Demographics of Malaysia explained

Place:Malaysia
Size Of Population:34,564,810 (2024 est.)
Nation:Malaysian
Major Ethnic:Bumiputera (69.9%)
Minor Ethnic:
  • Chinese (22.8%)
  • Indian (6.6%)
Official:Malay
Age 0–14 Years:22.46%
Age 15–64 Years:69.42%
Age 65 Years:8.12%
Growth:1.03% (2023 est.)
Birth:14.55 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)
Death:5.69 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)
Net Migration:1.48 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)
Sr At Birth:1.07 male(s)/female
Sr Under 15:1.06 male(s)/female
Sr 65 Years Over:1.14 male(s)/female
Total Mf Ratio:1.05 male(s)/female (2022 est.)
Infant Mortality:6.59 deaths/1,000 live births
Life:76.13 years
Life Male:74.5 years
Life Female:77.87 years
Fertility:1.75 children born/woman (2022 est.)

The demographics of Malaysia are represented by the multiple ethnic groups that exist in the country. The official estimate of 2024 Malaysia's population is about 34,564,810 people.[1] According to the 2020 census, is 32,447,385 including non-citizens, which makes it the 43rd most populated country in the world.[2] Of these, 5.72 million live in East Malaysia and 22.5 million live in Peninsular Malaysia.[3] The population distribution is uneven, with some 79% of its citizens concentrated in Peninsular Malaysia, which has an area of 131598sqkm, constituting under 40% of the total area of Malaysia.[4]

The Malaysian population is growing at a rate of 1.94% per annum as of 2017. According to latest projection of the 2010 census, the fertility rates of the 3 largest Malaysian groups are as follows: Malay/Bumiputera: 2.4 children per woman, Chinese: 1.4 children per woman and Indian: 1.8 children per woman. Malay fertility rates are 40% higher than Malaysian Indians and 56% higher than Malaysian Chinese. Population projections in 2023 show that the Malays and Bumiputeras comprised a total of 69.9% of the total population, Chinese 22.8% and Indians 6.6%.[5] The Chinese population has shrunk proportionally from 1957, when it was about 40% of Malaya, although in absolute numbers they have increased around threefold by 2017 in Malaysia (2.4 million in 1957 to 6.6 million in 2017, the later figure includes East Malaysia) but have been dwarfed by the fivefold increase of Malays (from around 3.1 million in 1957 to 15.5 million in 2017).[6]

Demographic trends and key rates

Censuses were taken in Malaysia in 1970, 1980, 1991, 2000, 2010, and 2020.[7] The total population is around 32.4 million according to the 2020 census.[8] The population distribution is highly uneven, with some 20 million residents concentrated in Peninsula Malaysia.[9] 74.7% of the population is urban. Due to the rise in labour-intensive industries,[10] Malaysia is estimated to have over 3 million migrant workers, which is about 10% of the Malaysian population.[11] The exact numbers are unknown: there are a million legal foreign workers and perhaps another million unauthorised foreigners. The state of Sabah alone had nearly 25% of its 2.7 million population listed as illegal foreign workers in the last census. Sabah based NGOs estimate that out of the 3 million population, 2 million are illegal immigrants.[12]

Additionally, according to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the US Committee for Refugees and Immigrants (USCRI), Malaysia hosts a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 155,700. Of this population, approximately 70,500 refugees and asylum seekers are from the Philippines, 69,700 from Burma, and 21,800 from Indonesia.[13] The USCRI named Malaysia as one of the ten worst places for refugees on account of the country's discriminatory practices toward them. Malaysian officials are reported to have turned deportees directly over to human smugglers in 2007, and Malaysia employs RELA, a volunteer militia, to enforce its immigration law.[13]

Population distribution by states and territories

Source: National Census 2000,[14] Department of Statistics Malaysia.

In 2000

StatePopulationArea (km2)Pop. densityUrban pop.BumiputraChineseIndian
Johor2,740,62518,987144
Kedah1,649,7569,425175
Kelantan1,313,01415,02487
Malacca635,7911,652385
Negeri Sembilan859,9246,644129
Pahang1,288,37635,96536
Penang1,313,4491,0311274
Perak2,051,23621,00598
Perlis204,450795257
Selangor4,188,8767,960526
Terengganu898,82512,95569
Sabah2,603,48573,61935
Sarawak2,071,506124,45017
FT Kuala Lumpur1,379,3102435676
FT Labuan76,06792827
FT Putrajaya45,000148304

In 2010

Source: National Census 2010,[15] Department of Statistics Malaysia

State[16] Population Area (km2) Pop. density Urban pop.(%) Bumiputra (%) Chinese (%) Indian (%)
Johor3,348,283 18,987 174 71.9 58.9 33.6 7.1
Kedah1,890,098 9,425 199 64.6 77.9 13.6 7.3
Kelantan1,459,994 15,024 97 42.4 95.7 3.4 0.3
Malacca788,706 1,652 470 86.5 66.9 26.4 6.2
Negeri Sembilan997,071 6,644 150 66.5 61.3 23.2 15.2
Pahang1,443,365 35,965 40 50.5 79.0 16.2 4.4
Penang1,520,143 1,031 1,500 90.8 43.6 45.6 10.4
Perak2,258,428 21,005 110 69.7 57.0 30.4 12.2
Perlis227,025 795 280 51.4 88.4 8.0 1.2
Selangor5,411,324 7,960 670 91.4 57.1 28.6 13.5
Terengganu1,015,776 12,955 69 59.1 97.0 2.6 0.2
Sabah3,117,405 73,619 42 54.0 84.8 12.8 0.3
Sarawak2,420,009 124,450 19 53.8 74.8 24.5 0.3
FT Kuala Lumpur1,627,172 243 6,891 100.0 45.9 43.2 10.3
FT Labuan86,908 92 950 82.3 83.7 13.4 0.9
FT Putrajaya67,964148 1,400 100.0 98.0 0.7 1.2

In 2020

Source: National Census 2020, Department of Statistics Malaysia

State[17] Population Area (km2) Pop. density Urban pop.(%) Bumiputra (%) Chinese (%) Indian (%)Pop. Growth(%)
Johor4,009,670 18,987 210 77.4 60.1 32.8 6.619.753%
Kedah2,131,4279,425 225 67.3 80.1 12.3 6.312.7681%
Kelantan1,792,501 15,024 119 44.1 96.6 2.5 0.322.7745%
Malacca998,428 1,652 604 90.9 71.7 22.1 5.626.5906%
Negeri Sembilan1,199,974 6,644 180 69.3 63.3 21.9 14.320.3499%
Pahang1,591,295 35,965 44 52.8 81.0 14.7 3.710.249%
Penang1,740,405 1,031 1,686 92.5 44.7 44.9 9.714.4896%
Perak2,496,041 21,005 119 72.0 60.9 27.2 11.510.5212%
Perlis284,885 795 348 53.8 88.8 7.4 1.825.4862%
Selangor6,994,423 7,960 882 95.8 60.6 27.3 11.329.2553%
Terengganu1,149,440 12,955 89 64.2 97.6 2.1 0.2
Sabah3,418,785 73,619 46 54.7 88.7 9.5 0.2
Sarawak2,453,677 124,450 20 57.0 75.7 23.8 0.2
FT Kuala Lumpur1,982,112 243 8,157 100.0 47.7 41.6 10.021.8133%
FT Labuan95,120 92 1038 88.9 86.2 11.7 1.1
FT Putrajaya109,202148 2,215 100.0 97.9 0.6 1.225.6524%

Population age distribution trends for 2001–2016

Year< 15 Years15 - 64 Years> 64 YearsPopulation (in millions)
200124.12
200224.72
200425.91
200526.48
200626.83
200727.00
200827.54
200927.90
201028.25
201531.20
201631.71

Data from July 2010.[18]

Structure of the population

Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal%
Total14 523 91214 028 80028 552 712 100
0–41 257 2271 197 8932 455 1208.60
5–91 258 7241 200 3772 459 1018.61
10–141 407 4791 333 1332 740 6129.60
15–191 382 6501 298 5412 681 1919.39
20–241 305 7531 255 4392 561 1928.97
25–291 225 4251 202 2202 427 6458.50
30–341 156 9871 133 8362 290 8238.02
35–391 084 2551 055 8382 140 0937.50
40–441 021 261980 7142 001 9757.01
45–49923 951878 6551 802 6066.31
50–54780 930741 6411 522 5715.33
55–59627 320599 0621 226 3824.30
60–64440 893421 490862 3833.02
65–69276 593276 416553 0091.94
70–74180 583198 929379 5121.33
75–79104 871127 903232 7740.82
80–8456 44573 578130 0230.46
85–8922 803 31 73654 5390.19
90+9 76221 39931 1610.11
Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent
0–143 923 4303 731 4037 654 83326.81
15–649 949 4259 567 43619 516 86168.35
65+651 057729 9611 381 0184.84
Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal%
Total15 994 29915 001 40730 995 706100
0–41 342 2801 250 3542 592 6348.36
5–91 290 2961 220 0332 510 3298.10
10–141 361 7531 289 8232 651 5768.55
15–191 467 5201 374 8612 842 3819.17
20–241 666 8261 512 3633 179 18910.26
25–291 636 1561 453 7383 089 8949.97
30–341 421 5381 277 5082 699 0468.71
35–391 122 0201 012 1672 134 1876.89
40–44966 696919 8861 886 5826.09
45–49866 201857 0061 723 2075.56
50–54802 194754 5971 556 7915.02
55–59662 308642 0151 304 3234.21
60–64504 442495 056999 4983.22
65–69370 875378 953749 828 2.42
70–74225 299236 337461 6361.49
75–79151 764168 867320 6311.03
80–8473 94985 206 159 1550.51
85–8938 54747 79286 3390.28
90–9413 38314 35927 7420.09
95+10 25210 48620 7380.07
Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent
0–143 994 3293 760 2107 754 53925.02
15–6411 115 90110 299 19721 415 09869.09
65+884 069942 0001 826 0695.89
Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal%
Total16 805 60115 851 659 32 657 260100
0–41 313 2111 228 9602 542 1717.78
5–91 321 691 1 232 2952 553 9867.82
10–141 288 7721 215 3122 504 0847.67
15–191 468 3401 367 3612 835 7018.68
20–241 649 1081 483 5063 132 6149.59
25–291 729 6411 518 0813 247 7229.94
30–341 503 3031 374 2012 877 5048.81
35–391 325 4161 243 4002 568 8167.87
40–441 041 407969 2392 010 6466.16
45–49900 990878 7151 779 7055.45
50–54809 250824 7361 633 9865.00
55–59744 683723 0211 467 7044.49
60–64604 050605 3271 209 3773.70
65-69442 747458 890901 6372.76
70-74310 254336 607646 8611.98
75-79171 384194 969366 3531.12
80-84101 116119 005220 1210.67
85+80 23878 034158 2720.48
Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent
0–143 923 6743 676 5677 600 24123.27
15–6411 776 18810 987 58722 763 77569.71
65+1 105 7391 187 5052 293 2447.02
Age specific population by ethnic group 2021
Age groups 0–14 15–64 65-over
Malays 31% 63.9% 5.1%
Chinese 12.3% 72.7% 15%
Indians 16.6% 75.4% 8%
List of races by age at first marriage
Races Men WomenAverageYear
Malays 22.4 19.3 20.92020
Chinese 34.6 31.7 33.22019
Indians 27.3 23.2 25.32020

Key demographic rates

In 1987, Malays had a TFR of 4.51, Chinese had TFR of 2.25 and Indians had TFR of 2.77. The corresponding figures in Singapore was 2.16, 1.48 and 1.95.[20]

Data for (^) obtained from Department of Statistics releases. See notes.[21] [22] All key rates sampled per 1000 of population.

Vital statistics

UN estimates

Data from United Nation:[23]

PeriodLive births per yearDeaths per yearNatural change per yearCBR1CDR1NC1TFR1IMR1
1950–1955280 00092 000188 00042.714.025.36.2396.4
1955–1960318 00089 000229 00041.911.728.96.2379.5
1960–1965361 00086 000275 00040.89.729.96.2364.3
1965–1970351 00082 000268 00034.28.028.15.2151.0
1970–1975365 00082 000283 00031.47.125.94.5640.4
1975–1980385 00083 000302 00029.46.321.73.9331.9
1980–1985436 00086 000350 00029.55.826.43.7325.3
1985–1990488 00091 000397 00028.75.326.93.5919.9
1990–1995535 00097 000438 00027.55.022.83.4215.7
1995–2000559 000104 000454 00025.34.719.83.1812.4
2000–2005572 000114 000458 00019.44.514.92.45
2005–2010571 000127 000443 00017.64.613.02.22
2010–201517.14.712.42.11
2015–202016.85.111.72.01
2020–202515.95.510.41.92
2025–203014.55.98.61.85
1 CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births

Registered births and deaths

Data from Department of Statistics Malaysia:[24] [25] [26]

Average population Live birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Crude migration rate (per 1000)Total fertility rate (TFR)
19474,908,10043.019.423.6
19484,987,40040.416.324.2-8.0
19495,081,80043.814.229.6-10.7
19505,226,50042.015.826.22.3
19515,337,20043.615.328.3-7.1
19525,506,40044.413.630.80.9
19535,706,00043.712.431.34.9
19545,888,60043.812.231.60.4
19556,058,30043.011.531.6-2.8
19566,251,60045.511.334.3-2.4
19576,278,80046.212.433.7-29.3
19586,504,60043.311.032.33.76.275
19596,702,60042.19.732.4-2.06.175
19608,118,00040.99.531.4179.86.045
19618,378,50041.89.232.6-0.56.195
19628,651,80040.49.431.01.66.040
19638,920,20038.18.529.71.35.970
19649,168,40038.27.730.5-2.75.970
19659,436,60036.17.528.50.85.630
19669,732,80036.77.329.42.05.725
196710,007,40034.97.227.70.55.385
196810,252,80035.27.228.0-3.55.385
196910,500,20033.37.026.3-2.25.055
197010,881,80032.46.725.710.64.885
197111,159,70032.86.626.3-0.84.870
197211,441,30032.26.325.9-0.74.710
197311,719,80031.16.324.8-0.54.485
197412,001,30031.36.025.3-1.34.420
197512,300,30030.76.024.80.14.275
197612,588,10030.95.725.3-1.94.235
197712,901,10030.35.824.50.44.090
197813,200,20029.75.424.3-1.13.950
197913,518,30030.45.425.0-0.93.990
198013,879,20030.65.325.41.33.990
198114,256,90031.24.926.30.94.015
198214,651,10031.05.026.01.63.960
198315,048,20030.25.125.12.03.825
198415,450,40031.05.025.90.83.905
198515,882,700497,41431.55.026.61.43.980
198616,329,40030.64.725.82.33.850
198716,773,500488,20029.34.524.72.53.680
198817,219,100507,57929.74.625.01.63.705
198917,662,100469,66326.84.622.23.53.355
199018,102,400497,52283,244414,27827.94.623.31.63.490
199118,547,200511,52784,221427,30627.64.523.01.63.447
199219,067,500528,47586,040442,43527.74.523.24.93.473
199319,601,500541,88787,626454,26127.64.523.24.83.466
199420,141,700537,65490,079447,57526.74.522.25.43.353
199520,681,800539,29595,103444,19226.14.621.55.33.278
199621,222,600540,86695,520445,34625.64.521.15.03.226
199721,769,300537,10497,042440,06224.84.520.45.43.125
199822,333,500554,57397,906456,66723.54.818.87.12.971
199922,909,500554,200100,900453,30022.84.917.97.92.896
200023,494,900569,500102,100467,40022.94.318.67.02.926
200124,030,500505,479104,531400,94821.04.316.76.12.709
200224,542,500494,538110,367384,17120.24.515.75.62.609
200325,038,100481,399112,744368,65519.24.514.75.52.494
200425,541,500481,800113,192368,60818.94.414.45.72.450
200526,045,500474,473115,436359,03718.24.413.85.92.362
200626,549,900472,698117,778354,92017.84.413.46.02.299
200727,058,400479,647120,670358,97717.74.513.35.92.274
200827,567,600493,203127,098366,10517.94.613.35.52.274
200928,081,500501,644131,328370,31617.94.713.25.42.245
2010 28,588,600491,239130,978360,26117.24.612.65.52.136
201129,062,000511,594135,463376,13117.64.712.93.72.174
201229,510,000526,012138,692387,32017.84.713.12.32.188
201330,213,700503,914142,202361,71216.74.712.011.82.022
2014 30,708,500528,612150,318378,29417.24.912.34.12.072
201531,186,100521,136155,786365,35016.75.011.73.92.002
201631,633,500508,203162,201346,00216.15.111.03.31.918
201732,022,600508,685168,168340,51715.95.310.61.71.890
201832,382,300501,945172,031329,91415.55.310.21.01.841
201932,523,000487,957173,746314,21115.15.49.7-5.41.781
202032,447,400470,195166,507303,68814.55.19.4-11.71.715
202132,576,300439,744224,569215,17513.56.96.6-2.61.696
202232,698,100423,124206,525216,59912.96.36.6-2.91.631
202333,379,500440,686192,902247,78413.25.87.413.41.7(est.)

Current vital statistics

[27]

PeriodLive birthsDeathsNatural increase
January — June 2023229,61299,927+129,685
January — June 2024207,11896,424+110,694
Difference -22,494 (-9.8%) -3,503 (-3.5%) -18,991

Total fertility rate by ethnic group

[28] Malays ChineseIndiansTotal
2010 2.6951.5171.7332.136
20112.6941.5571.6632.174
20122.7431.7191.5792.188
2013 2.6401.3841.4742.022
2014 2.6531.4141.3842.018
2015 2.5531.3531.3611.941
2016 2.4821.3451.3371.892
2017 2.4721.2001.2821.890
2018 2.4151.1121.2561.841
2019 2.2881.1111.1981.781
2020 2.1920.9811.1771.715
20212.0740.8491.1041.696

Total fertility rate by state

Total fertility rate (TFR) by state according to year:[29]

State 2011 2015 2020
1.44 1.37 2.78
1.53 1.40 1.49
1.62 1.51 1.25
1.81 1.64 1.33
1.96 1.82 1.57
2.18 1.88 1.94
2.23 1.93 1.73
2.23 2.01 1.53
2.30 2.02 1.96
2.39 2.05 1.66
2.50 2.31 1.94
2.56 2.33 1.96
2.61 2.37 2.03
3.46 2.80 2.86
3.77 3.07 2.66

Life expectancy at birth

Average life expectancy at age 0 of the total population.[30]

PeriodLife expectancy in
Years		PeriodLife expectancy in
Years
1950–195554.81985–199070.1
1955–196057.91990–199571.3
1960–196560.91995–200072.3
1965–197063.32000–200573.2
1970–197565.42005–201073.7
1975–198067.22010–201574.7
1980–198568.82015-202075.9

Ethnolinguistic groups

Malaysia's population comprises many ethnic groups. People of Austronesian origin make up the majority of the population, and are known as the Bumiputras. Large Chinese and Indian minorities also exist. Malays, as Bumiputra, see Malaysia as their land, and since race riots in 1969, Bumiputra have been especially privileged in Malaysia – top government positions are reserved for Malays, and the Malays received cheaper housing, priority in government jobs as well as business licenses. However, since the riot, racial stability has prevailed, if not full harmony, and mixed marriages are on the rise.[31] In the 2010 census, 68.8 per cent of the population were considered bumiputera, 23.2 per cent Malaysian Chinese, and 7 per cent Malaysian Indian.[32] In 2021 these figures were 69.7 per cent bumiputera, 22.5 per cent Chinese, and 6.8 per cent Indian.[33]

GroupTotal
Malay, Malaysian language6,916,000
Malay, Kedah3,095,000
Malay, East coast 2,448,000
Han Chinese, Hokkien1,903,000
Tamil1,796,000
Han Chinese, Hakka1,729,000
Han Chinese, Cantonese1,396,000
Han Chinese, Teochew1,004,000
Han Chinese, Mandarin986,000
Minangkabau901,000
Iban686,000
Javanese640,000
Arab people500,000
Filipino, Tagalog456,000
Han Chinese, Hainanese396,000
Han Chinese, Northern Min384,000
350,000
Malay, East Malaysia280,000
Han Chinese, Eastern Min256,000
Straits Chinese244,000
Nepalese224,000
Tausug209,000
Dusun, Central197,000
Malayali, Malayalam228,900
139,000
Telugus, Telugu120,000
Murut people110,131
Punjabis, Indian Punjabis100,000
Siamese80,000
Semai50,000
Temiar40,000
31,600
5,000

Bumiputras

See main article: Bumiputra. Bumiputras totaling 69.7% of Malaysia's population as of 2021 are divided into Muslim Malays proper, who make up the majority of the Malaysian population at 57.9%; and other bumiputra, who make up 13.2% of the Malaysian population, and most of whom belong to various Austronesian ethnic groups related to the Muslim Malays.[34] Bumiputra status is also accorded to certain non-Malay indigenous peoples, including ethnic Thais, Khmers, Chams and the natives of Sabah and Sarawak. Laws over who gets Bumiputra status vary between states.[35] Some Eurasians can obtain bumiputra privileges, providing they can prove they are of Portuguese (Kristang) descent.[36]

Malays

See main article: Malays (ethnic group) and Malaysian Malays. The Malays are an ethnic group predominantly inhabiting the Malay Peninsula and parts of Sumatra and Borneo. They form the largest community in Malaysia and play a dominant role politically. They make up about half of the total population. By constitutional definition, Malays are Muslims who practice Malay customs (adat) and culture.

Their language, Malay (Bahasa Melayu), is the national language of the country. Citizens of Minangkabau, Bugis or Javanese origins, who can be classified "Malay" under constitutional definitions may also speak their respective ancestral tongues. However, English is also widely spoken in major towns and cities across the country. Malays from different states in Malaysia carry distinct dialects that can sometimes be unintelligible to most of their fellow countrymen. By definition of the Malaysian constitution, all Malays are Muslims.

In the past, Malays wrote in Pallava or using the Sanskrit-based alphabet of Kawi. Arabic traders later introduced Jawi, an Arabic-based script, which became popular after the 15th century. Until then reading and writing were mostly the preserve of scholars and nobility, while most Malay commoners were illiterate. Jawi was taught along with Islam, allowing the script to spread through all social classes. Nevertheless, Kawi remained in use by the upper-class well into the 15th century. The Romanised script was introduced during the colonial period and, over time, it came to replace both Sanskrit and Jawi. This was largely due to the influence of the European education system, wherein children were taught the Latin alphabet.

Malay culture shows strong influences from Buddhism, Hinduism and animism. However, since the Islamisation movement of the 1980s and 90s, these aspects are often neglected or banned altogether. Because any Malay-speaking Muslim is entitled to Bumiputra privileges, many non-Malay Muslims have adopted the Malay language, customs and attire in the last few decades. This is particularly the case with Indian Muslims from the peninsula and the Kedayan of Borneo. The Malay ethnic group is distinct from the concept of a Malay race, which encompasses a wider group of people, including most of Indonesia and the Philippines.

Other Bumiputras

See main article: Orang Asal and Orang Asli. Malaysia has many other non-Malay indigenous people, who are given Bumiputra status. The indigenous tribes are the oldest inhabitants of Malaysia, and the indigenous groups of Peninsular Malaysia are known collectively as Orang Asli and in East Malaysia as "Orang Asal". They account for about 11 percent of the nation's population, and represent a majority in East Malaysia of Sabah and Sarawak. In Sarawak, the dominant tribal group are the Dayak people, who are either Iban (also known as Sea Dayak) or Bidayuh (also known as Land Dayak) of which are mainly Christians. The Iban form the largest of all indigenous groups, numbering over 600,000 (35% of Sarawak's population), who mostly still live in traditional longhouses which can hold up to 200 people.[37] Longhouses are mostly places along the Rajang and Lupar rivers and their tributaries, although many Iban have moved to the cities. The Bidayuhs, numbering around 170,000, are concentrated in the southwestern part of Sarawak. They, together with other indigenous groups in Sarawak make up over half of the states population.[34]

The largest indigenous tribe in Sabah is the Kadazan, most of whom are Christians[38] and rice farmers.[39] They live as subsistence farmers. Sabah has a large number of indigenous people, 19.3% of the population are Kadazan-Dusuns, and 16.5% are Bajaus.[40]

There also exist aboriginal groups in much smaller numbers on the peninsula, where they are collectively known as Orang Asli (literally meaning "original person").[41] The 140,000 Orang Asli comprise a number of different ethnic communities. Many tribes, both on the peninsula and in Borneo, were traditionally nomadic or semi-nomadic hunter—gatherers who practice animism, including the Punan, Penan and Senoi. However, their ancestral land and hunting grounds are commonly reclaimed by the state, shifting them to inferior land and sometimes pushing them out of their traditional way of life.[42] The most numerous of the Orang Asli are called 'Negritos' and are deeply related to the ancestors of other modern East Asian people.[43] They consist one of the earliest layers of population. Other bumiputera minorities to a lesser degree include the Malaysian Siamese, Khmers, Chams, Burmese and the Indian Muslims commonly known as Mamaks.

Non-Bumiputras

Minorities who lack Bumiputra status have established themselves in Malaysia. Those who are not considered to be Bumiputras make up a considerable portion of the Malaysian population – non-Malays once constituted around 50% of the population of peninsula Malaya (1947–1957), but have since declined in percentage term due to a higher birthrate of Malays owing to favorable policies by the government as well as some degree of out-migration by the Chinese.[44] A large number of the non-Bumiputra arrived during the colonial period, but most of the non-Bumiputras were native-born by 1947 as large-scale immigration had effectively ceased by the late 1940s.[44] Some Chinese families, known as Peranakan ("straits-born"), have resided in Malaysia since as far back as 15th century Malacca.

Chinese

See main article: Malaysian Chinese. The second largest ethnic group at 6.69 million are the Chinese who make up 22.8% of the population excluding non-citizens as of 2022. They have been dominant in trade and business since the early 20th century. Malaysian Chinese businesses developed as part of the larger bamboo network, a network of overseas Chinese businesses operating in the markets of Southeast Asia that share common family and cultural ties.[45] George Town, Ipoh and Iskandar Puteri are Chinese-majority cities,[46] while Penang was the only state in Malaysia with a non-Bumiputera majority population. The Chinese have been settling in Malaysia for many centuries, as seen in the emergence of the Peranakan culture, but the exodus peaked during the nineteenth century through trading and tin-mining. When they first arrived, the Chinese often worked the most grueling jobs like tin mining and railway construction. Later on, some of them owned businesses that became large conglomerates in today's Malaysia. Most Chinese are Tao Buddhist and retain strong cultural ties to their ancestral homeland.

The first Chinese people to settle in the Straits Settlements, primarily in and around Malacca, gradually adopted elements of Malayan culture, and some intermarried with the Malayan community. A distinct sub-ethnic group called babas (male) and nyonyas (female) emerged. Babas and nyonyas as a group are known as Peranakan. They produced a syncretic set of practices, beliefs, and arts, combining Malay and Chinese traditions in such a way as to create a new culture. The Peranakan culture is still visible to this day in the former Straits Settlements of Singapore, Malacca and Penang.

The Chinese community in Malaysia, depending on the predominant dialect in a particular region, speaks a variety of Chinese dialects including Mandarin, Hokkien, Cantonese, Hakka and Teochew. In certain regions in Malaysia, some dialects are more widely used; Hokkien predominates in Penang and Kedah, while most Chinese in the former centres of tin mining, such as Ipoh and Kuala Lumpur, speak Cantonese. More recently, however, with the standardised, compulsory use of Mandarin in Chinese schools, a huge majority of Malaysian Chinese now speak Mandarin, a non-native language that originated from northern China.

On the other hand, it was reported that up to 10% of Malaysian Chinese are primarily English-speaking.[47] The English-speaking Chinese minority is typically concentrated in cities such as Kuala Lumpur, Petaling Jaya, Subang Jaya, Johor Bahru, George Town, Ipoh and Malacca. The English speakers form a distinct subset within the larger Chinese community, as they are known to have a less Sinocentric mindset, and are rather Westernized in thinking and attitudes.

Indian

See main article: Malaysian Indian. The 2.02 million Indian community in Malaysia is the smallest of the three main ethnic groups, comprising only 6.6% of the total population excluding non-citizens as of 2021. Indians were brought in to Malaysia during the British colonial period in late 18th century and early 19th centuries. There is another historical evidence that confirms Indian civilisation started in Malaysia thousands of years ago by Rajendra Cholan. The proof still exist in Lembah Bujang, Kedah. This is an historical evidence that still about Malaysia and Indians.[48] They first came to Malaya for barter trade, especially in the former Straits Settlements of Singapore, Malacca and Penang. During the British colonial rule, Indian labourers, who were mostly south Indian Tamils from Tamil Nadu and some Telugus and Malayalis from other parts of South India, were brought to Malaya to work on sugarcane and coffee plantations, rubber and oil palm estates, construction of buildings, railways, roads and bridges.[49] English-educated Ceylon Tamils from Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), and some Malaysian Telugus and Malayalees (from Kerala) were brought in to handle white-collar jobs. Kerala had the first mission schools in India and as such produced English educated administrators. Both ethnicities worked mainly as clerks, public servants, teachers, hospital assistants, doctors and in other skilled professions.[50] [51] [52] As for the Punjabis from Punjab, most of them where enlisted in the army in Malaya while some handled the bullock-cart services in the country.[53] [54]

The Indians who came to Malaysia brought with them the Hindu religion, its unique temples called Kovils and the Sikhs with their Gurdwaras. Tamil cuisine is hugely popular. More than 86% of Malaysian Indians adhere to Hinduism. The Chitty community in Malacca are descendants of much earlier Indian immigrants who adopted local culture. Though they remain Hindu, the Chitties speak Bahasa Malaysia and women dress in sarong kebayas. The Hindu community celebrates two main festivals — Deepavali and Thaipusam — and many other smaller religious events each year. Both ethnic Telugu people and Malayalees from Andhra Pradesh and Kerala celebrate the Ugadi festival (new year) and Onam. The ethnic Punjabis celebrate Vasakhi, Lodi and Gurpurab. Majority of the Indians in Malaysia speak Tamil (also lingua franca among all Indians) while Telugu, Malayalam and Punjabi are also spoken by minorities.

Others

A small minority of Malaysians do not fit into the broader ethnic groups. A small population exists of people of European and Middle Eastern descent. Europeans and Middle Easterners, who first arrived during the colonial period, assimilated through intermarriage into the Christian and Muslim communities. Most Eurasian Malaysians trace their ancestry to British, Dutch and/or Portuguese colonists, and there is a strong Kristang community in Malacca.

The Nepalese are mostly migrant workers from Nepal totalling 356,199[55] [56] [57] of which Malaysian Citizens are as little over 600 and lives in Rawang, Selangor. Originally brought by the British as bodyguards and security personnel, Nepali population consist of Rana, Chettri, Rai and Gurung clans. Other minorities include Filipinos and Burmese. A small number of ethnic Vietnamese from Cambodia and Vietnam settled in Malaysia as Vietnam War refugees.

There is no general consensus on the ethnic profiling of children of mixed parentage. Some choose to be identified according to paternal ethnicity while others simply think that they fall in the "Others" category. The majority choose to identify themselves as Malay as long as either parent is Malay, mainly due to the legal definition of Bumiputra and the privileges that comes along with it. Children of Chinese–Indian parentage are known as Chindians. Though this is not an official category in national census data, it is an increasing number especially in urban areas due to the increasing ethnic Chinese-Indian relationships.

Many other people from around the world have moved to Malaysia. There are over 70,000 Africans who have emigrated to Malaysia.[58]

Languages

See main article: Languages of Malaysia. Malaysia contains speakers of 137 living languages,[59] 41 of which are found in Peninsula Malaysia.[60] The official language of Malaysia is known as Bahasa Malaysia, a standardised form of the Malay language. English was, for a protracted period, the de facto, administrative language of Malaysia, though its status was later rescinded. Despite that, English remains an active second language in many areas of Malaysian society and is taught as a compulsory subject in all public schools.[61] [62] Many businesses in Malaysia conduct their transactions in English, and it is sometimes used in official correspondence. Examinations are based on British English, although there has been much American influence through television.

Malaysian English, also known as Malaysian Standard English (MySE), is a form of English derived from British English, although there is little official use of the term, except with relation to education. Malaysian English also sees wide use in business, along with Manglish, which is a colloquial form of English with heavy Malay, Chinese languages and Tamil influences. Most Malaysians are conversant in English, although some are only fluent in the Manglish form. The Malaysian government officially discourages the use of Manglish.[63]

Malaysian Chinese mostly speak Chinese languages from the southern provinces of China. The more common languages in Peninsular Malaysia are Hokkien, Cantonese, Hakka, Teochew, Hainanese, and Hokchiu.[64] In Sarawak, most ethnic Chinese speak either Fuzhounese or Hakka while Hakka predominates in Sabah except in the city of Sandakan where Cantonese is more often spoken despite the Hakka-origins of the Chinese residing there. Hokkien is mostly spoken in Penang, Kedah and Perlis, whereas Cantonese is mostly spoken in Ipoh and Kuala Lumpur. However, in Malaysia as a whole, the majority of ethnic Chinese now speak Mandarin, a non-native language from northern China (originally spoken by the Beijing elite and chosen as the official language of China), as their first language, while English is the first language for the rest. Some of the less-spoken languages such as Hainanese are facing extinction. As with Malaysian youths of other races, most Chinese youth are multilingual and can speak up to four languages with at least moderate fluency – their native Chinese language, Mandarin, English and Malay.

Tamil is the most common language spoken among Indians in Malaysia,[65] especially in Peninsular Malaysia where they still maintain close cultural ties with their homeland Tamil Nadu & Ceylon. This is because there are far fewer Indians in East Malaysia than in the Peninsula. Tamil community from Ceylon have their own Tamil dialect known as Sri Lankan Tamil. Besides Tamil, the Malayalam Language is spoken by over 200,000 Malayalees in Malaysia, predominantly in Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan and Johore.[66] Telugu is also spoken by the Telugu community. Punjabi language is commonly spoken by the Punjabi community. Besides that, Sinhala is used by a small number of Sinhalese community from Sri Lanka.

Citizens of Minangkabau, Bugis or Javanese origins, who can be classified "Malay" under constitutional definitions may also speak their respective ancestral tongues. The native tribes of East Malaysia have their own languages which are related to, but easily distinguishable from, Malay. The Iban is the main tribal language in Sarawak while Dusunic languages are spoken by the natives in Sabah.[67] A variant of the Malay language that is spoken in Brunei is also commonly spoken in both states.

Some Malaysians have Caucasian ancestry and speak creole languages, such as the Portuguese-based Malaccan Creoles,[68] and the Spanish-based Zamboangueño Chavacano.[69] Thai is also spoken in some areas.[34]

Citizenship

See main article: Malaysian citizenship and Malaysian nationality law. Citizenship is usually granted by lex soli. Citizenship in the states of Sabah and Sarawak in Malaysian Borneo are distinct from citizenship in Peninsular Malaysia for immigration purposes. Every citizen is issued a biometric smart chip identity card, known as MyKad, at the age of 12, and must carry the card at all times.[70]

Religion

See main article: Religion in Malaysia. Islam is the largest and state religion of Malaysia, although Malaysia is a multi-religious society and the Malaysian constitution guarantees religious freedom. Despite the recognition of Islam as the state religion, the first 4 prime ministers have stressed that Malaysia could function as a secular state. According to the Population and Housing Census 2020 figures, approximately 63.5 percent of the population practised Islam; 18.7 percent Buddhism; 9.1 percent Christianity; 6.1 percent Hinduism; and 2.7 percent practise other religions or reported having no religion or did not provide any information.[71] The percentage population of Muslims has been steadily increasing – from 58.6% in 1991, 60.4% in 2000, 61.5% in 2010, to 63.5% of the 2020 census.[72] [73]

The majority of Malaysian Indians follow Hinduism (84.5%), with a significant minority identifying as Christians (7.7%), Sikhs (3.9%), Muslims (3.8%), and 1,000 Jains. Most Malaysian Chinese follow a combination of Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism and ancestor-worship but, when pressed to specify their religion, will identify themselves as Buddhists. Statistics from the 2000 Census indicate that 75.9% of Malaysia's ethnic Chinese identify as Buddhist, with significant numbers of adherents following Taoism (10.6%) and Christianity (9.6%), along with small Hui-Muslim populations in areas like Penang. Christianity constitutes a slim majority of the non-Malay Bumiputra community (50.1%) with an additional 36.3% identifying as Muslims while 7.3% follow folk religion.

Islam

See main article: Islam in Malaysia. Islam is thought to have been brought to Malaysia around the 12th century by Arab traders.[74] Since then the religion has become the predominant religion of the country and is recognised as the state's official religion. All ethnic Malays are considered Muslim by Article 160 of the Constitution of Malaysia.

Muslims are obliged to follow the decisions of Syariah courts in matters concerning their religion. The Islamic judges are expected to follow the Shafi`i legal school of Islam, which is the main madh'hab of Malaysia.[75] The jurisdiction of Shariah courts is limited only to Muslims in matters such as marriage, inheritance, divorce, apostasy, religious conversion, and custody among others. No other criminal or civil offences are under the jurisdiction of the Shariah courts, which have a similar hierarchy to the Civil Courts. Despite being the supreme courts of the land, the Civil Courts (including the Federal Court) do not hear matters related to Islamic practices,[76] as ratified by Mahathir Mohamad in the late 1980s. Regulation of sexual activities among the Muslim population is strict; with laws prohibiting unmarried couples from occupying a secluded area or a confined space to prevent suspicion of acts forbidden in Islam.[77]

Education

See main article: Education in Malaysia. Literacy rates (percentage of people over 15 who can read and write) are high in Malaysia, with an overall literacy rate of 88.7%.[78] Literacy rates are higher among males (92%) than females (85.4%)

Education in Malaysia is monitored by the federal government Ministry of Education. The education system features a non-compulsory kindergarten education followed by six years of compulsory primary education,[79] and five years of optional secondary education.[80] Most Malaysian children start schooling between the ages of three to six, in kindergarten.

Primary education

Children begin primary schooling at the age of seven for a period of six years. Primary schools are divided into two categories, national primary schools and vernacular school.[81] Vernacular schools (Sekolah Jenis Kebangsaan) use either Chinese or Tamil as the medium of instruction, whereas national primary schools (Sekolah Kebangsaan) uses Bahasa Malaysia as the medium of instruction for subjects except English, Science and Mathematics.

Before progressing to the secondary level of education, pupils in Year 6 are required to sit the Primary School Achievement Test (Ujian Pencapaian Sekolah Rendah, UPSR).[82] A programme called First Level Assessment (Penilaian Tahap Satu, PTS) taken during Primary Year 3 was abolished in 2001.

Secondary education

Secondary education in Malaysia is conducted in secondary schools (Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan) for five years. National secondary schools use Malay as the main language of instruction. The only exceptions are Mathematics and Science and languages other than Malay, however this was only implemented in 2003, prior to which all non-language subjects were taught in Malay. At the end of Form Three, which is the third year, students are evaluated in the Form Three Assessment ("Pentaksiran Tingkatan Tiga", PT3)（ now abolished ）. Secondary students no longer sit for PMR in Form Three that has been abolished in 2014. In the final year of secondary education (Form Five), students sit the Malaysian Certificate of Education (Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia, SPM) examination, which is equivalent to the former British Ordinary or 'O' Levels. The government has decided to abandon the use of English in teaching maths and science and revert to Bahasa Malaysia, starting in 2012.[83]

Malaysian national secondary schools are sub-divided into several types: National Secondary School (Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan), Religious Secondary School (Sekolah Menengah Agama), National-Type Secondary School (Sekolah Menengah Jenis Kebangsaan) (also referred to as Mission Schools), Technical Schools (Sekolah Menengah Teknik), Residential Schools and MARA Junior Science College (Maktab Rendah Sains MARA).

There are also 60 Chinese Independent High Schools in Malaysia, where most subjects are taught in Chinese. Chinese Independent High Schools are monitored and standardised by the United Chinese School Committees' Association of Malaysia (UCSCAM). However, unlike government schools, independent schools are autonomous. It takes six years to complete secondary education in Chinese independent schools. Students will sit a standardised test conducted by UCSCAM, which is known as the Unified Examination Certificate (UEC) in Junior Middle 3 (equivalent to PMR) and Senior Middle 3 (equivalent to A level). A number of independent schools conduct classes in Malay and English in addition to Chinese, enabling the students to sit the PMR and SPM additionally.

Tertiary education

See also: List of universities in Malaysia.

Before the introduction of the matriculation system, students aiming to enter public universities had to complete an additional 18 months of secondary schooling in Form Six and sit the Malaysian Higher School Certificate (Sijil Tinggi Persekolahan Malaysia, STPM); equivalent to the British Advanced or 'A' levels.[84] Since the introduction of the matriculation programme as an alternative to STPM in 1999, students who completed the 12-month programme in matriculation colleges (kolej matrikulasi in Malay) can enrol in local universities. However, in the matriculation system, only 10 per cent of the places are open to non-Bumiputra students.[85]

There are a number of government-funded public universities in Malaysia, the most prominent of them being University of Malaya. Although the ethnic quota system favouring Malays at such universities was abolished in 2002, disparity of student intake still exists in these universities with underrepresentation of non-Bumiputras.[86] Instead, private universities have sprung up to cater to the local population. These private universities are also gaining a reputation for international quality education and students from all over the world attend these universities. In addition, four reputable international universities have set up their branch campuses in Malaysia since 1998. A branch campus can be seen as an 'offshore campus' of the foreign university, which offers the same courses and awards as the main campus. Both local and international students can acquire these identical foreign qualifications in Malaysia at a lower fee. The foreign university branch campuses in Malaysia are: Monash University Malaysia Campus, Curtin University, Malaysia, Swinburne University of Technology Sarawak Campus and University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus.

Students also have the option of enrolling in private tertiary institutions after secondary studies. Most institutions have educational links with overseas universities especially in the United States, the United Kingdom and Australia, allowing students to spend a portion of their course duration abroad as well as getting overseas qualifications. One such example is Tunku Abdul Rahman University College which partnered with Sheffield Hallam University and Coventry University.[87]

International schools

In addition to the Malaysian National Curriculum, Malaysia has many international schools such as The International School Kuala Lumpur, Alice Smith School, Gardens International School, Cempaka Schools Malaysia, Kolej Tuanku Ja'afar...etc. These schools cater to the growing expatriate population in the country and the Malaysians who want a foreign curriculum, UK based curriculum, English education or Australian curriculum as well.

Health

See also: Healthcare in Malaysia. The Malaysian government places importance on the expansion and development of health care, putting 5% of the government social sector development budget into public health care[88] —an increase of more than 47% over the previous figure. This has meant an overall increase of more than RM 2 billion. With a rising and ageing population, the Government wishes to improve in many areas including the refurbishment of existing hospitals, building and equipping new hospitals, expansion of the number of polyclinics, and improvements in training and expansion of telehealth. A major problem with the health care sector is the lack of medical centres for rural areas, which the government is trying to counter through the development of and expansion of a system called "tele-primary care".[89] Another issue is the overprescription of drugs, though this has decreased in recent years.[90] Since 2009 the Malaysian Health Ministry has increased its efforts to overhaul the system and attract more foreign investment.[88]

The country generally has an efficient and widespread system of health care. It implements a universal healthcare system, which co-exists with the private healthcare system.[89] Infant mortality rate in 2009 was 6 deaths per 1000 births, and life expectancy at birth in 2009 was 75 years.[91] Malaysia has the highest levels of obesity among ASEAN countries.[92] [93]

The Malaysian health care system requires doctors to perform a compulsory three years service with public hospitals to ensure that the manpower in these hospitals is maintained.[89] Recently foreign doctors have also been encouraged to take up employment in Malaysia. There is still, however, a significant shortage in the medical workforce, especially of highly trained specialists; thus, certain medical care and treatment are available only in large cities. Recent efforts to bring many facilities to other towns have been hampered by lack of expertise to run the available equipment.

The majority of private hospitals are in urban areas and, unlike many of the public hospitals, are equipped with the latest diagnostic and imaging facilities. Private hospitals have not generally been seen as an ideal investment—it has often taken up to ten years before companies have seen any profits. However, the situation has now changed and companies are now exploring this area again, corresponding with the increased number of foreigners entering Malaysia for medical care and the recent government focus on developing the health tourism industry.[94] The Government has also been trying to promote Malaysia as a health care destination, regionally and internationally.[88]

Major cities

Kuala Lumpur is the capital and largest city of Malaysia. Although many executive and judicial branches of the federal government have moved to Putrajaya, Kuala Lumpur is the seat of the Parliament of Malaysia, making it the country's legislative capital. It is also the economic and business centre of the country, and is a primate city. Kuala Lumpur is also the only Alpha-rated global city in Malaysia. Along with Subang Jaya, Klang, Petaling Jaya, Shah Alam, Kajang-Sungai Chua, Ampang Jaya and Selayang it forms the country's largest and most important urban area, the Klang Valley.

George Town, the capital city of Penang used to be Malaysia's largest and only city until the 1970s when Kuala Lumpur was granted city status. Today, George Town, rated a Gamma global city, serves as the financial, industrial and medical tourism hub in the northern region of Malaysia. Together with the city of Seberang Perai, and the municipalities of Sungai Petani, Kulim, Bandar Baharu and Kerian, it forms the George Town Conurbation, the nation's second largest metropolitan area with a population of over 2.83 million.

The third largest urban area in Malaysia is situated at the country's southern end, comprising the cities of Johor Bahru, Iskandar Puteri and Pasir Gudang, along with Kulai and Pontian. Located next to Singapore, it is also an important industrial, tourism and commercial hub for southern Malaysia.

Other major cities in Malaysia include Ipoh, Kota Kinabalu and Kuching.

See also

External links

Notes and References

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