Croatian language explained

Croatian
Nativename:hrvatski
Pronunciation:pronounced as /xř̩ʋaːtskiː/
Ethnicity:Croats
States:Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Hungary (Bácska), Montenegro (Bay of Kotor), Romania (Caraș-Severin County), Serbia (Vojvodina)
Region:Southeast Europe
Speakers:L1

million (including all dialects spoken by Croats)

Date:2021
Ref:e27
Speakers2:L2

million (2012)

Familycolor:Indo-European
Fam2:Balto-Slavic
Fam3:Slavic
Fam4:South
Fam5:Western
Fam6:Serbo-Croatian[1]
Script:Latin (Gaj's alphabet)
Yugoslav Braille
Glagolitic (historical)
Bosnian cyrillic (historical)
Nation:
(co-official)
(co-official)[2]
(in Vojvodina)
(in Burgenland)
Minority:[3]
[4]
(in Baranya County)[5]
[6]
Agency:Institute of Croatian Language and Linguistics
Iso1:hr
Iso2:hrv
Iso3:hrv
Lingua:part of 53-AAA-g
Map:Croatian Language.png
Mapcaption:States and regions which recognize Croatian as (co-)official (dark red) or minority language (light red)
Notice:IPA
Glotto:croa1245
Glottorefname:Croatian Standard
Map2:Lang Status 99-NE.svg
Fam7:Shtokavian
Fam8:New Shtokavian
Fam9:Eastern Herzegovinian

Croatian (; Croatian: hrvatski pronounced as /xř̩ʋaːtskiː/) is the standardised variety of the Serbo-Croatian pluricentric language[7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] mainly used by Croats.[13] It is the national official language and literary standard of Croatia, one of the official languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, the Serbian province of Vojvodina, the European Union and a recognized minority language elsewhere in Serbia and other neighbouring countries.

In the mid-18th century, the first attempts to provide a Croatian literary standard began on the basis of the Neo-Shtokavian dialect that served as a supraregional lingua franca – pushing back regional Chakavian, Kajkavian, and Shtokavian vernaculars. The decisive role was played by Croatian Vukovians, who cemented the usage of Ijekavian Neo-Shtokavian as the literary standard in the late 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, in addition to designing a phonological orthography. Croatian is written in Gaj's Latin alphabet.[14]

Besides the Shtokavian dialect, on which Standard Croatian is based, there are two other main supradialects spoken on the territory of Croatia, Chakavian and Kajkavian. These supradialects, and the four national standards, are usually subsumed under the term "Serbo-Croatian" in English; this term is controversial for native speakers,[15] and names such as "Bosnian-Croatian-Montenegrin-Serbian" (BCMS) are used by linguists and philologists in the 21st century.[16]

In 1997, the Croatian Parliament established the Days of the Croatian Language from March 11 to 17.[17] Since 2013, the Institute of Croatian language has been celebrating the Month of the Croatian Language, from February 21 (International Mother Language Day) to March 17 (the day of signing the Declaration on the Name and Status of the Croatian Literary Language).[17]

History

See also: Language secessionism.

Modern language and standardization

In the late medieval period up to the 17th century, the majority of semi-autonomous Croatia was ruled by two domestic dynasties of princes (banovi), the Zrinski and the Frankopan, which were linked by inter-marriage.[18] Toward the 17th century, both of them attempted to unify Croatia both culturally and linguistically, writing in a mixture of all three principal dialects (Chakavian, Kajkavian and Shtokavian), and calling it "Croatian", "Dalmatian", or "Slavonian".[19] Historically, several other names were used as synonyms for Croatian, in addition to Dalmatian and Slavonian, and these were Illyrian (ilirski) and Slavic (slovinski).[20] It is still used now in parts of Istria, which became a crossroads of various mixtures of Chakavian with Ekavian, Ijekavian and Ikavian isoglosses.[21]

The most standardised form (Kajkavian–Ikavian) became the cultivated language of administration and intellectuals from the Istrian peninsula along the Croatian coast, across central Croatia up into the northern valleys of the Drava and the Mura. The cultural apex of this 17th century idiom is represented by the editions of "Adrianskoga mora sirena" ("The Siren of the Adriatic Sea") by Petar Zrinski and "Putni tovaruš" ("Traveling escort") by Katarina Zrinska.[22] [23]

However, this first linguistic renaissance in Croatia was halted by the political execution of Petar Zrinski and Fran Krsto Frankopan by the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I in Vienna in 1671.[24] Subsequently, the Croatian elite in the 18th century gradually abandoned this combined Croatian standard.[25]

Illyrian period

See main article: Illyrian movement. The Illyrian movement was a 19th-century pan-South Slavic political and cultural movement in Croatia that had the goal to standardise the regionally differentiated and orthographically inconsistent literary languages in Croatia, and finally merge them into a common South Slavic literary language. Specifically, three major groups of dialects were spoken on Croatian territory, and there had been several literary languages over four centuries. The leader of the Illyrian movement Ljudevit Gaj standardized the Latin alphabet in 1830–1850 and worked to bring about a standardized orthography. Although based in Kajkavian-speaking Zagreb, Gaj supported using the more populous Neo-Shtokavian – a version of Shtokavian that eventually became the predominant dialectal basis of both Croatian and Serbian literary language from the 19th century on.[26] [27] Supported by various South Slavic proponents, Neo-Shtokavian was adopted after an Austrian initiative at the Vienna Literary Agreement of 1850, laying the foundation for the unified Serbo-Croatian literary language. The uniform Neo-Shtokavian then became common in the Croatian elite.[25]

In the 1860s, the Zagreb Philological School dominated the Croatian cultural life, drawing upon linguistic and ideological conceptions advocated by the members of the Illyrian movement. While it was dominant over the rival Rijeka Philological School and Zadar Philological Schools, its influence waned with the rise of the Croatian Vukovians (at the end of the 19th century).

Distinguishing features and differences between standards

See main article: Comparison of standard Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin and Serbian.

See also: Serbo-Croatian phonology and Serbo-Croatian grammar.

Croatian is commonly characterized by the ijekavian pronunciation (see an explanation of yat reflexes), the sole use of the Latin alphabet, and a number of lexical differences in common words that set it apart from standard Serbian. Some differences are absolute, while some appear mainly in the frequency of use. However, as professor John F. Bailyn states, "an examination of all the major 'levels' of language shows that BCS is clearly a single language with a single grammatical system."[28]

Sociopolitical standpoints

Croatian, although technically a form of Serbo-Croatian, is sometimes considered a distinct language by itself.[15] This is at odds with purely linguistic classifications of languages based on mutual intelligibility (abstand and ausbau languages),[29] which do not allow varieties that are mutually intelligible to be considered separate languages. "There is no doubt of the near 100% mutual intelligibility of (standard) Croatian and (standard) Serbian, as is obvious from the ability of all groups to enjoy each others' films, TV and sports broadcasts, newspapers, rock lyrics etc.", writes Bailyn.[28] Differences between various standard forms of Serbo-Croatian are often exaggerated for political reasons.[30] Most Croatian linguists regard Croatian as a separate language that is considered key to national identity,[31] in the sense that the term Croatian language includes all language forms from the earliest times to the present, in all areas where Croats live, as realized in the speeches of Croatian dialects, in city speeches and jargons, and in the Croatian standard language.[32] [33] The issue is sensitive in Croatia as the notion of a separate language being the most important characteristic of a nation is widely accepted, stemming from the 19th-century history of Europe. The 1967 Declaration on the Status and Name of the Croatian Literary Language, in which a group of Croatian authors and linguists demanded greater autonomy for Croatian, is viewed in Croatia as a linguistic policy milestone that was also a general milestone in national politics.

On the 50th anniversary of the Declaration, at the beginning of 2017, a two-day meeting of experts from Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia and Montenegro was organized in Zagreb, at which the text of the Declaration on the Common Language of Croats, Bosniaks, Serbs and Montenegrins was drafted.[34] The new Declaration has received more than ten thousand signatures. It states that in Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro a common polycentric standard language is used, consisting of several standard varieties, similar to the existing varieties of German, English or Spanish.[35] The aim of the new Declaration is to stimulate discussion on language without the nationalistic baggage[36] and to counter nationalistic divisions.[37]

The terms "Serbo-Croatian", "Serbo-Croat", or "Croato-Serbian", are still used as a cover term for all these forms by foreign scholars, even though the speakers themselves largely do not use it. Within ex-Yugoslavia, the term has largely been replaced by the ethnopolitical terms Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian.[38]

The use of the name "Croatian" for a language has historically been attested to, though not always distinctively. The first printed Croatian literary work is a vernacular Chakavian poem written in 1501 by Marko Marulić, titled "The History of the Holy Widow Judith Composed in Croatian Verses".[39] [40] The Croatian–Hungarian Agreement designated Croatian as one of its official languages.[41] Croatian became an official EU language upon accession of Croatia to the European Union on 1 July 2013.[42] [43] In 2013, the EU started publishing a Croatian-language version of its official gazette.[44]

Official status

Standard Croatian is the official language of the Republic of Croatia[45] and, along with Standard Bosnian and Standard Serbian, one of three official languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina.[1] It is also official in the regions of Burgenland (Austria),[46] Molise (Italy)[47] and Vojvodina (Serbia).[48] Additionally, it has co-official status alongside Romanian in the communes of Carașova[49] and Lupac,[50] [51] Romania. In these localities, Croats or Krashovani make up the majority of the population, and education, signage and access to public administration and the justice system are provided in Croatian, alongside Romanian.

Croatian is officially used and taught at all universities in Croatia and at the University of Mostar in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Studies of Croatian language are held in Hungary (Institute of Philosophy at the ELTE Faculty of Humanities in Budapest[52]), Slovakia (Faculty of Philosophy of the Comenius University in Bratislava[52]), Poland (University of Warsaw, Jagiellonian University, University of Silesia in Katowice, University of Wroclaw, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznan)[53], Germany (University of Regensburg[54]), Australia (Center for Croatian Studies at the Macquarie University[55]), Northern Macedonia (Faculty of Philology in Skopje[56]) etc.

Croatian embassies hold courses for learning Croatian in Poland[57], United Kingdom[58] and a few other countries. Extracurricular education of Croatian is hold in Germany in Baden-Württemberg, Berlin, Hamburg and Saarland,[59] as well as in North Macedonia in Skopje, Bitola, Štip and Kumanovo.[56] Some Croatian Catholic Missions also hold Croatian language courses (for. ex. CCM in Buenos Aires[60]).

There is no regulatory body that determines the proper usage of Croatian. However, in January 2023, the Croatian Parliament passed a law that prescribes the official use of the Croatian language, regulates the establishment of the Council for the Croatian language as a coordinating advisory body whose work will be focused on the protection and development of the Croatian language. State authorities, local and regional self-government entities are obliged to use the Croatian language.[61]

The current standard language is generally laid out in the grammar books and dictionaries used in education, such as the school curriculum prescribed by the Ministry of Education and the university programmes of the Faculty of Philosophy at the four main universities. In 2013, a Hrvatski pravopis by the Institute of Croatian Language and Linguistics received an official sole seal of approval from the Ministry of Education.

The most prominent recent editions describing the Croatian standard language are:

Also notable are the recommendations of Matica hrvatska, the national publisher and promoter of Croatian heritage, and the Miroslav Krleža Institute of Lexicography, as well as the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts.

Numerous representative Croatian linguistic works were published since the independence of Croatia, among them three voluminous monolingual dictionaries of contemporary Croatian.

In 2021, Croatia introduced a new model of linguistic categorisation of the Bunjevac dialect (as part of New-Shtokavian Ikavian dialects of the Shtokavian dialect of the Croatian language) in three sub-branches: Dalmatian (also called Bosnian-Dalmatian), Danubian (also called Bunjevac), and Littoral-Lika.[62] [63] Its speakers largely use the Latin alphabet and are living in parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, different parts of Croatia, southern parts (inc. Budapest) of Hungary as well in the autonomous province Vojvodina of Serbia.The Institute of Croatian Language and Linguistics added the Bunjevac dialect to the List of Protected Intangible Cultural Heritage of the Republic of Croatia on 8 October 2021.[64] [65]

Sample text

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Croatian (2009 Croatian government official translation):

Sva ljudska bića rađaju se slobodna i jednaka u dostojanstvu i pravima. Ona su obdarena razumom i sviješću te trebaju jedna prema drugima postupati u duhu bratstva.[66]

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.[67]

See also

Sources

Further reading

External links

Language history

Notes and References

  1. Book: Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. 2nd. Croatia: Language Situation. The official language of Croatia is Croatian (Serbo-Croatian). [...] The same language is referred to by different names, Serbian (srpski), Serbo-Croat (in Croatia: hrvatsko-srpski), Bosnian (bosanski), based on political and ethnic grounds. [...] the language that used to be officially called Serbo-Croat has gotten several new ethnically and politically based names. Thus, the names Serbian, Croatian, and Bosnian are politically determined and refer to the same language with possible slight variations..
  2. Book: Constitution of Montenegro . https://wipolex.wipo.int/en/text/187544#LinkTarget_1506 . Language and alphabet Article 13 . . 19 October 2007 . Serbian, Bosnian, Albanian and Croatian shall also be in the official use..
  3. Web site: Zákon 184/1999 Z. z. o používaní jazykov národnostných menšín . Slovenskej Republiky. Národná Rada. 1999. Zbierka zákonov. sk. 3 December 2016.
  4. Web site: Národnostní menšiny v České republice a jejich jazyky . National Minorities in Czech Republic and Their Language . Government of Czech Republic. 2 . Podle čl. 3 odst. 2 Statutu Rady je jejich počet 12 a jsou uživateli těchto menšinových jazyků: [...], srbština a ukrajinština . cs.
  5. Web site: 2011. évi CLXXIX. törvény a nemzetiségek jogairól . Act CLXXIX/2011 on the Rights of Nationalities . Government of Hungary . 22. § (1) E törvény értelmében nemzetiségek által használt nyelvnek számít [...] a horvát . hu.
  6. Web site: Legge 15 Dicembre 1999, n. 482 "Norme in materia di tutela delle minoranze linguistiche storiche" pubblicata nella Gazzetta Ufficiale n. 297 del 20 dicembre 1999. Italian Parliament. 2 December 2014. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20150512051856/http://www.camera.it/parlam/leggi/99482l.htm. 12 May 2015.
  7. Book: Dalby, David . Linguasphere . 1999 . . 445 . 53-AAA-g. Srpski+Hrvatski, Serbo-Croatian.
  8. Book: Benjamin W. Fortson IV . Benjamin W. Fortson IV . Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction . 2nd . 2010 . Blackwell . 431 . Because of their mutual intelligibility, Serbian, Croatian, and Bosnian are usually thought of as constituting one language called Serbo-Croatian..
  9. Book: Blažek, Václav . On the Internal Classification of Indo-European Languages: Survey . 2021-10-26 . 15–16.
  10. Book: Šipka, Danko. Danko Sipka. 2019. Lexical layers of identity: words, meaning, and culture in the Slavic languages. New York. Cambridge University Press. 206. 10.1017/9781108685795. 978-953-313-086-6. 150383965. 2018048005 . 1061308790. Serbo-Croatian, which features four ethnic variants: Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, and Montenegrin.
  11. Jelena. Ćalić. Pluricentricity in the classroom: the Serbo-Croatian language issue for foreign language teaching at higher education institutions worldwide. Sociolinguistica: European Journal of Sociolinguistics. De Gruyter. 0933-1883. 10.1515/soci-2021-0007. 35. 1. 113–140. 2021. 244134335 . The debate about the status of the Serbo-Croatian language and its varieties has recently shifted (again) towards a position which looks at the internal variation within Serbo-Croatian through the prism of linguistic pluricentricity. free.
  12. Book: Kordić, Snježana. Snježana Kordić. Nomachi. Motoki. Motoki Nomachi. Kamusella. Tomasz. Tomasz Kamusella. Languages and Nationalism Instead of Empires. Routledge. Routledge Histories of Central and Eastern Europe. 168–169. Ideology Against Language: The Current Situation in South Slavic Countries. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/372202077. PDF. en. London. 2024. 10.4324/9781003034025-11. 978-0-367-47191-0. 1390118985. 259576119. 4680766. free. . . https://archive.org/details/kordic-ideology-against-language . 2024-01-10. 2024-01-23. live.
  13. Book: E.C. Hawkesworth . Serbian-Croatian-Bosnian Linguistic Complex . . 2nd . 2006.
  14. Web site: Croatia: Themes, Authors, Books . 2009-11-16 . Yale University Library Slavic and East European Collection . 2010-10-27.
  15. Web site: Cvetkovic . Ljudmila . Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, Or Montenegrin? Or Just 'Our Language'? – Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty . 2010 . Rferl.org . 2021-10-26.
  16. Web site: Bosnian-Croatian-Montenegrin-Serbian language (BCMS). 2024-01-26 . Encyclopedia Britannica .
  17. Web site: Mjesec hrvatskog jezika. ihjj.hr. Institute of Croatian language. Croatian language Month. 22 February 2024. hr.
  18. Book: Gazi, Stephen . A History of Croatia . 1973 . Philosophical library. New York . 978-0-8022-2108-7 .
  19. Book: Van Antwerp Fine, John . When Ethnicity did not Matter in the Balkans . 2006 . University of Michigan Press. Michigan, US . 978-0-472-11414-6 . 377–379 .
  20. Book: Stankiewicz, Edward . Grammars and Dictionaries of the Slavic Languages from the Middle Ages Up to 1850 . 1984 . Walter de Gruyter . 9783110097788 . 2021-10-26.
  21. Kalsbeek . Janneke . 1998 . The Čakavian dialect of Orbanići near Žminj in Istria . Studies in Slavic and General Linguistics. 25.
  22. Web site: Dva brata i jedna Sirena . Ivana . Sabljak . Matica hrvatska . hr . Two Sisters and One Siren . 9 March 2012.
  23. Web site: Matica Hrvatska – Putni tovaruš – izvornik (I.) . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20130513193306/http://www.matica.hr/www/wwwizd2.nsf/AllWebDocs/zrinskipvtnitovarvs . 2013-05-13. 2021-10-26.
  24. Book: Tanner, Marcus . Croatia: a Nation Forged in War . 1997 . Yale University Press . New Haven, US . 978-0-300-06933-4 . 50 . registration .
  25. Book: Malić, Dragica . Dragica Malić . 1997 . Razvoj hrvatskog književnog jezika. Školska knjiga . 978-953-0-40010-8.
  26. Book: Uzelac, Gordana . The development of the Croatian nation: an historical and sociological analysis . 2006 . . . 978-0-7734-5791-1 . 75 .
  27. Web site: Bosnisch/Bosniakisch, Kroatisch und Serbisch (B/K/S).. Bis in die 1990er-Jahre wurde diese Sprache einheitlich offiziell als Serbokroatisch/Kroatoserbisch, inoffiziell als Serbisch und Kroatisch bezeichnet. Den Namen Serbokroatisch verwendete erstmals Jacob Grimm im Vorwort zu seiner Übersetzung der Kleinen Serbischen Grammatik (1824) von Vuk Stefanović Karadžić. Im Jahre 1836 benutzt Jernej Kopitar den Ausdruck "serbochorvatica sive chorvatocoserbica". P. Budmani veröffentlichte 1867 die Grammatica della lingua serbo-croata (illirica), und im Jahre 1877 erschien die Grammaire de la language serbo-croate des Kroaten Dragutin Pančić. Die Sprache, beziehungsweise die Sprachen, die aus dem ehemaligen Serbokroatischen entstanden sind, stellen ein kompliziertes soziolinguistisches Phänomen dar. Diese Komplexität ist gegeben, weil eine genetisch identische Sprache von (1) mehreren Nationen (Serben, Montenegrinen, Kroaten, Muslime/Bosniaken), (2) mehreren Religionen (Orthodoxen, Katholiken, Muslimen) gesprochen wird und weil diese Sprache (3) eine breite dialektologische Gliederung (das Štokavische, das Čakavische, das Kajkavische), (4) verschiedene Aussprachen (das Ekavische, das Ijekavische, das Ikavische) und (5) zwei Schriften (Lateinschrift, Kyrillica) aufweist.. Tošović, Branko (Universität Graz). 2022-12-01. 2023-04-13. https://web.archive.org/web/20221201181403/https://www-gewi.uni-graz.at/gralis-alt/2.Slawistikarium/BKS/Herausbildung_des_BKS_Allgemeine_Informaction.htm. dead.
  28. To what degree are Croatian and Serbian the same language? Evidence from a Translation Study. Bailyn. John Frederick. Journal of Slavic Linguistics. 2010. 18. 2. 181–219. 9 October 2019. 1068-2090. 9 October 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20191009113158/https://linguistics.stonybrook.edu/people/_bios/_linguistics-faculty/_faculty-files/bailyn/publications/JSLBCS2.pdf. dead.
  29. Book: Mader Skender, Mia. Die kroatische Standardsprache auf dem Weg zur Ausbausprache. German. The Croatian standard language on the way to ausbau language. Schlussbemerkung. Summary. PDF. University of Zurich, Faculty of Arts, Institute of Slavonic Studies. UZH Dissertations. 196–197. Zurich. 2022. 10.5167/uzh-215815 . 8 June 2022. Dissertation . Obwohl das Kroatische sich in den letzten Jahren in einigen Gebieten, vor allem jedoch auf lexikalischer Ebene, verändert hat, sind diese Änderungen noch nicht bedeutend genug, dass der Terminus Ausbausprache gerechtfertigt wäre. Ausserdem können sich Serben, Kroaten, Bosnier und Montenegriner immer noch auf ihren jeweiligen Nationalsprachen unterhalten und problemlos verständigen. Nur schon diese Tatsache zeigt, dass es sich immer noch um eine polyzentrische Sprache mit verschiedenen Varietäten handelt..
  30. Benjamin W. Fortson IV, Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction, 2nd ed. (2010, Blackwell), pg. 431.
  31. "Jezično" pristupanje Hrvatske Europskoj Uniji: prevođenje pravne stečevine i europsko nazivlje . The Accession of the Croatian Language to the European Union: Translation of the Acquis Communautaire and European Legal Terminology . Snježana Ramljak . Croatian Political Science Review . Faculty of Political Science, University of Zagreb . sh . 0032-3241 . 45 . 1 . June 2008 . 2012-02-27.
  32. Web site: Hrvatski standardni jezik . 2024-01-26 . Institute of Croatian Language.
  33. Web site: Hrvatski — zaseban jezik . 2024-01-26 . Institute of Croatian Language.
  34. Web site: Derk. Denis. Donosi se Deklaracija o zajedničkom jeziku Hrvata, Srba, Bošnjaka i Crnogoraca. A Declaration on the Common Language of Croats, Serbs, Bosniaks and Montenegrins is About to Appear. hr. Večernji list. 6–7. Zagreb. 0350-5006. 28 March 2017. 20 September 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170920235101/https://www.vecernji.hr/vijesti/deklaracija-o-zajednickom-jeziku-iz-zagreba-donosi-se-30-ozujka-u-sarajevu-1159142. live. 2021-10-26.
  35. Web site: Trudgill. Peter. Peter Trudgill. 30 November 2017. 46. Time to Make Four Into One. The New European. 3 October 2018.
  36. News: J.. T.. 10 April 2017. Is Serbo-Croatian a Language?. The Economist. 10 April 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170410083158/http://www.economist.com/blogs/economist-explains/2017/04/economist-explains-4. live. London. 0013-0613. 2021-10-26. (alternate URL)
  37. Web site: Sven. Milekić. 30 March 2017. Post-Yugoslav 'Common Language' Declaration Challenges Nationalism. Balkan Insight. 27 April 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170427234436/http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/post-yugoslav-common-language-declaration-challenges-nationalism-03-29-2017. live. London. 2021-10-26.
  38. Book: Crystal, David . Language Death . Cambridge University Press . 2000 . 11–12.
  39. Web site: 2024-01-02 . Marko Marulić . 2024-02-10 . Britannica.
  40. Web site: Crnković . Gordana P. . Croatian literature . 2024-02-10 . Britannica.
  41. Web site: Hrvatsko-ugarska nagodba 1868. . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120207040249/http://www.crohis.com/izvori/nagodba2.pdf . 2012-02-07 . 2021-10-26 . www.crohis.com .
  42. Web site: Vandoren: EU membership – challenge and chance for Croatia – Daily – tportal.hr . tportal.hr . 2010-09-30 . 2021-10-26 . https://web.archive.org/web/20101115051444/http://daily.tportal.hr/89107/Vandoren-EU-membership-challenge-and-chance-for-Croatia.html . 2010-11-15 . live .
  43. Web site: Applications now open for Croatian linguists . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120628170120/http://europa.eu/epso/apply/news/news130_en.htm. EU careers . 2012-06-28 . 2012-06-21 . 2012-09-10.
  44. Web site: Službeni list Europske unije. hr. Official Gazette of the European Union. . live . 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130513131304/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/JOEdSpecRep.do?year=2013&ihmlang=hr . 2013-05-13 . 2021-10-26.
  45. Web site: Croatia . Cia.gov . 2010-12-21.
  46. Andrea Zorka . Kinda-Berlakovich . Hrvatski nastavni jezik u Gradišću u školsko-političkome kontekstu . Croatian as the Language of Instruction and Language Policy in Burgenland from 1921 onwards . LAHOR . 1 . 1 . 2006 . 27–35 . 1846-2197 . 2021-10-26.
  47. Web site: Endangered languages in Europe: report . Helsinki.fi . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20101117011258/http://www.helsinki.fi/~tasalmin/europe_report.html#MCroatian . 2010-11-17 . 2010-10-27.
  48. Web site: Official Use of Languages and Scripts in the AP Vojvodina . puma.vojvodina.gov.rs . 2010-12-21.
  49. Web site: Structura Etno-demografică a României . Edrc.ro . 2010-10-27.
  50. Web site: Structura Etno-demografică a României . Edrc.ro . 2010-10-27.
  51. Web site: Structura Etno-demografică a României . Edrc.ro . 2010-12-21.
  52. Farkaš. Loretana. Mlade snage na jezikoslovnome poprištu. hr. Jezik: časopis za kulturu hrvatskoga književnog jezika. 46. 1. 36. 1849-174X.
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  54. Web site: First Croatian language centre in a German-speaking country opens . croatiaweek.com. Croatia Week. 8 July 2023.
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