Cultural depictions of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor explained

Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500–1558), the first ruler of an empire where the sun never set,[1] has traditionally attracted considerable scholarly attention and also raises controversies among historians regarding his character, his rule and achievements (or failures) in the countries in his personal empire, as well as various social movements and wider problems associated with his reign. Historically seen as a great ruler by some or a tragic failure of a politician by others, he is generally seen by modern historians as an overall capable politician, a brave and effective military leader, although his political vision and financial management tend to be questioned. Some criticize his inability to create or apply a consistent vision, while others defend him on the basis of the unprecedent nature of the task.[2]

Commenting on the events that commemorated the 500th anniversary (in 2000) of his birth, historian C. Scott Dixon writes that, "Born in Ghent on 24 February 1500, the first son of Philip of Habsburg and Juana of Castile, Charles would live to acquire the largest empire of the age. No other sovereign in Europe reigned over so many people or ruled over so many lands. By the year 1525, Charles V could lay claim to 72 separate titles, among them 27 kingdoms. 13 duchies, 22 counties and nine seigniories. He cast a shadow long enough to raise the concerns of the papal theologians, for here was a secular ruler who really could give living form to the medieval idea of a universal monarchy. It is no exaggeration to say that the political destiny of Europe in the sixteenth century was often in the hands of this Habsburg emperor, and it is thus little wonder that the anniversary of his birth has been commemorated in a series of public exhibitions, festivals, concerts, displays of art, learned conferences, and numerous publications."[3]

Historiography

Charles V's reputation among historians is controversial.

In his lifetime, the emperor had tried to influence his future image in several ways. His memoirs, dictated in 1550 on his way from Cologne to Speyer, is now considered unreliable. The emperor told his son Philip II about this book that any offence would be due to honest mistakes rather than intent.[4] He also had several publicists, chief among them was the Grand Chancellor himself, Mercurino di Gattinara.[5]

Christian R.Kemp notes that biographical materials between 1610 and 1800 tend to be political or religious propaganda, either "mythical hero worship or litanies of hatred".

The current modern standard biography is the book Karl V. of Karl Brandi, translated in to English by C.V.Westwood (1939) as The Emperor Charles V. It is centred on Germany and focuses on Charles V as the last German monarch to have attempted the establishment of a universal christian monarchy of medieval character. Álvarez's 1975 work Charles V: Elected Emperor and Hereditary Ruler, on the other hand, focuses on Spain at the expense of his other lands, but according to Maltby, is an effective supplement to Brandi's work in this way. Peter Rassow's Karl V: der letzte Kaiser des Mittelalters (1957), (which is also German-centered), continues with Brandi's view that Charles was a ruler with a medieval character (which is challenged by recent scholarship).[6] Alfred Kohler praises Brandi's work as an extraordinary and valuable work even for modern readers, that clarifies the full severity of the conflict with France and the central importance of the European policy for the emperor, but thinks that he focuses too much on the dynastic side, the supposed peaceful intentions and the "Tu felix Austria nube" idea. Kohler remarks that Rassow makes a valuable contribution in exploring the idea of the emperor and Empire, and the question of harmonizing dynastic power and the unity of the Empire through the emperor.

From a Belgian perspective, Charles de Terlinden's 1965 Charles Quint, empereur des deux mondes hails Charles V as "an illustrious pioneer of the idea of Europe [... ], a great European." Peter Burke remarks that Charles's greatest posthumous successes are in the Low Countries, especially Belgium. Dixon does not disagree nor agree with him, but notes that the celebrations in Flanders in 2000 do strongly support Burke's point. Dixon points out some criticisms too and notes that political conditions of every era have produced some conflicting views. Dixon opines that there is not a structural difference between the Dutch and the Belgians, and Dutch historians have defended his importance in the unification process.

From a global perspective, Brendan Simms summarises that Charles V focused the most on the Holy Roman Empire and the least on his possessions in the Americas:

Generally works by British and American historians have been noted as syntheses with little original interpretation, but Rebecca Ard Boone writes that some are good materials that introduce non-professionals to the matter. A much praised work by an Anglo historian is Sir Geoffrey Elton's 1963 Reformation Europe 1517-1559, which describes Charles as having a deep sense of duty, loyal to his principles (unusual for a prince of his time), intelligent, capable in making viable a government that had to administer scattered lands and even wage wars by proxy and from a distance, but lacked "the depth of insight which might have made him a truly great king" – this problem showed itself the most in German matters.[7] Various modern historians attest to Charles's sense of honour and principles (although probably in a legal sense more than in a moral sense, and not in financial matters)[8] but points out his limited political vision. James D. Tracy's Emperor Charles V, Impresario of War: Campaign Strategy, International Finance, and Domestic Politics examines the balance between military strategy, policy and financial matters in Charles's reign. Regarding the model of monarchia universalis, "Paradoxically, it may be the greatest significance of Charles's reign for European history lies not in what he did but in what he did not do: he either failed to achieve or did not even attempt the monarchia Gattinara had dreamed of". Tracy notes though, that scholars have different views regarding the matter whether Charles ever embraced Gattinara's ideas or not. In his mature years, Charles refuted the idea that he had sought monarchia and emphasized that he was not an aggressors, but only his inherited lands and Christendom's defender against France, the Protestants and others. Tracy opines that his actions did not always reflected this though. For example, when he refused a joint command with Francis I of an expedition against the Turks, it was not clear he was acting as defender of Christendom or head of the house of Austria. Tracy also notes that, " Charles not only left Europe's ingrained state pluralism essentially as he found it ; he also helped make a broader basis of collaboration possible, if and when Christian states could overcome their habitual antagonisms."

Kohler praises Tracy highly on the matter of campaigns and their financing.[9] Henry Kamen notes that Tracy "relates the emperor's military role in Spain to what he did in the rest of his dominions, and gives the best overall survey of imperial policy".[10]

Joachim Whaley notes that Charles did possess a political vision – a European one that focused on the West (unlike his grandfather Maximilian I who had a dual focus on both the East and the West, and unlike his brother Ferdinand I who was essentially a German emperor) and in the end more on Spain which provided more revenue while his absences (as well as his reluctance in allowing Ferdinand to share power according to Maximilian's desire) limited his authority in Germany and allowed the princes to assert their position more strongly.[11] Whaley remarks Charles's and Ferdinand's focus on non-German affairs during the crucial years of the mid-1250s, when Imperial Cities were forced to manage the rise of the common man in a way that estranged them from the crown, had important implications for the fact that a centralized, South German monarchy never arose from the alliance between crown and cities that Maximilian I had fostered.[12]

Some authors opine that the task was simply too much for one man to handle.[13] Geoffrey Parker writes that, "given the size and complexity of his transatlantic empire, the past provided no model". Reviewing Parker's work, Francis P. Sempa notes that, "His [Charles V's] empire was the first modern European hegemon. Others—Louis XIV, Napoleon I, Kaiser Wilhelm II, Hitler's Germany, and the Soviet Union—would follow."[14]

Hajo Holborn opines that Charles's original plans were based on Burgundy, aiming to restore Charles the Bold's empire. Later he was guided by Gattinara towards medieval universalism and a focus on Italian matters.[15] Jean-Marie Cauchies also opines that for a long time he remained a Burgundian not only in person but also geographically. When he abdicated, in 1555, Charles remarked that when he aspired for the crown of Otto, he though about protecting his estates, but especially the Low Countries.[16]

Boone comments on the historiography of Charles V as the following:

The figure of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1500–d. 1558), looms large over a wide swath of human experience in the 16th century. His empire impacted the direction of history in the Americas, Europe, and the Middle East. The military, diplomatic, and dynastic force of his empire weighed on cultural movements that included the Reformation, Renaissance, print revolution, witch trials, global trade, and colonization. The interplay of his narrow and shortsighted vision on one side and his military courage, administrative acumen, and devotion to duty as he understood it on the other has intrigued historians for nearly five hundred years. Every generation has found him relevant, but for different reasons. By all accounts he was talented in language acquisition. He also had the energy, intellect, and desire to understand the minutia of administrative and diplomatic business. His presence on the battlefield and documented courage helped him maintain the loyalty of his subjects. In short, he seems to have been a “good enough” emperor. Although he did not maintain political or religious unity in his empire, he defended the lands he inherited and maintained them under his family's rule. His publicists devised an imperial program focused on his personal power as a ruler chosen by God to defend Christianity from internal and external forces of evil. The contemporary shift toward authoritarian rule in many countries today has given this program new relevance.

Depictions in legends and arts

References to Charles in popular culture include a large number of legends and folk tales; literary renderings of historical events connected to his life and romantic adventures, his relationship to Flanders, and his abdication; and products marketed in his name.[17]

The impact of Charles's patronage and personality on European arts has been notable. While reviewing his impact on Italian arts, William Eisler notes that there is no serious scholarly work that investigates his patronage yet.[18] Having been the arch-opponent of the French king Francis I in his lifetime, French traditional historical writings have tended to possess a degree of hostility towards the emperor, although in various works (both scholarly and artistic) he appears sympathetic. Today, he is not seen as an enemy anymore.[19]

Legends and anecdotes

This anecdote has inspired works such as paintings by Pietro Antonio Novelli (1729-1804) and Joseph-Nicolas Robert-Fleury (1797–1890).[22] [23]

Tapestries

Larry Silver notes that while Maximilian, Charles's grandfather, preferred woodcuts (as this medium was cheap) for "portable political claims", Charles V combined luxury and mobility in the form of tapestries, which were often commissioned by relatives and prominent subjects rather than the emperor himself.

Music

Charles's motto "Plus ultra" appeared as a textual motto in several musical works produced during Charles's reign. Ferer lists these works as the following: "They include two anonymous chansons, a mass entitled Missa Plus oultre by Johannes Lupi, a chanson and intabulation for two lutes by Nicolas Gombert, and a lost chanson by Costanzo Festa. An anonymous setting of the motto, Plus oultre pretens parvenir, was most likely composed near the beginning of Charles's reign. Its text affirms his visionof expanding his realm and advancing the faith, as well as his resolve to establish a universal empire.[...] Plus oultre prefens parvenir is extant in VienNB 9814, a manuscript probably copied between 1519 and 1525 and part of the Alamire Netherlands court complex."

Public monuments

In his lifetime, artists usually accompany him in his expeditions. These artists tended to depict him as a Roman emperor (a "calculated feat", according to Sacheverell Sitwell) and this continued after his death. The monument in Palermo is a notable example.[34]

In the nineteenth century, as governments erected statues of famous rulers and heroes to bolster patriotic feelings, there was renewed interest in Charles V. As his physical attributes were not suitable to depict embodiment of kingship, textbooks tended to present him as embodiment of devotion to duty, despite his physical frailty and suffering. Maria Theresa selected Charles V, Charlemagne together with other Habsburg patrons of the arts like Charles VI, Rudolf I to be included in a group of monument in Vienna to glorify her reign and solidify Austria's status as the inheritor of Carolingian dynasty.[36]

Paintings and engravings

Other than Titian, whom he compared to Apelles, other notable court painters of Charles V included Bernaert van Orley and Pieter Coecke.[39] [40]

Literature

Plays

Opera

Architecture

See also: Palace of Charles V.

Armour

Among the notable armourers who worked for Charles were the brothers Filippo and Francesco Negroli, Desiderius Helmschmid (1513–1579). Filippo was perhaps the first Italian armorer who constructed pseudo-antique helmets from single plates rather than combining multiple pieces as was the common practice of the time.[73]

Food

Television and film

Commemoration

The Ommegang of Brussels, organized annually in Belgium (now twice a year), celebrates the 1549 entry of Charles and his son Philip.[90]

Charles V has been commemorated over time throughout Europe. Austrian rulers such as Maria Theresa and Franz Joseph viewed him as of their great predecessors and honored his figure.[91] The 400th anniversary of his death, celebrated in 1958 in Francoist Spain, brought together the local national catholic intelligentsia and a number of European (Catholic) conservative figures, underpinning an imperial nostalgia for Charles V's Europe and the Universitas Christiana, also propelling a peculiar brand of europeanism.[92] In 2000, celebrations for the 500th anniversary of Charles's birthday took place in Belgium.[93]

See also

External links

Bibliography and further reading

Charles V and music

Tapestries

Visual arts

Miscellaneous

Notes and References

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  3. Dixon . C. Scott . Charles V and the Historians: Some Recent German Works on the Emperor and his Reign . German History . 1 January 2003 . 21 . 1 . 104–124 . 10.1191/0266355403gh277xx . 11 February 2022 . en.
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