Dari Explained

Dari
Also Known As:Afghan Persian, Eastern Persian
Nativename:دری
Imagescale:0.45
Pronunciation:pronounced as /prs/
States:Afghanistan
Speakers:L1

million

Date:2017
Ref:e27
Speakers2:L2

million (2022)

Speakers Label:Speakers
Familycolor:Indo-European
Fam2:Indo-Iranian
Fam3:Iranian
Fam4:Western Iranian
Fam5:Southwestern Iranian
Fam6:Persian
Dialects:
  • South-Eastern
  • Hazaragi
  • Western
  • Sistani
[1]
Script:Persian alphabet
Nation:Afghanistan
Agency:Academy of Sciences of Afghanistan
Iso3:prs
Glotto:dari1249
Glottorefname:Dari
Notice:IPA

Dari (; endonym: دری pronounced as /prs/), Dari Persian (فارسی دری,, pronounced as /prs/ or, pronounced as /prs/), or Eastern Persian is the variety of the Persian language spoken in Afghanistan.[2] [3] Dari is the Afghan government's official term for the Persian language;[4] [5] it is known as Afghan Persian or Eastern Persian in many Western sources.[6] [7] [8] [9] The decision to rename the local variety of Persian in 1964 was more political than linguistic to support an Afghan state narrative.[10] Dari is most closely related to Tajiki Persian as spoken in Tajikistan and the two share many phonological and lexical similarities. Apart from a few basics of vocabulary, there is little difference between formal written Persian of Afghanistan and Iran; the languages are mutually intelligible.[11] Dari Persian is the official language for approximately 35 million people in Afghanistan[12] and it serves as the common language for inter-ethnic communication in the country.[13]

As defined in the 2004 Constitution of Afghanistan, Dari (or Farsi) is one of the two official languages of Afghanistan; the other is Pashto.[14] Dari is the most widely spoken language in Afghanistan and the native language of approximately 25–55%[15] [16] [17] of the population. Dari serves as the lingua franca of the country and is understood by up to 78% of the population.[18]

Dari served as the preferred literary and administrative language among non-native speakers, such as the Turco-Mongol peoples including the Mughals,[19] for centuries before the rise of modern nationalism. Also, like Iranian Persian and Tajiki Persian, Dari Persian is a continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of the Sassanian Empire (224–651 AD), itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids (550–330 BC).[20] [21] In historical usage, Dari refers to the Middle Persian court language of the Sassanids.[22]

Etymology

Dari is a name given to the New Persian language since the 10th century, widely used in Arabic (compare Al-Estakhri, Al-Muqaddasi and Ibn Hawqal) and Persian texts.[23]

Since 1964, it has been the official name in Afghanistan for the Persian spoken there. In Afghanistan, Dari refers to a modern dialect form of Persian that is the standard language used in administration, government, radio, television, and print media. Because of a preponderance of Dari native speakers, who normally refer to the language as Farsi (Persian: فارسی, "Persian"), it is also known as "Afghan Persian" in some Western sources.

There are different opinions about the origin of the word Dari. The majority of scholars believe that Dari refers to the Persian word dar or darbār, meaning "court", as it was the formal language of the Sassanids. The original meaning of the word dari is given in a notice attributed to Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ (cited by Ibn al-Nadim in Al-Fehrest).[24] According to him, "Pārsī was the language spoken by priests, scholars, and the like; it is the language of Fars." This language refers to Middle Persian. As for Dari, he says, "it is the language of the cities of Madā'en; it is spoken by those who are at the king's court. [Its name] is connected with presence at court. Among the languages of the people of Khorasan and the east, the language of the people of Balkh is predominant."

The Dari language spoken in Afghanistan is not to be confused with the language of Iran called Dari or Gabri, which is a language of the Central Iranian subgroup spoken in some Zoroastrian communities.[25] [26]

History

Dari comes from Middle Persian which was spoken during the rule of the Sassanid dynasty. In general, Iranian languages are known from three periods, usually referred to as Old, Middle, and New (Modern) periods. These correspond to three eras in Iranian history, the old era being the period from some time before, during, and after the Achaemenid period (that is, to 300 BC), the Middle Era being the next period, namely, the Sassanid period and part of the post-Sassanid period, and the New era being the period afterward down to the present day.[27] [28]

The first person in Europe to use the term Deri for Dari may have been Thomas Hyde in his chief work, Historia religionis veterum Persarum (1700).[29]

Dari or Deri has two meanings. It may mean the language of the court:

"the Zebani Deri (Zeban i Deri or Zaban i Dari = the language of Deri), or the language of the court, and the Zebani Farsi, the dialect of Persia at large (...)"[30] [31]

It may also indicate a form of poetry used from Rudaki to Jami. In the fifteenth century it appeared in Herat under the Persian-speaking Timurid dynasty. The Persian-language poets of the Mughal Empire who used the Indian verse methods or rhyme methods, like Bedil and Muhammad Iqbal, became familiar with the araki form of poetry. Iqbal loved both styles of literature and poetry, when he wrote:

This can be translated as:

Even though in euphonious Hindi is sugar –Rhyme method in Dari is sweeter

Uzūbat usually means "bliss", "delight", "sweetness"; in language, literature and poetry, uzubat also means "euphonious" or "melodic".

Referring to the 14th-century Persian poet Hafez, Iqbal wrote:

English translation:

Here qand-e Pārsī ("Rock candy of Persia") is a metaphor for the Persian language and poetry.

Persian replaced the Central Asian languages of the Eastern Iranics.[32] Ferghana, Samarkand, and Bukhara were starting to be linguistically Darified in originally Khorezmian and Soghdian areas during Samanid rule.[33] Dari Persian spread around the Oxus River region, Afghanistan, and Khorasan after the Arab conquests and during Islamic-Arab rule.[34] [35] The replacement of the Pahlavi script with the Arabic script in order to write the Persian language was done by the Tahirids in 9th century Khorasan.[36] The Dari Persian language spread and led to the extinction of Eastern Iranian languages like Bactrian and Khwarezmian with only a tiny amount of Sogdian descended Yaghnobi speakers remaining, as the ancestors of Tajiks started speaking Dari after relinquishing their original language (most likely Bactrian) around this time, due to the fact that the Arab-Islamic army which invaded Central Asia also included some Persians who governed the region like the Sassanids.[37] Persian was a prestigious high-ranking language and was further rooted into Central Asia by the Samanids.[38] Persian also phased out Sogdian.[39] The role of lingua franca that Sogdian originally played was succeeded by Persian after the arrival of Islam.[40] [41] [42]

Geographical distribution

Dari is one of the two official languages of Afghanistan. In practice though, it serves as the de facto lingua franca among the various ethnolinguistic groups.

Dari is spoken natively by approximately 25-80% of the population of Afghanistan as a primary language.[43] [44] [45] Tajiks, who comprise approximately 27% of the population, are the primary speakers, followed by Hazaras (9%) and Aymāqs (4%). Moreover, while Pashtuns generally speak Pashto, those living in Tajik and Hazara dominated areas also use Dari as their main language. The World Factbook states that about 80% of the Afghan population speaks the Dari language. About 2.5 million Afghans in Iran and Afghans in Pakistan, part of the wider Afghan diaspora, also speak Dari as one of their primary languages.[46]

Dari dominates the northern, western, and central areas of Afghanistan, and is the common language spoken in cities such as Balkh, Mazar-i-Sharif, Herat, Fayzabad, Panjshir, Bamiyan, and the Afghan capital of Kabul where all ethnic groups are settled. Some Dari-speaking communities also exist in southwestern and eastern Pashtun-dominated areas such as in the cities of Ghazni, Farah, Zaranj, Lashkar Gah, Kandahar, and Gardez.

Cultural influence

Dari has contributed to the majority of Persian borrowings in several Indo-Aryan languages, such as Urdu, Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali and others, as it was the administrative, official, cultural language of the Persianate Mughal Empire and served as the lingua franca throughout the Indian subcontinent for centuries. Often based in Afghanistan, Turkic Central Asian conquerors brought the language into South Asia.[47] The basis in general for the introduction of Persian language into the subcontinent was set, from its earliest days, by various Persianized Central Asian Turkic and Afghan dynasties.[48] The sizable Persian component of the Anglo-Indian loan words in English and in Urdu therefore reflects the Dari pronunciation. For instance, the words dopiaza and pyjama come from the Dari pronunciation; in Iranian Persian they are pronounced do-piyāzeh and pey-jāmeh. Persian lexemes and certain morphological elements (e.g., the ezāfe) have often been employed to coin words for political and cultural concepts, items, or ideas that were historically unknown outside the South Asian region, as is the case with the aforementioned "borrowings". The Dari language has a rich and colorful tradition of proverbs that deeply reflect Afghan culture and relationships, as demonstrated by U.S. Navy Captain Edward Zellem in his bilingual books on Afghan Dari proverbs collected in Afghanistan.[49] [50]

Differences between Iranian and Afghan Persian

There are phonological, lexical,[51] and morphological differences between Afghan Persian and Iranian Persian. For example Dari has more vowels than Iranian Farsi.[52]

Phonological differences

The phonology of Dari as spoken in Kabul, compared with Classical Persian, is overall more conservative than the accent of Iran's standard register. In this regard Dari is more similar to Tajiki Persian. The principal differences between standard Iranian Persian and Afghan Persian as based on the Kabul dialect are:

  1. The merging of majhul vowels pronounced as //eː, iː// and pronounced as //oː, uː// into pronounced as //iː// and pronounced as //uː// respectively in Iranian Persian, whereas in Afghan Persian, they are still kept separate. For instance, the identically written words Persian: شیر 'lion' and 'milk' are pronounced the same in Iranian Persian as pronounced as //ʃiːr//, but differently as pronounced as //ʃeːr// for 'lion' and pronounced as //ʃiːr// for 'milk' in Afghan Persian, similar to Tajiki Persian. The long vowel in Persian: زود "quick" and Persian: زور "strength" is realized as pronounced as //uː// in Iranian Persian, in contrast, these words are pronounced pronounced as //zuːd// and pronounced as //zoːr// respectively by Persian speakers in Afghanistan.
  2. The Classical Persian high short vowels pronounced as //i// and pronounced as //u// tend to be lowered in Iranian Persian to pronounced as /[e]/ and pronounced as /[o]/, unlike in Dari where they might have both high and lowered allophones.
  3. The treatment of the diphthongs of early Classical Persian "ay" (as "i" in English "size") and "aw" (as "ow" in Engl. "cow"), which are pronounced pronounced as /[ej]/ (as in English "day") and pronounced as /[ow]/ (as in Engl. "low") in Iranian Persian. Dari, on the other hand, is more like ancient Persian, e.g. Persian: نخیر 'no' is realized as pronounced as //naχejr// in Iranian but pronounced as //naχajr// in Afghan Persian, and Persian: نوروز 'Persian New Year' is pronounced as //nowruːz// in Iranian but pronounced as //nawroːz// in Afghan Persian. Moreover, pronounced as /[ow]/ is simplified to pronounced as /[o]/ in normal Iranian speech, thereby merging with the lowered Classical short vowel pronounced as //u// (see above). This does not occur in Afghan Persian.
  4. The pronunciation of the labial consonant Persian: و, which is realized as a voiced labiodental fricative pronounced as /[v]/ in standard Iranian, is still pronounced with the classical bilabial pronunciation pronounced as /[w]/ in Afghanistan; pronounced as /[v]/ is found in Afghan Persian as an allophone of pronounced as //f// before voiced consonants and as variation of pronounced as //b// in some cases, along with pronounced as /link/.
  5. The convergence of the voiced uvular stop pronounced as /[ɢ]/ (Persian: ق) and the voiced velar fricative pronounced as /[ɣ]/ (Persian: غ) in some dialects of Iranian Persian (presumably under the influence of Turkic languages like Azeri and Turkmen)[53] is absent in Dari, where the two are still kept separate.
  6. pronounced as /[a]/ and pronounced as /[e]/ in word-final positions are distinguished in Dari, whereas pronounced as /[e]/ is a word-final allophone of pronounced as //æ// in Iranian Persian.

Dialect continuum

The dialects of Dari spoken in Northern, Central, and Eastern Afghanistan, for example in Kabul, Mazar, and Badakhshan, have distinct features compared to Iranian Persian. However, the dialect of Dari spoken in Western Afghanistan stands in between the Afghan and Iranian Persian. For instance, the Herati dialect shares vocabulary and phonology with both Dari and Iranian Persian. Likewise, the dialect of Persian in Eastern Iran, for instance in Mashhad, is quite similar to the Herati dialect of Afghanistan.

Varieties of Dari

In a paper jointly published by Takhar University and the Ministry of Education in 2018, researchers studying varieties of Persian from Iran to Tajikistan, Identified 3 dialect groups (or macro dialects) present within Afghanistan.[54] In an article about various languages spoken in Afghanistan, Encyclopaedia Iranica identified a nearly identical categorization but considered varieties spoken in the Sistan region to constitute a distinct group.[55]

Takhar and the MOE only discussed vocabulary differences between the dialect groups and did not extensively discuss phonological differences between these groups. However there was a noticeable difference in the romanizations of the Western dialects and the South-Eastern dialects. Chiefly that the vowel diacritic "pesh" (Kasrah) was romanized with an "i" for South-Eastern dialects but as an "e" for western dialects. This is presumably due to a difference in quality, however the paper itself did not explain why the vowels were transliterated differently.

South-Eastern

The South Eastern group (also referred to the Southern and Eastern group) constitutes varieties spoken in and around Kabul, Parwan, Balkh, Baghlan, Samangan, Kunduz, Takhar, Badakhshan and others.[54] A distinctive character of this group is its conservative nature compared to, for example, the Tehrani dialect. This can be seen in its Phonology (e.g. it's preservation of "Majhul" vowels), Morhphonology and Syntax, and it's Lexicon. A further distinction may be made between varieties in and near Kabul and varieties in and near Afghan Turkistan. With dialects near Kabul exhibiting some influences from languages in southern Afghanistan and South Asia and dialects in Afghan Turkistan exhibiting more influence from Tajik. All South-Eastern varieties exhibited some influence from Uzbek.[55] Despite the Afghanistan Ministry of Education referring to this group as "South-Eastern" some of the varieties included are in the north.

As seen in many Hazaragi varieties, certain Eastern Dialects have developed a system of retroflex consonants under pressure from Pashto. They are not widespread, however.[55]

The Kabuli dialect has become the standard model of Dari in Afghanistan, as has the Tehrani dialect in relation to the Persian in Iran. Since the 1940s, Radio Afghanistan has broadcast its Dari programs in Kabuli Dari, which ensured the homogenization between the Kabuli version of the language and other dialects of Dari spoken throughout Afghanistan. Since 2003, the media, especially the private radio and television broadcasters, have carried out their Dari programs using the Kabuli variety.

Western

The Western group includes various varieties spoken in and around: Herat, Badghis, Farah and Ghor.[54] Varieties in this group share many features with the dialects of Persian spoken in Eastern Iran, and one may make many comparisons between the speech of Herat and Mashhad.[55]

Hazaragi

See main article: Hazaragi dialect. The third group recognized by Afghanistan Ministry of Education is Hazaragi. Spoken by the Hazara people, these varieties are spoken in the majority of central Afghanistan including: Bamyan, parts of Ghazni, Daikundi, Laal Sari Jangal in Ghor province, 'uruzgan khas', in a wide area in the west of Kabul which is mainly recognized as Dashti Barchi, and some regions near Herat.[54] As a group, the Hazaragi varieties are distinguished by the presence of retroflex consonants and distinctive vocabulary.[55] [56] However it has been shown that Hazaragi is more accurately a sub-dialect of Dari rather than its own variety of Persian.[57]

Sistani

See main article: Sistani dialect. Afghanistan's Ministry of Education does not make a distinction between varieties of the Sistan region and the varieties in the Western group. However Encyclopaedia Iranica considers the Sistani dialect to constitute their own distinctive group, with notable influences from Balochi.[55]

Phonology

Consonants

LabialDental/
Alveolar		Post-
alveolar		PalatalVelarUvularGlottal
Stop/
Affricate		pronounced as /link/ pronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/ pronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/ pronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/ pronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/(pronounced as /link/)
Nasalpronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/
Fricativepronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/ pronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/ pronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/ pronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/
Tappronounced as /link/
Approximantpronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/

Vowels

(Urban Kabuli) Dari Vowels[58] !!Front!Central!Back
Highpronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/
Near-highpronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/
Mid vowelpronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/
Lowpronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/
(Rural Kabuli) Dari Vowels!!Front!Central!Back
Highpronounced as /link/ pronounced as /link/
pronounced as /link/
High-midpronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/
Low-midpronounced as /link/
Lowpronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/
Dari does not distinguish [{{IPA|ɪ}}] and [{{IPA|ɛ}}] in any position, these are distinct phonemes in English but are in un-conditional free variation in nearly all dialects of Dari.[59] [60] [61] There are no environmental factors related to the appearance of [{{IPA|ɪ}}] or [{{IPA|ɛ}}] and native Dari speakers do not perceive them as different phonemes (that is to say, the English words bet [b{{IPA|ɛ}}t] and bit [b{{IPA|ɪ}}t] would be nearly indistinguishable to a native Dari speaker). However, speakers in Urban regions of Kabul, Panjšir and other nearby provinces in southern and eastern Afghanistan tend to realize the vowel as [{{IPA|ɪ}}].[58] [62] Speakers of Dari in central Afghanistan (i.e. Hazaragi speakers) tend to realize the vowel in proximity to, or identically to, [{{IPA|i}}], unless the following syllable contains a high-back vowel.[63] [64] [65] Speakers in western Afghanistan (such as in the Herat or Farah province) and some rural regions in the Kabul province (not the city) most commonly realize the vowel as [{{IPA|ɛ}}].[66] [67] Additionally, in some varieties of Dari, the phoneme [{{IPA|ɛ}}] appears as an allophone of [a].
Diphthongs!!Front!Back
Highpronounced as /au/pronounced as /ui/
Midpronounced as /oi/
Lowpronounced as /ai/pronounced as /ɑi/

Political views and disputes on the language

Successive governments of Afghanistan have promoted New Persian as an official language of government since the time of the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526), even as those governments were dominated by Pashtun people. Sher Ali Khan of the Barakzai dynasty (1826–1973) first introduced the Pashto language as an additional language of administration. The local name for the Persian variety spoken in Afghanistan was officially changed from Farsi to Dari, meaning "court language", in 1964.[69] [70] [71] Zaher said there would be, as there are now, two official languages, Pashto and Farsi, though the latter would henceforth be named Dari. Within their respective linguistic boundaries, Dari and Pashto are the media of education.

The term continues to divide opinion in Afghanistan today. While Dari has been the official name for decades, "Farsi" is still the preferred name to many Persian speakers of Afghanistan. Omar Samad, an Afghan analyst and ambassador, says of the dispute:[72]

See also

Further reading

External links

Notes and References

  1. Sistani is subsumed as part of the Western varieties by Afghanistans Ministry of Education and Takhar University, but considered a distinct dialect by the Encyclopaedia Iranica.
  2. Book: Afghan Folktales from Herat: Persian Texts in Transcription and Translation. 2009. Cambria Press . 978-1-60497-652-6.
  3. Web site: 11 books. afghanistandl.nyu.edu. 8 March 2018. 9 March 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180309054510/http://afghanistandl.nyu.edu/search/?q=Farsi&sort=title.sort&start=0. live.
  4. Lazard, G. "Darī – The New Persian Literary Language ", in Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition 2006.
  5. Web site: Tajikam Portal - Secret documents Reveal Afghan Language Policy. tajikam.com. 27 September 2019. 23 June 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200623162603/http://tajikam.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=13. live.
  6. Web site: Airgram Farsi to Dari 1964 Embassy Kabul to USA. 27 September 2019. 27 September 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190927192306/http://www.datadust.de/download/farsi2dari/. live.
  7. Web site: Afghanistan . 8 July 2010 . Central Intelligence Agency . The World Factbook . 19 August 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20131015094344/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2098.html?countryName=Afghanistan&countryCode=af&regionCode=sas&#af . 15 October 2013 . dead .
  8. Web site: Documentation for ISO 639 identifier: prs . . 18 January 2010 . 19 August 2013 . 18 September 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120918010720/http://www.sil.org/iso639-3/documentation.asp?id=prs . live .
  9. Web site: LibGuides: Dari Language: Language History. International and Area Studies. Library. guides.library.illinois.edu. 5 August 2021. 5 August 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210805172825/https://guides.library.illinois.edu/c.php?g=347570&p=2349642. live.
  10. Book: Green. Nile. Afghanistan in Ink: Literature Between Diaspora and Nation. Arbabzadah. Nushin. 2013. Hurst. 978-1-84904-204-8. 13. en.
  11. Web site: Kāboli. live. 2021-08-09. Encyclopaedia Iranica. en-US. Persian in Afghanistan is generally called fārsi by Persian-speakers and pārsi in Pashto. The standard written Persian of Afghanistan has officially been called Dari since 1964; apart from a few basics of vocabulary, however (and more Indo-Persian calligraphic styles in the Perso-Arabic script), there is little difference between formal written Persian of Afghanistan and of Iran. The term "Dari" is often loosely used for the characteristic spoken Persian of Afghanistan, but is best restricted to formal spoken registers (poetry, speeches, newscasts, and other broadcast announcements).. https://web.archive.org/web/20110429160106/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kaboli-colloquial-persian . 29 April 2011 .
  12. Web site: South Asia :: Afghanistan . Central Intelligence Agency . 2020-08-22 . The World Factbook . 4 January 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210104184342/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/afghanistan/ . live .
  13. Web site: Library . International and Area Studies . LibGuides: Dari Language: Language History . 2024-06-27 . guides.library.illinois.edu . en.
  14. Web site: The Afghans – Language Use. 24 October 2010. Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL). United States. 30 June 2002. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20110504071911/http://www.cal.org/co/afghan/alang.html. 4 May 2011.
  15. Web site: Afghanistan v. Languages . Persian (2) is the most spoken languages in Afghanistan. The native tongue of twenty five percent of the population ... . Encyclopædia Iranica, online ed. . Ch. M. Kieffer . 10 December 2010 . 29 April 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110429162829/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/afghanistan-v-languages . live .
  16. Web site: Dari . . UCLA International Institute: Center for World Languages . 10 December 2010 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110605045226/http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=191&menu=004 . 5 June 2011 . dead .
  17. Web site: The World Factbook. 2013-10-15. 2020-01-28. https://web.archive.org/web/20131015094344/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2098.html?countryName=Afghanistan&countryCode=af&regionCode=sas&#af. 15 October 2013.
  18. Web site: South Asia :: Afghanistan – The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency. www.cia.gov. 2021-07-02. 26 January 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210126065551/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/afghanistan/. live.
  19. Web site: Mughal world and literature . 2024-06-21 . www.laits.utexas.edu.
  20. Lazard, Gilbert 1975, "The Rise of the New Persian Language"
  21. in Frye, R. N., The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 4, pp. 595–632, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  22. [Frye, R. N.]
  23. Web site: DARĪ – Encyclopaedia Iranica . 18 January 2012 . 24 November 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20201124025639/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/dari . live .
  24. Ebn al-Nadim, ed. Tajaddod, p. 15; Khjwārazmī, Mafātīh al-olum, pp. 116–17; Hamza Esfahānī, pp. 67–68; Yāqūt, Boldān IV, p. 846
  25. Web site: "Parsi-Dari" Ethnologue . Ethnologue.org . 19 February 1999 . 19 August 2013 . 7 July 2010 . https://web.archive.org/web/20100707181510/http://www.ethnologue.org/show_language.asp?code=prd . live .
  26. Web site: "Dari, Zoroastrian" Ethnologue . Ethnologue.org . 19 February 1999 . 19 August 2013 . 7 July 2010 . https://web.archive.org/web/20100707065844/http://www.ethnologue.org/show_language.asp?code=gbz . live .
  27. Web site: Farsi, the most widely spoken Persian Language, a Farsi Dictionary, Farsi English Dictionary, The spoken language in Iran, History of Farsi Language, Learn Farsi, Farsi Translation . Farsinet.com . 26 August 2012 . 8 August 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170808011813/http://www.farsinet.com/farsi/ . live .
  28. Web site: UCLA, Language Materials Projects . Persian Language . Iranchamber.com . 26 August 2012 . 29 June 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180629102420/http://www.iranchamber.com/literature/articles/persian_language.php . live .
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  30. John Richardson, London, 1777 pg. 15
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  41. Web site: Dari .
  42. Web site: Language of the "Mountain Tribe": A Closer Look at Hazaragi . 12 December 2011 .
  43. Web site: AFGHANISTAN v. Languages. Persian (2) is the language most spoken in Afghanistan. The native tongue of twenty five percent of the population .... Encyclopædia Iranica, online ed.. Ch. M. Kieffer. 10 December 2010. 29 April 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110429162829/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/afghanistan-v-languages. live.
  44. Web site: Languages of Afghanistan . . Ethnologue

    Languages of the World

    . 2005 . 16 September 2010 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20090130093407/http://www.ethnologue.com/14/show_country.asp?name=Afghanistan . 30 January 2009 .
  45. Encyclopedia: Dari language . Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 December 2010.
  46. Web site: Dari language, alphabet and pronunciation . Omniglot.com . 26 August 2012 . 11 May 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120511180819/http://www.omniglot.com/writing/dari.htm . live .
  47. Book: South Asian Sufis: Devotion, Deviation, and Destiny. 23 April 2015. 978-1-4411-5127-8. Bennett. Clinton. Ramsey. Charles M.. 2012-03-01. A&C Black .
  48. Sigfried J. de Laet. History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century UNESCO, 1994. p 734
  49. Zellem, Edward. 2012. Web site: Zarbul Masalha: 151 Afghan Dari Proverbs. Charleston: CreateSpace. 9 November 2012. 31 December 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20141231183158/http://www.afghanproverbs.com/. live.
  50. Zellem, Edward. 2012. Web site: Afghan Proverbs Illustrated. Charleston: CreateSpace. 9 November 2012. 31 December 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20141231183158/http://www.afghanproverbs.com/. live.
  51. Web site: Ethnologue report for language code: prs . Ethnologue.com . 26 August 2012 . 7 December 2010 . https://web.archive.org/web/20101207025528/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=prs . live .
  52. Web site: Dari . 2024-06-21 . Center for Languages of the Central Asian Region . en-US.
  53. A. Pisowicz, Origins of the New and Middle Persian phonological systems (Cracow 1985), pp. 112–114, 117.
  54. الله حکیمی. مطیع. fa. Takhar University & The Afghanistan Ministry of Education. 2018. گونه‌های زبان فارسی دری. journal.
  55. Encyclopedia: Encyclopaedia Iranica. AFGHANISTAN v. Languages. 1983.
  56. Encyclopedia: Encyclopaedia Iranica. HAZĀRA iv. Hazāragi dialect. 2003. Charles M. Kieffer.
  57. Web site: March 20, 2012 . HAZĀRA iv. Hazāragi dialect .
  58. Web site: Foundation . Encyclopaedia Iranica . Kābolī Persian . 2023-08-11 . iranicaonline.org . en-US.
  59. Web site: Miller . Corey . Variation in Persian Vowel Systems - University of Maryland . Digitala Vetenskapliga Arkivet.
  60. Fiorello . Christopher . Dari Phonology . SIL Internation.
  61. Book: Rees, Daniel A. . Towards Proto-Persian: An Optimality Theoretic Historical Reconstruction. Ph.D. dissertation. . Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Georgetown University. . 2008.
  62. Book: Neghat, Muhammad Nassim . Dari-English Dictionary. . Omaha: University of Nebraska. . 1993.
  63. Web site: Vowel Harmony in Hazaragi Persian in Afghanistan . 2023-08-11 . ResearchGate.
  64. HAZĀRA . 10.1163/2330-4804_eiro_com_2912 . free .
  65. Book: Efimov, V. A. . Xazara . Moskva: Izdatel'stvo Firma Vostočnaya Literatura RAN . 2008 . In V. A. Efimov (ed.), Sredneiranskie i novoiranskie Jazyki . 344–414.
  66. Wahedi . Mohammad Haroon . Najm . Sharaafuddin . Sediqi . Aqlima . 2022-07-06 . Noun Structures in the Persian-Dari Dialect of the People of Farah Province in Afghanistan . International Journal of Linguistics Studies . 2 . 2 . 41–45 . 10.32996/ijls.2022.2.2.6 . 2754-2599. free .
  67. Hachard . Vincent . 2003-05-15 . Geratskij dialekt jazyka dari. Moskva, Izd. firma Vostočnaja literatura RAN, 1999, 238 p., bibliogr., pas d'index. (Jazyki narodov Azii i Afriki). [Le dialecte dari de Hérat] . Abstracta Iranica . 24 . 10.4000/abstractairanica.34191 . 0240-8910. free .
  68. Book: A Grammar of Dari. Mitchell. Rebecca. Naser. Djamal. München: LINCOM. 2017. 20–27.
  69. [Willem Vogelsang]
  70. Web site: Airgram Farsi to Dari 1964 Embassy Kabul to USA. www.datadust.de. 27 September 2019. 27 September 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190927192306/http://www.datadust.de/download/farsi2dari/. live.
  71. see too Harold F. Schiffman Language 2012, pp. 39–40
  72. News: Dari or Farsi? Afghanistan's Long-Simmering Language Dispute. Radiofreeeurope/Radioliberty . 25 November 2017. 26 November 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20171126121028/https://www.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-dari-farsi-persian-language-dispute/28840560.html. live . Bezhan . Frud .

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