanford, California . 118 . 1048940018.
    29. Web site: The Man Who Re-Invented China Origins: Current Events in Historical Perspective . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20190725131635/https://origins.osu.edu/review/man-who-re-invented-china . 25 July 2019 . 27 July 2019 . origins.osu.edu. 17 September 2012 .
    30. Jacques Guillermaz, The Chinese Communist Party in Power, 1949–1976 (1976) pp. 320–331.
    31. Book: Henry He . Dictionary of the Political Thought of the People's Republic of China . Taylor & Francis . 2016 . 9781315500430 . 713 . 3 October 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210308070316/https://books.google.com/books?id=YCm3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PT713 . 8 March 2021 . live.
    32. Book: Meyskens, Covell F. . 2020 . . 978-1-108-78478-8 . Cambridge, United Kingdom . 10.1017/9781108784788 . 1145096137 . 218936313.
    33. News: Minqi Li . December 2008 . Socialism, capitalism, and class struggle: The Political economy of Modern china . Economic & Political Weekly.
    34. Shambaugh . David . 1993 . Deng Xiaoping: The Politician . . 135 . 135 . 457–490 . 10.1017/S0305741000013874 . 0305-7410 . 654098 . 154440131 . 23 February 2023. subscription .
    35. News: 26 July 2004 . Film makers flock to tractor factory to shoot Deng's stories . News Guandong . live . 18 February 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180917215515/http://www.newsgd.com/specials/deng100thbirthanniversary/newspictures/200407280046.htm . 17 September 2018.
    36. Book: Yan, Jiaqi . Turbulent decade : a history of the cultural revolution . 1996 . . 9780824865313 . Kwok . Daniel W. Y. . . 10.1515/9780824865313 . Yan Jiaqi . 23 February 2023.
    37. Book: Wood, Michael . The Story of China: A portrait of a civilisation and its people . 3 September 2020 . Simon & Schuster UK . 978-1-4711-7600-5 . 341 . In 1973, Premier Zhou Enlai had brought Deng back to Beijing from exile to focus on reconstructing the Chinese economy. . 18 November 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211118180611/https://books.google.com/books?id=wrueDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT341 . 18 November 2021 . live.
    38. Book: Dillon, Michael . Deng Xiaoping: The Man who Made Modern China . 27 October 2014 . Bloomsbury Publishing . 978-0-85772-467-0 . 201 . A major confrontation erupted on 4 October 1974 when Mao agreed, on the advice of Zhou Enlai, that Deng should be appointed first deputy premier of the State Council. . 18 November 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211118180612/https://books.google.com/books?id=qBGMDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA201 . 18 November 2021 . live.
    39. Book: Minami, Kazushi . People's Diplomacy: How Americans and Chinese Transformed US-China Relations during the Cold War . 2024 . . 9781501774157 . Ithaca, NY.
    40. Web site: Deng Rong's Memoirs: Chpt 49 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20081227130702/http://www.ls11.com/Article/jglx/gjjz/200408/4910.html . 27 December 2008.
    41. Book: Pantsov . Alexander . Levine . Steven I. . Deng Xiaoping: A Revolutionary Life . 2015 . Oxford University Press . 978-0-19-939203-2 . 20 May 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200806192838/https://books.google.com/books?id=w__VBgAAQBAJ . 6 August 2020 . live.
    42. Web site: Deng Rong's Memoirs: Chapter 53 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20081227130647/http://www.ls11.com/Article/jglx/gjjz/200408/4916.html . 27 December 2008.
    43. 1975–1976 and 1977–1980, Europa Publications (2002) "The People's Republic of Chine: Introductory Survey" The Europa World Year Book 2003 volume 1, (44th edition) Europa Publications, London, p. 1075, col. 1, ; and Bo, Zhiyue (2007) China's Elite Politics: Political Transition and Power Balancing World Scientific, Hackensack, New Jersey, p. 59,
    44. News: 22 July 1977 . 1977: Deng Xiaoping back in power . BBC News . live . 21 July 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170728025020/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/22/newsid_2516000/2516339.stm . 28 July 2017.
    45. Book: Ang, Yuen Yuen . 2016 . . 978-1-5017-0020-0 . 10.7591/j.ctt1zgwm1j . Yuen Yuen Ang.
    46. Xiang, Lanxin (20 April 2012). "Bo Xilai probe shows up China's outdated system of government". South China Morning Post
    47. Web site: 1989年6月1日 吴林泉、彭飞:胡耀邦同志领导平反"六十一人案"追记-胡耀邦史料信息网 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20210103094052/http://www.hybsl.cn/zonghe/xinwen/2008-01-23/7141.html . 3 January 2021 . 29 April 2020 . www.hybsl.cn . zh.
    48. Book: Zhao, Suisheng . The dragon roars back : transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy . 2023 . . 978-1-5036-3415-2 . Stanford, California . 9 . 1332788951.
    49. Book: Zhao, Suisheng . The dragon roars back : transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy . 2023 . . 978-1-5036-3088-8 . Stanford, California . 175–176 . 1331741429.
    50. Web site: 29 December 2005 . MFA, Singapore Press Release . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120302193654/http://app.mfa.gov.sg/2006/press/view_press_print.asp?post_id=1538 . 2 March 2012 . 27 November 2011 . App.mfa.gov.sg.
    51. Lee Kuan Yew, From Third World to First: The Singapore Story, 1965–2000, Volume 2, (HarperCollins: 2000), pp. 595–603
    52. Web site: United States announces that it will recognize communist China December 15, 1978 HISTORY . https://web.archive.org/web/20231205211107/https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/united-states-announces-that-it-will-recognize-communist-china . December 5, 2023 . January 15, 2024 . HISTORY.
    53. Book: Zhao, Suisheng . The Dragon Roars Back Transformational Leaders and Dynamics of Chinese Foreign Policy. . 2023 . . 978-1-5036-3415-2 . Stanford . 56 . 1346366969.
    54. Book: Zhao, Suisheng . The dragon roars back : transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy . 2023 . . 978-1-5036-3415-2 . Stanford, California . 9–10 . 1332788951.
    55. (Article 2) "The Contracting Parties declare that neither of them should seek hegemony in the Asia-Pacific region or in any other region and that each is opposed to efforts by any other country or group of countries to establish such hegemony." MOFA: Treaty of Peace and Friendship between Japan and the People's Republic of China
    56. Perkins, D in Barnett, A Doak and Ralph N Clough, Modernizing China : Post-Mao Reform and Development (Westgview Press, 1986), p 58.
    57. Michael E. Marti in China and the Legacy of Deng Xiaoping, (Brassy's, 2002) p. 19.
    58. News: Parks . Michael . 15 May 1989 . Gorbachev in China: The Communist Summit: Deng and Gorbachev: Great Reformers Battling Socialist Crises . Los Angeles Times . live . 8 March 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200729224552/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-05-15-mn-141-story.html . 29 July 2020.
    59. Book: Zhao, Suisheng . The dragon roars back : transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy . 2023 . . 978-1-5036-3415-2 . Stanford, California . 62 . 1332788951.
    60. Book: Zhao, Suisheng . The Dragon Roars Back: Transformational Leaders and Dynamics of Chinese Foreign Policy . 2022 . . 978-1-5036-3415-2 . 51 . 10.1515/9781503634152.
    61. Book: Chinese Foreign Policy Under Xi . 2017 . Taylor & Francis . 115.
    62. Book: Comparative Development of India & China Economic, Technological, Sectoral & Socio-cultural Insights . 2020 . SAGE Publications . 372.
    63. Book: Zhao, Suisheng . The dragon roars back : transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy . 2023 . . 978-1-5036-3088-8 . Stanford, California . 136 . 1331741429.
    64. Book: Heilmann, Sebastian . 2018 . . 978-962-996-827-4 . Sebastian Heilmann.
    65. Book: John Naisbitt . China's Megatrends: The 8 Pillars of a New Society . Doris Naisbitt . HarperBusiness . 2010 . 9780061963445 . 4 . registration.
    66. Mason . David . 1984 . China's Four Modernizations: Blueprint for Development or Prelude to Turmoil? . Asian Affairs . 11 . 47–70 . 10.1080/00927678.1984.10553699 . 3.
    67. Zhang . Xiaoming . 2010 . Deng Xiaoping and China's Decision to go to War with Vietnam . Journal of Cold War Studies . 12 . 3 . 3–29 . 10.1162/JCWS_a_00001 . 57559703.
    68. Web site: 6 May 1985 . Troop Cut to Save Money, Deng Says . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20200622133140/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1985-05-06-mn-4457-story.html . 22 June 2020 . 20 June 2020 . Los Angeles Times.
    69. Dreyer . June Teufel . 1988 . Deng Xiaoping and Modernization of the Chinese Military . Armed Forces & Society . 14 . 2 . 215–231 . 10.1177/0095327X8801400203 . 144391672.
    70. Book: Paulson, Henry M. . Dealing with China : an insider unmasks the new economic superpower . 2015 . 9781455504213 . First . New York . 21.
    71. Web site: The Three-Step Development Strategy . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20180917215520/http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/38199.htm . 17 September 2018 . 28 November 2010 . china.org.cn.
    72. News: 20 February 1997 . Deng Xiaoping Is Dead at 92; Architect of Modern China . The New York Times . live . 15 February 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170123203613/http://www.nytimes.com/1997/02/20/world/deng-xiaoping-is-dead-at-92-architect-of-modern-china.html . 23 January 2017.
    73. 万方数据知识服务平台 . live . 10.3969/j.issn.1004-1494.2011.05.008 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210217055507/http://d.wanfangdata.com.cn/periodical/ghlc201105008 . 17 February 2021 . 28 October 2020 . d.wanfangdata.com.cn.
    74. Boer . Roland . Roland Boer . 2021-10-01 . From Belgrade to Beijing : Comparing Socialist Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and China . World Review of Political Economy . 12 . 309 . 10.13169/worlrevipoliecon.12.3.0296 . 2042-8928 . 247967541. free .
    75. Dali Yang, Calamity and Reform in China, Stanford University Press, 1996
    76. Cited by David Shambaugh in Deng Xiaoping: portrait of a Chinese statesman, Oxford University, Oxford, 1995.
    77. Cited by Susan L. Shirk in The Political Logic of Economic Reform in China, University of California, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1993.
    78. FlorCruz, Jaime (19 December 2008) "Looking back over China's last 30 years" CNN
    79. Web site: NHK JAPAN . 鄧小平副首相 天皇皇后両陛下と会見 . NHK JAPAN . 30 May 2024.
    80. Lee . Chae-Jin . The Making of the Sino-Japanese Peace and Friendship Treaty . Pacific Affairs . 1979 . 52 . 1 . 420–445 . 10.2307/2757656 . 2757656 .
    81. Stoltenberg . Clyde D. . 1984 . China's Special Economic Zones: Their Development and Prospects . Asian Survey . 24 . 6 . 637–654 . 10.2307/2644396 . 0004-4687 . 2644396.
    82. Web site: Holmes . Frank . 21 April 2017 . China's New Special Economic Zone Evokes Memories Of Shenzhen . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20190322005508/https://www.forbes.com/sites/greatspeculations/2017/04/21/chinas-new-special-economic-zone-evokes-memories-of-shenzhen/ . 22 March 2019 . 22 March 2019 . Forbes.
    83. Hurst . Matthew . 2022 . Britain's Approach to the Negotiations over the Future of Hong Kong, 1979–1982 . The International History Review . 44 . 6 . 1386–1401 . 10.1080/07075332.2021.2024588 . 257431054 . free .
    84. Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, pp. 487–511.
    85. Nancy C. Jackson, "The Legal Regime of Hong Kong After 1997: An Examination of the Joint Declaration of the United Kingdom and the People's Republic of China". International Tax & Business Lawyer (1987): 377–423. Online
    86. Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, pp. 477–91.
    87. Book: Wu . Guoyou . An Ideological History of the Communist Party of China . Ding . Xuemai . 2020 . Royal Collins Publishing Group . 978-1-4878-0392-6 . Zheng . Qian . 3 . Montreal, Quebec . Sun . Li . Bryant . Shelly.
    88. Book: Hu, Richard . Reinventing the Chinese City . 2023 . . 978-0-231-21101-7 . New York.
    89. Web site: Speech at a Meeting with the Members of The Committee for Drafting the Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region . china.org.cn . 16 Apr 1987 . 1 Jan 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20050508210613/http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/dengxiaoping/103351.htm . 8 May 2005.
    90. Web site: 回歸25周年|重溫鄧小平與香港的那些事 . 香港01 . 2 Jul 2022 . zh . 1 Jan 2024.
    91. Web site: Family Planning in China . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20180619013045/http://www.china-un.ch/eng/bjzl/t176938.htm . 19 June 2018 . 28 November 2019 . www.china-un.ch.
    92. Wang Feng, Yong Cai, and Baochang Gu, "Population, policy, and politics: how will history judge China's one-child policy?". Population and Development Review 38 (2013): 115–129. online
    93. Web site: People's Daily Online -- China rejects "strike hard" anti-crime policy for more balanced approach . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20201018113603/http://en.people.cn/200703/14/eng20070314_357516.html . 18 October 2020 . 21 June 2020 . en.people.cn.
    94. Web site: In Human Rights, China Remains in the Maoist Era | the Heritage Foundation . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110516232433/http://heritage.org/Research/Reports/1985/06/In-Human-Rights-China-Remains-in-the-Maoist-Era . 16 May 2011 . 31 January 2017.
    95. News: 3 August 2013 . Strike less hard . The Economist . live . 23 March 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190323192208/https://www.economist.com/china/2013/08/03/strike-less-hard . 23 March 2019.
    96. Web site: 26 January 2018 . Detentions, torture, executions: how China dealt with mafia in the past . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20200622162409/https://www.scmp.com/news/china/policies-politics/article/2130679/chinas-decades-long-battle-organised-crime . 22 June 2020 . 21 June 2020 . South China Morning Post.
    97. Web site: Tao . Ying . 1983年"严打":非常时期的非常手段 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20200622051609/http://history.people.com.cn/GB/205396/12999227.html . 22 June 2020 . 21 June 2020 . history.people.com.cn . zh.
    98. Web site: 1 July 2010 . "严打"政策的前世今生 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20200203123314/http://www.criminallaw.com.cn/article/default.asp . 3 February 2020 . 21 June 2020 . criminallaw.com.cn . zh.
    99. Trevaskes . Susan . 2002 . Courts on the Campaign Path in China: Criminal Court Work in the "Yanda 2001" Anti-Crime Campaign . Asian Survey . 42 . 5 . 673–693 . 10.1525/as.2002.42.5.673 . 0004-4687 . 10.1525/as.2002.42.5.673 . free . 10072/6536.
    100. Web site: Nathan . Andrew J. . January–February 2001 . The Tiananmen Papers . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20081219055135/http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20010101faessay4257-p0/andrew-j-nathan/the-tiananmen-papers.html . 19 December 2008 . Foreign Affairs.
    101. Web site: 8 February 2006 . Voices for Tiananmen Square: Beijing Spring and the Democracy Movement . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20180917215455/http://www.socialanarchism.org/mod/magazine/display/32/index.php . 17 September 2018 . 13 March 2010 . Social Anarchism.
    102. Palmer, Bob (8 February 2006). Voices for Tiananmen Square: Beijing Spring and the Democracy Movement . Social Anarchism. 20.
    103. http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2007/06/25/2003366781 Deng Xiaoping's daughter defends his Tiananmen Square massacre decision
    104. Miles, James (1997). The Legacy of Tiananmen: China in Disarray. University of Michigan Press. .
    105. The Legacy of Tiananmen By James A. R. Miles
    106. The Politics of China By Roderick MacFarquhar
    107. News: Faison . Seth . 20 February 1997 . Deng Xiaoping Is Dead at 92; Architect of Modern China . en-US . A1 . The New York Times . live . 27 July 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170123203613/http://www.nytimes.com/1997/02/20/world/deng-xiaoping-is-dead-at-92-architect-of-modern-china.html . 23 January 2017 . 0362-4331.
    108. News: Denmark . Abraham . 19 December 2018 . Analysis 40 years ago, Deng Xiaoping changed China—and the world . The Washington Post . live . 27 July 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190508043643/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2018/12/19/40-years-ago-deng-xiaoping-changed-china-and-the-world/ . 8 May 2019.
    109. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/asia_pac/02/china_party_congress/china_ruling_party/how_china_is_ruled/html/party_elders.stm How China is ruled
    110. Web site: Fisher . Max . 2 June 2014 . This 1989 speech is one of China's most important . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20190727204832/https://www.vox.com/2014/6/2/5772016/this-1989-speech-is-one-of-the-most-important-in-chinas-history-and . 27 July 2019 . 27 July 2019 . Vox.
    111. Zhao . Suisheng . Suisheng Zhao . 1993 . Deng Xiaoping's Southern Tour: Elite Politics in Post-Tiananmen China . Asian Survey . 33 . 8 . 739–756 . 10.2307/2645086 . 0004-4687 . 2645086.
    112. Web site: 2009 . Deng Xiaoping's Southern Tour . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20170517044420/http://chinaconnectu.com/wp-content/pdf/DengXiaopingsSouthernTour.pdf . 17 May 2017 . 1 May 2020 . Berkshire Publishing Group LLC.
    113. Web site: Ma . Damien . 23 January 2012 . After 20 Years of 'Peaceful Evolution,' China Faces Another Historic Moment . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20190816112722/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/01/after-20-years-of-peaceful-evolution-china-faces-another-historic-moment/251764/ . 16 August 2019 . 1 May 2020 . The Atlantic . en-US.
    114. Web site: 21 August 2014 . 'How my father's speeches saved Chinese economic reform': Deng Xiaoping's daughter pays tribute . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20200803081210/https://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1578453/how-my-fathers-speeches-saved-chinese-economic-reform-deng-xiaopings . 3 August 2020 . 1 May 2020 . South China Morning Post.
    115. News: 18 December 2008 . The great pragmatist: Deng Xiaoping . en-GB . The Guardian . live . 1 May 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200502094413/https://www.theguardian.com/business/2008/dec/18/globaleconomy-economics . 2 May 2020 . 0261-3077.
    116. Zhao . Suisheng . 1993 . Deng Xiaoping's Southern Tour: Elite Politics in Post-Tiananmen China . Asian Survey . 33 . 8 . 739–756 . 10.2307/2645086 . 0004-4687 . 2645086.
    117. Web site: Health of China's Deng worsens . Tampa Bay Times . 14 Jan 1995 . 30 Nov 2023.
    118. Web site: Parkinson's experts sent to help Deng . South China Morning Post . 26 Jan 1995 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231130174822/https://www.scmp.com/article/104772/parkinsons-experts-sent-help-deng . 30 Nov 2023 . live . 30 Nov 2023.
    119. Book: Hsü, Immanuel C.Y. . The Rise of Modern China . 2000 . Oxford University Press . 9780195125047 . 6th . New York . 974 . Immanuel C. Y. Hsu.
    120. Web site: Deng Xiaoping, leader of China's economic reforms, dies . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20211026221211/https://apnews.com/c47e171cfed30e65e724dd709474c8fa . 26 October 2021 . 18 July 2021 . Associated Press.
    121. http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9702/24/china.deng/ CNN: China officially mourns Deng Xiaoping
    122. http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9702/19/deng.world.reax/index.html CNN:World leaders praise Deng's economic legacy
    123. Book: Meng, Wenting . Developmental Piece: Theorizing China's Approach to International Peacebuilding . 2024 . . 9783838219073 . Ibidem .
    124. Web site: China Daily article "Deng Xiaoping statue unveiled" . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20090503063737/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-08/14/content_365434.htm . 3 May 2009 . 13 March 2010 . China Daily.
    125. Web site: Turkistan-Newsletter Volume: 97-1:13, 20 June 1997 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20071004062636/http://www.euronet.nl/users/sota/TN97113.htm . 4 October 2007 . 2 December 2010.
    126. Web site: In Its Own Neighborhood, China Emerges as a Leader . Pomfret . John . Washington Post . 18 October 2001 . dead . Taiwan Security Research . https://web.archive.org/web/20020126221126/http://taiwansecurity.org/WP/2001/WP-101801-1.htm . 26 January 2002 . 18 August 2013.
    127. News: zh:文献纪录片《邓小平》 . zh-hans . CCTV . http://news.xinhuanet.com/video/2008-02/28/content_7686329.htm . dead . 23 September 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150815050311/http://news.xinhuanet.com/video/2008-02/28/content_7686329.htm . 15 August 2015 . 123.
    128. News: 8 December 2018 . Forty years after Deng opened China, reformists are cowed . The Economist . live . 27 July 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190727200903/https://www.economist.com/china/2018/12/08/forty-years-after-deng-opened-china-reformists-are-cowed . 27 July 2019 . 0013-0613.
    129. Web site: Huang . Dan Kopf, Echo . 21 August 2018 . Happy birthday Deng Xiaoping: Here are 10 charts showing how he changed China . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20190727200902/https://qz.com/1365629/happy-birthday-deng-xiaoping-these-charts-show-how-he-changed-china/ . 27 July 2019 . 27 July 2019 . Quartz.
    130. News: 27 August 2014 . Deng Xiaoping's lasting legacy . . live . 14 September 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190607215305/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2014/08/27/editorials/deng-xiaopings-lasting-legacy/ . 7 June 2019.
    131. Web site: Rosenberg . Jennifer . A Complete Look at Time's Person of the Year List, from 1927–2017 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20190727204832/https://www.thoughtco.com/times-man-of-the-year-list-1779824 . 27 July 2019 . 27 July 2019 . ThoughtCo.
    132. Book: Robert Dernberger . China in the Era of Deng Xiaoping . Sharpe . 1993 . 9781563242786 . 13 March 2010 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211201014443/https://books.google.com/books?id=mDS0GW7FH_0C&pg=PA179 . 1 December 2021 . live.
    133. Web site: Knight . John . January 2012 . Review: Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20190725131635/https://origins.osu.edu/review/man-who-re-invented-china . 25 July 2019 . 27 July 2019 . Origins . The Ohio State University.
    134. Web site: The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica . 1 November 2019 . Deng Xiaoping . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20191004231718/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Deng-Xiaoping#ref343482 . 4 October 2019 . 22 November 2019 . Encyclopaedia Britannica.
    135. News: Kopf . Dan . Lahiri . Tripti . 17 December 2018 . The charts that show how Deng Xiaoping unleashed China's pent-up capitalist energy in 1978 . Quartz . live . 22 November 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190930055340/https://qz.com/1498654/the-astonishing-impact-of-chinas-1978-reforms-in-charts/ . 30 September 2019.
    136. News: 13 November 2010 . Deng should have been first Chinese to get Nobel Peace Prize: Exco chief . South China Morning Post . live . 22 November 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20191101154103/https://www.scmp.com/article/730315/deng-should-have-been-first-chinese-get-nobel-peace-prize-exco-chief . 1 November 2019.
    137. News: Rein . Shaun . 14 December 2010 . How To Fix Western-Chinese Relations . Forbes . live . 22 November 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170109204050/http://www.forbes.com/2010/12/14/nobel-peace-prize-china-deng-gandhi-leadership-managing-rein.html#4e243ab562f3 . 9 January 2017.
    138. News: Byrnes . Sholto . 12 October 2010 . Ignoble reactions to the Nobel Peace Prize . New Statesmen . live . 22 November 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130608024808/http://www.newstatesman.com/blogs/the-staggers/2010/10/nobel-peace-china-singapore . 8 June 2013.
    139. News: 22 October 2011 . Deng Xiaoping's legacy: The Great Stabiliser . The Economist . live . 14 September 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190506090043/https://www.economist.com/books-and-arts/2011/10/22/the-great-stabiliser . 6 May 2019.
    140. News: 20 January 1997 . The Legacy of Deng Xiaoping . The New York Times . live . 14 September 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20171012113225/http://www.nytimes.com/1997/01/20/opinion/the-legacy-of-deng-xiaoping.html . 12 October 2017.
    141. News: Tyler . Patrick E. . 20 February 1997 . Deng Xiaoping: A Political Wizard Who Put China on the Capitalist Road . The New York Times . live . 22 November 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190802164135/https://www.nytimes.com/1997/02/20/world/deng-xiaoping-a-political-wizard-who-put-china-on-the-capitalist-road.html . 2 August 2019.
    142. Book: Michael Dillon . Deng Xiaoping: The Man who Made Modern China . Bloomsbury Publishing . 2014 . 978-0-85772-467-0 . 292–296 . 22 June 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211201014443/https://books.google.com/books?id=qBGMDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 . 1 December 2021 . live.
    143. News: 4 June 2019 . Tiananmen Square Fast Facts . CNN . live . 22 November 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190919001916/https://www.cnn.com/2013/09/15/world/asia/tiananmen-square-fast-facts/index.html . 19 September 2019.
    144. News: A Massacre Erased . The Washington Post . live . 22 November 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20191107014411/https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2019/opinions/global-opinions/tiananmen-square-a-massacre-erased/ . 7 November 2019.
    145. Book: Wasserstrom . Jeffrey N. . China in the 21st Century: What Everyone Needs to Know . Cunningham . Maura Elizabeth . 2018 . Oxford University Press . 978-0190659073 . 3 . 80.
    146. Jianfu . Chen . 1 May 2004 . The Revision of the Constitution in the PRC. A great leap forward or a symbolic gesture? . China Perspectives . fr . 2004 . 53 . 10.4000/chinaperspectives.2922 . 2070-3449 . free.
    147. Web site: Jone . William . The Constitution of the People's Republic of China . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20190428201429/https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2203&context=law_lawreview . 28 April 2019 . Washington University in St. Louis.
    148. Caldwell . Ernest . December 2012 . Horizontal Rights and Chinese Constitutionalism: Judicialization through Labor Disputes . live . Chicago-Kent Law Review . 88 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211201014421/https://scholarship.kentlaw.iit.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3935&context=cklawreview . 1 December 2021 . 28 October 2019.
    149. Shigong . Jiang . 2014 . Chinese-Style Constitutionalism: On Backer's Chinese Party-State Constitutionalism . Modern China . 40 . 2 . 133–167 . 10.1177/0097700413511313 . 0097-7004 . 24575589 . 144236160.
    150. Web site: PEPPER . SUZANNE . China's Education Reform in the 1980s: Policies, Issues, and Historical Perspectives . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20191128055657/https://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/ieas/CRM_36.pdf . 28 November 2019 . UC Berkeley.
    151. Web site: Song . Wei . China's education reforms and strive for innovation . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20191128055658/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201808/24/WS5b7fb080a310add14f387a5b.html . 28 November 2019 . 28 November 2019 . Chinadaily.
    152. Ng-Quinn . Michael . 1982 . Deng Xiaoping's Political Reform and Political Order . Asian Survey . 22 . 12 . 1187–1205 . 10.2307/2644047 . 0004-4687 . 2644047.