Dark oxygen explained

Dark oxygen production refers to the generation of molecular oxygen (O₂) through processes that do not involve light-dependent oxygenic photosynthesis. The name therefore uses a different sense of 'dark' than that used in the phrase "biological dark matter" (for example) which indicates obscurity to scientific assessment rather than the photometric meaning. While the majority of Earth's oxygen is produced by plants and photosynthetically active microorganisms via photosynthesis, dark oxygen production occurs via a variety of abiotic and biotic processes and may support aerobic metabolism in dark, anoxic environments.

Abiotic production

Abiotic production of dark oxygen can occur through several mechanisms, such as:

• Water radiolysis: This process typically takes place in dark geological ecosystems, such as aquifers, where the decay of radioactive elements in surrounding rock leads to the breakdown of water molecules, producing O_2.^[1]
• Oxidation of surface-bound radicals: On silicon-bearing minerals like quartz, surface-bound radicals can undergo oxidation, contributing to O₂ production.^{[2] [3] [4]}

In addition to direct O₂ formation, these processes often produce reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as hydroxyl radicals (OH^•), superoxide (O₂^•-), and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). These ROS can be converted into O₂ and water either biotically, through enzymes like superoxide dismutase and catalase, or abiotically, via reactions with ferrous iron and other reduced metals.^{[5] [6]}

Biotic production

Biotic production of dark oxygen is performed by microorganisms through distinct microbial processes, including:

• Chlorite dismutation: This involves the dismutation of chlorite (ClO₂^-) into O₂ and chloride ions.^[7]
• Nitric oxide dismutation: This involves the dismutation of nitric oxide (NO) into O₂ and dinitrogen gas (N₂) or nitrous oxide (N₂O). ^{[8] [9] [10]}
• Water lysis via methanobactins: Methanobactins can lyse water molecules to produce O_2.^[11]

These processes enable microbial communities to sustain aerobic metabolism in environments that lack oxygen.

Experimental evidence

Recent studies have provided evidence for dark oxygen production in various geological and subsurface environments:

• Groundwater ecosystems: Dissolved oxygen concentrations have been measured in old groundwaters previously assumed to be anoxic. The presence of O₂ is attributed to microbial communities capable of producing dark oxygen and water radiolysis. Metagenomic analyses and oxygen isotope studies further support local oxygen generation rather than atmospheric mixing.^[12]
• Seafloor environments: A study on manganese nodules on the abyssal seafloor has suggested abiotic dark oxygen production.^[13] The proposed mechanism is electrolysis, because voltages were recorded on the surface of the nodules. However, no voltage great enough to split water was measured, the energy source for electrolysis is unknown, and previous experiments from the same region have not found any evidence of oxygen production.^{[14] [15] [16] [17] [18]}

Implications

Despite its diverse pathways, dark oxygen production has traditionally been considered negligible in Earth's systems. Recent evidence suggests that O₂ is produced and consumed in dark, apparently anoxic environments on a much larger scale than previously thought, with implications for global biogeochemical cycles.^{[19] [20]} It could also prove to be a possible way to support life in water on other planets, which opens up scientists to a new study and giving further evidence that we may not be alone in the universe.

Notes and References

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2. He . Hongping . Wu . Xiao . Xian . Haiyang . Zhu . Jianxi . Yang . Yiping . Lv . Ying . Li . Yiliang . Konhauser . Kurt O. . 2021-11-16 . An abiotic source of Archean hydrogen peroxide and oxygen that pre-dates oxygenic photosynthesis . Nature Communications . en . 12 . 1 . 6611 . 10.1038/s41467-021-26916-2 . 2041-1723 . 8595356 . 34785682. 2021NatCo..12.6611H .
3. He . Hongping . Wu . Xiao . Zhu . Jianxi . Lin . Mang . Lv . Ying . Xian . Haiyang . Yang . Yiping . Lin . Xiaoju . Li . Shan . Li . Yiliang . Teng . H. Henry . Thiemens . Mark H. . 2023-03-28 . A mineral-based origin of Earth's initial hydrogen peroxide and molecular oxygen . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . en . 120 . 13 . e2221984120 . 10.1073/pnas.2221984120 . 0027-8424 . 10068795 . 36940327. 2023PNAS..12021984H .
4. Stone . Jordan . Edgar . John O. . Gould . Jamie A. . Telling . Jon . 2022-08-08 . Tectonically-driven oxidant production in the hot biosphere . Nature Communications . en . 13 . 1 . 4529 . 10.1038/s41467-022-32129-y . 2041-1723 . 9360021 . 35941147. 2022NatCo..13.4529S .
5. Sutherland . Kevin M. . Hemingway . Jordon D. . Johnston . David T. . May 2022 . The influence of reactive oxygen species on "respiration" isotope effects . Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta . en . 324 . 86–101 . 10.1016/j.gca.2022.02.033. 2022GeCoA.324...86S .
6. Xu . Jie . Sahai . Nita . Eggleston . Carrick M. . Schoonen . Martin A.A. . February 2013 . Reactive oxygen species at the oxide/water interface: Formation mechanisms and implications for prebiotic chemistry and the origin of life . Earth and Planetary Science Letters . en . 363 . 156–167 . 10.1016/j.epsl.2012.12.008. 2013E&PSL.363..156X .
7. Xu . Jianlin . Logan . Bruce E. . August 2003 . Measurement of chlorite dismutase activities in perchlorate respiring bacteria . Journal of Microbiological Methods . en . 54 . 2 . 239–247 . 10.1016/S0167-7012(03)00058-7. 12782379 .
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9. Kraft . Beate . Jehmlich . Nico . Larsen . Morten . Bristow . Laura A. . Könneke . Martin . Thamdrup . Bo . Canfield . Donald E. . 2022-01-07 . Oxygen and nitrogen production by an ammonia-oxidizing archaeon . Science . en . 375 . 6576 . 97–100 . 10.1126/science.abe6733 . 34990242 . 2022Sci...375...97K . 0036-8075.
10. Murali . Ranjani . Pace . Laura A. . Sanford . Robert A. . Ward . L. M. . Lynes . Mackenzie M. . Hatzenpichler . Roland . Lingappa . Usha F. . Fischer . Woodward W. . Gennis . Robert B. . Hemp . James . 2024-06-25 . Diversity and evolution of nitric oxide reduction in bacteria and archaea . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . en . 121 . 26 . e2316422121 . 10.1073/pnas.2316422121 . 0027-8424 . 11214002 . 38900790. December 20, 2024 . 2024PNAS..12116422M .
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13. Sweetman . Andrew K. . Smith . Alycia J. . de Jonge . Danielle S. W. . Hahn . Tobias . Schroedl . Peter . Silverstein . Michael . Andrade . Claire . Edwards . R. Lawrence . Lough . Alastair J. M. . Woulds . Clare . Homoky . William B. . Koschinsky . Andrea . Fuchs . Sebastian . Kuhn . Thomas . Geiger . Franz . August 2024 . Evidence of dark oxygen production at the abyssal seafloor . Nature Geoscience . en . 17 . 8 . 737–739 . 10.1038/s41561-024-01480-8 . 1752-0894 . free.
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20. Ruff . S. Emil . Humez . Pauline . de Angelis . Isabella Hrabe . Diao . Muhe . Nightingale . Michael . Cho . Sara . Connors . Liam . Kuloyo . Olukayode O. . Seltzer . Alan . Bowman . Samuel . Wankel . Scott D. . McClain . Cynthia N. . Mayer . Bernhard . Strous . Marc . 2023-06-13 . Hydrogen and dark oxygen drive microbial productivity in diverse groundwater ecosystems . Nature Communications . en . 14 . 1 . 10.1038/s41467-023-38523-4 . 2041-1723 . 10264387 . 37311764.