Demographics of Somalia explained

Place:	Somalia
Size Of Population:	18,100,000 (2023 est.)^[1]
Nation:	Somali
Major Ethnic:	Somali (98%)
Age 0–14 Years:	42.38%
Age 65 Years:	2.27%
Growth:	2.42% (2022 est.)
Birth:	37.98 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)
Death:	11.62 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)
Net Migration:	-2.18 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)
Infant Mortality:	86.53 deaths/1,000 live births
Life:	55.72 years
Life Male:	53.39 years
Life Female:	58.12 years
Fertility:	6.90 children born/woman (2020)

Demographic features of Somalia's inhabitants include ethnicity, language, population density, education level, health, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Somalia is believed to be one of the most homogeneous countries in Africa.^[2]

2020 survey

Child marriages, known to deprive women of opportunities to reach their full potential, have among women aged 20–24, 36 percent of total population.^[3]

The April 2020 SHDS report further unveils that fertility rates remain very high, the total fertility rate for Somalia is 6.9 children per woman, the highest in the world, which would impact planning for the next years. In addition, 99 percent of women have still been genitally circumcised.

Ethnic groups

According to The Economist, at independence Somalia was "arguably in ethnic terms the most homogeneous country in Africa" however, the publication also notes;

Somalis

Somalis constitute the largest ethnic group in Somalia, at approximately 98% of the nation's inhabitants.^[4] They are organized into clan groupings, which are important social units; clan membership plays a central part in Somali culture and politics. Clans are patrilineal and are typically divided into sub-clans, sometimes with many sub-divisions. Through the xeer system (customary law), the advanced clan structure has served governmental roles in many rural Somali communities.^[5]

Somali society is traditionally ethnically endogamous. So to extend ties of alliance, marriage is often to another ethnic Somali from a different clan. Thus, for example, a recent study observed that in 89 marriages contracted by men of the Dhulbahante clan, 55 (62%) were with women of Dhulbahante sub-clans other than those of their husbands; 30 (33.7%) were with women of surrounding clans of other clan families (Isaaq, 28; Gadabuursi, 3); and 3 (4.3%) were with women of other clans of the Darod clan family (Marehan 2, Ogaden 1).^[6]

Clan structure

Certain clans are traditionally classed as noble clans, referring to their pastoral lifestyle in contrast to the sedentary "Sab".^[7] The noble clans are the Dir, Darod, Hawiye and Isaaq.^{[8] [9]} Out of these clans, Dir and Hawiye are regarded as descended from Samaale, the likely source of the ethnonym Somali (soomaali).^[10] Darod and Isaaq have separate agnatic (paternal) traditions of descent from Abdirahman bin Isma'il al-Jabarti (Sheikh Darod) and Ishaaq bin Ahmed (Sheikh Isaaq) respectively.^[11] Sheikh Darod and Sheikh Isaaq are asserted to have married women from the Dir clan, thus establishing matrilateral ties with the Samaale main stem. "Sab" is a term used to refer to the agricultural clans such as the Rahanweyn, in contrast to "Samaale".^[12] Both Samaale and Sab are the children of the father "Hiil" who is the common ancestor of all Somali clans.^{[13] [14]}

A few clans in the southern part of Greater Somalia do not belong to the major clans, but came to be associated with them and were eventually adopted into one of the confederations.

The Garre clan in Ethiopia (Somali Region) and Kenya (North Eastern Province) is divided into two branches: The Tuuf who claim descent from Garre Gardheere Samaale,^{[15] [16] [17]} and Quranyow who married Tuuf's daughter, who is of the lineage Mahamed Hiniftir Mahe Dir.^{[18] [19]} Likewise, the Gaalje'el in Hirshabelle and elsewhere in central Somalia also trace paternal descent to Gardheere Samaale.^{[20] [21]}

The Degoodi in the Somali Region and North Eastern Province are related to Gaalje'el as the Saransoor trace patrilineage to Gardheere Samaale. The Ajuran claim descent from Maqaarre Samaale whilst the Hawadle in Hiran belong to Meyle Samaale. Thus, the Garre, Gaalje'el, Degoodi, Ajuran and Hawadle are all said to have patrilateral ties with the Dir and Hawiye through Samaale to Aqil ibn Abi Talib (a cousin of Muhammad and a brother of Ali).

The Sheekhaal acknowledge descent from Sheikh Abadir Umar Ar-Rida, also known as Fiqi Umar.^[22] The Sheekhaal clan (Arabic: شيخال), is a Somali clan and a group member of the confederation (Martiile Hiraab) inhabiting Somalia, Ethiopia and with considerable numbers also found in the Northern Frontier District (NFD).^[23]

The Digil and Mirifle (Rahanweyn) are agro-pastoral clans in the areas between Bay and Bakool. Many do not follow a nomadic lifestyle, live further south, and speak Maay. Although in the past frequently classified as a Somali dialect, more recent research by the linguist Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi suggests that Maay constitutes a separate but closely related Afro-Asiatic language of the Cushitic branch.^[24]

A third group, the occupational clans, are treated as outcasts. They can only marry among themselves. They live in their settlements among the nomadic populations in the north and used to perform specialized occupations such as metalworking, tanning and hunting. These minority Somali clans include the Gaboye (Madhiban), Tumaal, Yibir, Jaji and Yahar.

Clans and sub-clans

There is no clear agreement on the clan and sub-clan structures. The divisions and subdivisions as given here are partial and simplified. Many lineages are omitted.

Major clans

• Dir (Aji Irir son of Samaale),
  • Quranyow-Garre, Surre, Barsug, Madigan, Gurre, Bimaal, Gurgura, Gadabuursi, Issa^[25]
    • Isaaq Arap, Ayuub, Garhajis, Habar Awal, Habar Jeclo, Tol Jecle, Sanbuur, Habar Yonis and ‘Ibraan
• Darod
  • Awrtable, Harti, Majeerteen, Dhulbahante, Warsangeli, Deshiishe, Jidwaq, Leelkase, Marehan, Ogaden, Geri Koombe, Facaaye
• Hawiye (Irir son of Samaale)
  • Abgal, Mudulood clan (s), Gugundhabe, Xawaadle, Sheekhaal loobage, Baadi Cade, Jajeele, Geel-Jecel, Duduble, Habar Gidir, Murusade, Karanle, Gorgate^[26]
• Rahanweyn
  • Digil (Non-Mirifle)
    • Dabarre, Iroole, Jiido, Garre, Tunni, Geledi, Shanta Aleemo
  • Mirifle
    • Sagaal: Geeladle, Jilible, Gasaargude, Gawaweeyn, Luwaay, Hadame, Yantaar, Hubeer
    • Siyeed: Elaay. Leysaan, Eemid, Diisow, Yalaale, Qoomaal, Maalin Wiing, Harin, Jiron, Reer Dumaal, Garwaale and Haraw
• Saransor
  • Isse, Masare, Gaaljecel, Degodia
• Mayle
  • Hawadle
• Gardheere Samaale
  • Cowrmale known as Coormale Ibraahim

Minor clans

• Asharaf, Barawani, Benadiri, Carab Salaax, Gaboye (Madhiban), Muse clan, Tumaal, Yibir^[27]

Other ethnic groups

Non-Somali ethnic minority groups make up about 5% of the nation's population.^[4] They include Arabs, Bantus & Bajunis.

Languages

See main article: Languages of Somalia. Somali is the official language of Somalia. It is the mother tongue of Somalis, the nation's most populous ethnic group.^[28] The language is a member of the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic family.^[29]

In addition to Somali, Arabic, which is also an Afroasiatic tongue,^[30] is another official language in Somalia. Many speak it due to centuries-old ties with the Arab world, the far-reaching influence of the Arabic media, and religious education.^{[30] [31] [32]}

English is widely used and taught. Other minority languages include Bravanese, a variant of the Bantu Swahili language that is spoken along the southern coast by the Bravanese people, as well as Bajuni, another Swahili dialect that is the mother tongue of the Bajuni ethnic minority group.

Population

According to, the total population was in, compared to 2,264,000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 44.9%, 52.3% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 2.7% was 65 years or older.^[33]

Vital statistics

Registration of vital events in Somalia is incomplete. The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates:^[34]

Year	Population	Live births per year	Deaths per year	Natural change per year	CBR*	CDR*	NC*	TFR*	IMR*	Life expectancy (years)
1950	2 213 000	112 000	50 000	62 000	50.5	22.4	28.1	7.25	152.1	41.40
1951	2 276 000	114 000	51 000	62 000	49.9	22.6	27.3	7.25	151.4	41.52
1952	2 339 000	116 000	53 000	63 000	49.4	22.5	26.8	7.25	150.1	41.74
1953	2 402 000	117 000	54 000	64 000	48.9	22.4	26.5	7.25	148.8	41.97
1954	2 466 000	119 000	55 000	65 000	48.5	22.3	26.2	7.25	147.6	42.19
1955	2 530 000	122 000	56 000	66 000	48.0	22.1	26.0	7.25	146.3	42.40
1956	2 595 000	124 000	57 000	67 000	47.7	21.9	25.8	7.25	145.1	42.62
1957	2 662 000	126 000	58 000	68 000	47.4	21.7	25.7	7.25	143.9	42.83
1958	2 729 000	129 000	59 000	70 000	47.1	21.5	25.6	7.25	142.7	43.04
1959	2 798 000	131 000	60 000	71 000	46.8	21.3	25.5	7.25	141.6	43.25
1960	2 871 000	134 000	61 000	73 000	46.6	21.1	25.5	7.25	140.4	43.45
1961	2 946 000	137 000	62 000	75 000	46.4	21.0	25.3	7.25	139.8	43.56
1962	3 023 000	140 000	63 000	77 000	46.2	20.7	25.4	7.26	138.1	43.88
1963	3 102 000	143 000	64 000	79 000	46.0	20.5	25.4	7.26	137.0	44.10
1964	3 184 000	146 000	65 000	81 000	45.8	20.4	25.4	7.26	135.9	44.30
1965	3 268 000	149 000	66 000	83 000	45.7	20.2	25.5	7.26	134.6	44.54
1966	3 354 000	153 000	67 000	86 000	45.5	20.0	25.6	7.26	133.5	44.76
1967	3 442 000	156 000	68 000	88 000	45.4	19.8	25.6	7.25	132.4	44.97
1968	3 532 000	160 000	69 000	91 000	45.3	19.6	25.7	7.23	131.4	45.17
1969	3 625 000	164 000	71 000	93 000	45.2	19.5	25.8	7.21	130.4	45.37
1970	3 721 000	168 000	72 000	96 000	45.2	19.3	25.9	7.18	129.4	45.56
1971	3 818 000	173 000	73 000	99 000	45.2	19.2	26.0	7.15	128.4	45.75
1972	3 918 000	177 000	75 000	103 000	45.2	19.0	26.2	7.12	127.5	45.94
1973	4 022 000	182 000	76 000	106 000	45.2	18.9	26.3	7.09	126.5	46.13
1974	4 126 000	187 000	86 000	101 000	45.3	20.7	24.6	7.06	137.8	43.82
1975	4 228 000	192 000	86 000	106 000	45.5	20.4	25.1	7.03	135.9	44.18
1976	4 334 000	198 000	87 000	111 000	45.7	20.1	25.5	7.02	134.0	44.57
1977	4 450 000	204 000	82 000	122 000	45.8	18.3	27.5	7.00	122.6	46.92
1978	4 778 000	214 000	84 000	130 000	46.8	18.4	28.4	7.13	121.7	46.95
1979	5 409 000	241 000	93 000	148 000	47.1	18.2	28.8	7.16	120.7	47.31
1980	5 892 000	277 000	106 000	171 000	47.3	18.1	29.2	7.18	119.8	47.49
1981	5 935 000	291 000	110 000	181 000	47.7	18.1	29.7	7.23	119.0	47.67
1982	5 952 000	286 000	107 000	179 000	48.0	18.0	30.0	7.25	118.2	47.83
1983	6 143 000	296 000	109 000	187 000	48.3	17.8	30.5	7.28	116.6	48.17
1984	6 369 000	307 000	112 000	196 000	48.5	17.6	30.9	7.30	115.2	48.46
1985	6 631 000	322 000	117 000	205 000	48.7	17.7	31.0	7.33	114.8	48.28
1986	6 909 000	336 000	121 000	215 000	48.9	17.6	31.2	7.35	114.1	48.37
1987	7 158 000	351 000	124 000	227 000	49.0	17.3	31.7	7.37	113.1	48.90
1988	7 160 000	362 000	151 000	211 000	49.1	20.5	28.6	7.40	115.8	43.84
1989	7 035 000	352 000	131 000	221 000	49.2	18.3	30.8	7.42	110.1	46.72
1990	6 999 000	349 000	128 000	221 000	49.0	18.0	31.0	7.44	108.3	47.11
1991	6 733 000	346 000	284 000	63 000	49.4	40.5	8.9	7.47	237.4	26.57
1992	6 428 000	327 000	251 000	76 000	50.2	38.6	11.7	7.50	236.3	27.31
1993	6 621 000	328 000	101 000	227 000	50.4	15.5	34.9	7.53	104.6	50.65
1994	6 960 000	351 000	111 000	240 000	50.3	15.9	34.4	7.54	105.1	50.33
1995	7 211 000	360 000	113 000	247 000	50.1	15.8	34.4	7.58	104.5	50.60
1996	7 472 000	376 000	119 000	257 000	50.1	15.9	34.2	7.62	104.8	50.45
1997	7 734 000	388 000	124 000	264 000	50.3	16.1	34.2	7.66	106.8	50.20
1998	8 057 000	403 000	127 000	276 000	50.2	15.8	34.4	7.65	104.6	50.66
1999	8 384 000	419 000	133 000	286 000	50.1	15.9	34.2	7.63	104.7	50.53
2000	8 721 000	434 000	137 000	297 000	49.9	15.8	34.1	7.61	104.6	50.66
2001	9 071 000	450 000	142 000	308 000	49.7	15.7	34.0	7.58	104.4	50.74
2002	9 411 000	467 000	148 000	320 000	49.7	15.7	34.0	7.58	104.4	50.73
2003	9 758 000	482 000	153 000	329 000	49.4	15.7	33.7	7.55	104.5	50.61
2004	10 117 000	498 000	159 000	339 000	49.2	15.7	33.5	7.52	104.6	50.54
2005	10 467 000	513 000	163 000	350 000	49.0	15.6	33.4	7.48	104.4	50.66
2006	10 785 000	527 000	168 000	359 000	48.7	15.6	33.2	7.46	104.1	50.60
2007	11 118 000	539 000	173 000	366 000	48.5	15.5	32.9	7.42	103.5	50.52
2008	11 445 000	555 000	174 000	381 000	48.2	15.1	33.1	7.39	101.3	51.12
2009	11 730 000	565 000	172 000	393 000	47.9	14.6	33.4	7.34	98.7	51.85
2010	12 027 000	576 000	185 000	390 000	47.7	15.4	32.3	7.30	102.5	50.56
2011	12 217 000	589 000	184 000	405 000	47.5	14.9	32.7	7.26	100.0	51.30
2012	12 440 000	590 000	169 000	420 000	47.3	13.6	33.7	7.20	91.4	53.16
2013	12 852 000	604 000	169 000	435 000	47.0	13.1	33.9	7.13	88.7	53.84
2014	13 309 000	622 000	170 000	452 000	46.7	12.8	33.9	7.06	86.1	54.28
2015	13 764 000	640 000	171 000	469 000	46.5	12.4	34.0	6.98	83.9	54.86
2016	14 293 000	657 000	175 000	482 000	46.2	12.3	33.9	6.89	82.0	55.04
2017	14 864 000	675 000	177 000	498 000	45.5	11.9	33.6	6.74	79.8	55.65
2018	15 411 000	693 000	176 000	516 000	45.0	11.4	33.5	6.63	77.2	56.38
2019	15 981 000	711 000	176 000	535 000	44.6	11.0	33.5	6.53	75.0	57.08
2020	16 537 000	728 000	188 000	540 000	44.0	11.4	32.6	6.42	72.9	55.97
2021	17 066 000	744 000	198 000	546 000	43.6	11.6	32.0	6.31	71.2	55.28
CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman)

Demographic statistics

Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review.

• One birth every 46 seconds
• One death every 3 minutes
• One net migrant every 16 minutes
• Net gain of one person every 1 minutes

The following demographic are from the CIA World Factbook unless otherwise indicated.

Population

18,100,000 (2023 est.)^[1]

11,259,029 (July 2018 est.)

10,428,043 (2014 est.)

Religions

Sunni Muslim (Islam) (official, according to the 2012 Transitional Federal Charter)

Age structure

0-14 years: 42.38% (male 2,488,604/female 2,493,527)

15-24 years: 19.81% (male 1,167,807/female 1,161,040)

25-54 years: 30.93% (male 1,881,094/female 1,755,166)

55-64 years: 4.61% (male 278,132/female 264,325)

65 years and over: 2.27% (2020 est.) (male 106,187/female 161,242)

0-14 years: 42.87% (male 2,410,215 /female 2,416,629)

15-24 years: 19.35% (male 1,097,358 /female 1,081,762)

25-54 years: 31.23% (male 1,821,823 /female 1,694,873)

55-64 years: 4.35% (male 245,744 /female 243,893)

65 years and over: 2.19% (male 95,845 /female 150,887) (2018 est.)

Birth rate

37.98 births/1,000 population (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 8th

39.3 births/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 9th

40.87 births/1,000 population (2014 est.)

Death rate

11.62 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 17th

12.8 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.)

13.91 deaths/1,000 population (2014 est.)

Total fertility rate

5.22 children born/woman (2023 est.) Country comparison to the world: 8th

5.31 children born/woman (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 9th

5.7 children born/woman (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 6th

Population growth rate

2.42% (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 27th

2.08% (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 45th

1.75% (2014 est.)

Median age

total: 18.5 years. Country comparison to the world: 210th

male: 18.7 years

female: 18.3 years (2020 est.)

Total: 18.2 years. Country comparison to the world: 211th

Male: 18.4 years

Female: 18 years (2018 est.)

Net migration rate

-2.18 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 171st

-5.6 migrants/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 199th

-9.51 migrants/1,000 population (2014 est.)

Contraceptive prevalence rate

6.9% (2018/19)

Dependency ratios

Total dependency ratio: 97.4 (2015 est.)

Youth dependency ratio: 92.1 (2015 est.)

Elderly dependency ratio: 5.3 (2015 est.)

Potential support ratio

18.8 (2015 est.)

Urbanization

See main article: List of cities in Somalia by population.

urban population: 47.3% of total population (2022)

rate of urbanization: 4.2% annual rate of change (2020–25 est.)

Urban population: 45% of total population (2018)

Rate of urbanization: 4.23% annual rate of change (2015–20 est.)

Urban population: 37.7% of total population (2011)

Rate of urbanization: 3.79 annual rate of change (2010–15 est.)

Sex ratio

At birth: 1.03 males/female
Under 15 years: 1 male/female
15–64 years: 1.07 males/female
65 years and over: 0.66 males/female
Total population: 1.01 males/female (2015 est.)

Infant mortality rate

Total: 93 deaths/1,000 live births

Male: 101.4 deaths/1,000 live births

Female: 84.3 deaths/1,000 live births (2018 est.)

Life expectancy at birth

total population: 55.72 years. Country comparison to the world: 225thmale: 53.39 yearsfemale: 58.12 years (2022 est.)

Total population: 53.2 years

Male: 51 years

Female: 55.4 years (2018 est.)

Total population: 51.58 years

Male: 49.58 years

Female: 53.65 years (2014 est.)

Major infectious diseases

degree of risk: very high (2020)

food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A and E, and typhoid fever

vectorborne diseases: dengue fever, malaria, and Rift Valley fever

water contact diseases: schistosomiasis

animal contact diseases: rabies

note: on 21 March 2022, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued a Travel Alert for polio in Africa; Somalia is currently considered a high risk to travelers for circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses (cVDPV); vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) is a strain of the weakened poliovirus that was initially included in oral polio vaccine (OPV) and that has changed over time and behaves more like the wild or naturally occurring virus; this means it can be spread more easily to people who are unvaccinated against polio and who come in contact with the stool or respiratory secretions, such as from a sneeze, of an “infected” person who received oral polio vaccine; the CDC recommends that before any international travel, anyone unvaccinated, incompletely vaccinated, or with an unknown polio vaccination status should complete the routine polio vaccine series; before travel to any high-risk destination, CDC recommends that adults who previously completed the full, routine polio vaccine series receive a single, lifetime booster dose of polio vaccine

HIV/AIDS

HIV/AIDS – adult prevalence rate0.1% (2017 est.)

HIV/AIDS – people living with HIV/AIDS11,000 (2017 est.)

HIV/AIDS – deaths<1000 (2017 est.)

Major infectious diseases

Degree of risk: high
Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A and E, and typhoid fever
Vector-borne diseases: dengue fever, malaria, and Rift Valley fever
Water contact disease: schistosomiasis
Animal contact disease: rabies (2013)

Nationality

Noun: Somali (singular) or Somali (plural)
Adjective: Somali

Ethnic groups

• Somali 90%^[35]
• Bantu and other non-Somali 10%.

Languages

• Somali (official)^[35]
• Arabic (official)^[36]

Literacy

Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
Total population: N/A^[37]

See also

• Somalia
• Demographics of Djibouti
• Demographics of Eritrea
• Demographics of Ethiopia

References

• Conflict in Somalia: Drivers and Dynamics, Worldbank, January 2005, Appendix 2, Lineage Charts
• Victims and Vulnerable Groups in Southern Somalia, Country Information and Policy Unit, Home Office, Great Britain, Somalia Assessment 2001
• Somali Clan Structure, Country Information and Policy Unit, Home Office, Great Britain, Somalia Assessment 2001

External links

• "The Somali Ethnic Group and Clan System", from "Reunification of the Somali People", Jack L. Davies

Notes and References

1. Web site: World Population Dashboard Somalia. United Nations Population Fund . 2023-01-01 . unfpa.org . 2023-04-28.
2. Popescu . Alba Iulia Catrinel . 2021 . SOMALIA – CASE STUDY ON THE FRAGMENTATION OF AN ETHNICALLY AND CIVILIZATIONALLY HOMOGENEOUS STATE . Bulletin of "Carol I" National Defence University . 10 . English . 3 . 164–176 . 10.53477/2284-9378-21-37 . 2284-936X. free .
3. Web site: The Somali Health and Demographic Survey 2020. reliefweb.int. 30 April 2020. .
4. Web site: Somalia. 2009-05-31. 2009-05-14. World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
5. Book: Abdullahi, Mohamed Diriye. Culture and Customs of Somalia. 2001. Greenwood Publishing Group. 0313313334. 142. registration.
6. Ioan M. Lewis, Blood and Bone: The Call of Kinship in Somali Society, (Red Sea Press: 1994), p.51
7. Book: Lewisfirst1=I. M.. A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa. 1999. James Currey Publishers. 0852552807. 11–14. 8 July 2016.
8. State Collapse, Insurgency, and Famine in the Horn of Africa: Legitimacy and the Ongoing Somali Crisis. J. Peter. Pham. The Journal of the Middle East and Africa. 2. 2. 2011. 153–187. 10.1080/21520844.2011.617238. 154845182 .
9. Web site: Country Policy and Information Note Somalia: Majority clans and minority groups in south and central Somalia. Home Office. January 2019. 13–14. 6 October 2022.
10. Book: Lewis, I. M. . Said Samatar . A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa . LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster . 1999 . 11–13 . 3-8258-3084-5.
11. I.M. Lewis, A Modern History of the Somali, fourth edition (Oxford: James Currey, 2002), p. 23
12. Laitin, David D. & Samatar, Said S. (1987). Somalia: Nation in Search of a State, Colorado: Westview Press.
13. Book: Adam. Hussein Mohamed. Mending rips in the sky: options for Somali communities in the 21st century. 1997. Red Sea Press. 9781569020739 . 9 August 2016.
14. Book: Carmichael, Leah L. . Is International Law Even Law?: International Law from an International Relations Perspective . 2021-05-07 . Rowman & Littlefield . 978-1-7936-2872-5 . 196 . en.
15. Book: Ahmed, Ali Jimale . The Invention of Somalia . 1995-01-01 . The Red Sea Press . 9780932415998 . 130 . en.
16. Book: Hayward . R. J. . Voice and Power . Lewis . I. M. . 2005-08-17 . Routledge . 9781135751753 . 242 . en.
17. The Quranyo section of the Garre claim descent from Dirr, who are born of the Irrir Samal. UNDP Paper in Keyna http://www.undp.org/content/dam/kenya/docs/Amani%20Papers/AP_Volume1_n2_May2010.pdf
18. Web site: Dynamics and Trends of Conflict in Greater Mandera . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20180517092837/http://www.undp.org/content/dam/kenya/docs/Amani%20Papers/AP_Volume1_n2_May2010.pdf . 17 May 2018 . 25 June 2016 . Amani Papers.
19. Book: Ahmed, Ali Jimale . The Invention of Somalia . 1995-01-01 . The Red Sea Press . 9780932415998 . 122 . en.
20. Book: Mending rips in the sky: options for Somali communities in the 21st century. Adam. Hussein Mohamed. Ford. Richard. 1997-01-01. Red Sea Press. 9781569020739. 127. en.
21. Book: Ahmed, Ali Jimale. The Invention of Somalia. 1995-01-01. The Red Sea Press. 9780932415998. 121. en.
22. Richard Burton, First Footsteps in East Africa, 1856; edited with an introduction and additional chapters by Gordon Waterfield (New York: Praeger, 1966), p. 165
23. Gundel . Joakim . 2009 . Clans in Somalia . Austrian Red Cross . Revised Edition . 19.
24. Book: Abdullahi, Mohamed Diriye. Culture and Customs of Somalia. 2001. Greenwood Publishing Group. 0313313334. 9. registration.
25. Web site: Archived copy . 2009-12-06 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110716081350/http://www.asylumlaw.org/docs/somalia/ind01b_somalia_ca.pdf . 2011-07-16 . Country Information and Policy Unit, Home Office, Great Britain, Somalia Assessment 2001, Annex B: Somali Clan Structure
26. Book: Ahmed, Ali Jimale. The Invention of Somalia. 1995-01-01. The Red Sea Press. 9780932415998. en.
27. Book: Abdullahi, Mohamed Diriye. Culture and Customs of Somalia. 2001. Greenwood Publishing Group. 0313313334. 8–11. registration.
28. Web site: Central Intelligence Agency. Somalia. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Langley, Virginia. 2011. 2011-10-05.
29. I. M. Lewis, Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somalis, Afar and Saho, (Red Sea Press: 1998), p. 11.
30. Helena Dubnov, A grammatical sketch of Somali, (Kِppe: 2003), pp. 70–71.
31. Diana Briton Putman, Mohamood Cabdi Noor, The Somalis: their history and culture, (Center for Applied Linguistics: 1993), p. 15.: "Somalis speak Somali. Many people also speak Arabic, and educated Somalis usually speak either English or Italian as well. Swahili may also be spoken in coastal areas near Kenya."
32. Fiona MacDonald et al., Peoples of Africa, Volume 10, (Marshall Cavendish: 2000), p. 178.
33. World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revision . 2011-05-03 . United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division . https://web.archive.org/web/20110506084513/http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Other-Information/Press_Release_WPP2010.pdf . 2011-05-06 . deviated.
34. 2741:2812. M,X,AE,S,AH,S,AA,AV,AI.
35. Web site: Africa – SOMALIA. 24 January 2023. CIA The World Factbook.
36. Web site: The Federal Republic of Somalia - Provisional Constitution . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20130124010543/http://www.somaliweyn.com/pages/news/Aug_12/Somalia_Constitution_English_FOR_WEB.pdf . 24 January 2013 . 10 September 2012 . The official language of the Federal Republic of Somalia is Somali (Maay and Maxaa-tiri), and Arabic is the second language..
37. No reliable data on nationwide literacy rate. 2013 FSNAU survey indicates considerable differences per region, with the autonomous northeastern Puntland region having the highest registered literacy rate (72%). http://www.fsnau.org/downloads/Remittances-and-Livelihoods-Support-in-Puntland-and-Somaliland.pdf