Critique of political economy explained

Critique of political economy or simply the first critique of economy is a form of social critique that rejects the conventional ways of distributing resources. The critique also rejects what its advocates believe are unrealistic axioms, faulty historical assumptions, and taking conventional economic mechanisms as a given^[1] or as transhistorical (true for all human societies for all time). The critique asserts the conventional economy is merely one of many types of historically specific ways to distribute resources, which emerged along with modernity (post-Renaissance Western society).^{[2] [3] [4]}

Critics of political economy do not necessarily aim to create their own theories regarding how to administer economies.^{[5] [6]} Critics of economy commonly view "the economy" as a bundle of concepts and societal and normative practices, rather than being the result of any self-evident economic laws. Hence, they also tend to consider the views which are commonplace within the field of economics as faulty, or simply as pseudoscience.^{[7] [8]}

There are multiple critiques of political economy today, but what they have in common is critique of what critics of political economy tend to view as dogma, i.e. claims of the economy as a necessary and transhistorical societal category.^[9]

John Ruskin

In the 1860s, John Ruskin published his essay Unto This Last which he came to view as his central work.^{[10] [11] [12]} The essay was originally written as a series of publications in a magazine, which ended up having to suspend the publications, due to the severe controversy the articles caused. While Ruskin is generally known as an important art critic, his study of the history of art was a component that gave him some insight into the pre-modern societies of the Middle Ages, and their social organisation which he was able to contrast to his contemporary condition.^[13] Ruskin attempted to mobilize a methodological/scientific critique of new political economy, as it was envisaged by the classical economists.^{[14] [15]}

Ruskin viewed the concept of "the economy" as a kind of "collective mental lapse or collective concussion", and he viewed the emphasis on precision in industry as a kind of slavery.^[16] Due to the fact that Ruskin regarded the political economy of his time as "mad", he said that it interested him as much as "a science of gymnastics which had as its axiom that human beings in fact didn't have skeletons." Ruskin declared that economics rests on positions that are exactly the same. According to Ruskin, these axioms resemble thinking, not that human beings do not have skeletons but rather that they consist entirely of skeletons. Ruskin wrote that he did not oppose the truth value of this theory, he merely wrote that he denied that it could be successfully implemented in the world in the state it was in. He took issue with the ideas of "natural laws", "economic man", and the prevailing notion of value and aimed to point out the inconsistencies in the thinking of the economists. He critiqued John Stuart Mill for thinking that "the opinions of the public" was reflected adequately by market prices.^[17]

Ruskin coined illth to refer to unproductive wealth. Ruskin is not well known as a political thinker today but when in 1906 a journalist asked the first generation of Labour Party members of Parliament in the United Kingdom which book had most inspired them, Unto This Last emerged as an undisputed chart-topper.

Criticism

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels regarded much of Ruskin's critique as reactionary. His idealisation of the Middle Ages made them reject him as a "feudal utopian".

Karl Marx

In the 21st century, Marx is probably the most famous critic of political economy, with his three-volume magnum opus, The Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, as one of his most famous books.^[18] Marx's companion Engels also engaged in critique of political economy in his 1844 Outlines of a Critique of Political Economy, which helped lay down some of the foundation for what Marx was to take further.^{[19] [20] [21]}

Marx's critique of political economy encompasses the study and exposition of the mode of production and ideology of bourgeois society, and its critique of German: Realabstraktionen (real abstraction), that is, the fundamental economic, i.e. social categories present within what for Marx is the capitalist mode of production,^{[22] [23]} for example abstract labour.^{[24] [25]} In contrast to the classics of political economy, Marx was concerned with lifting the ideological veil of surface phenomena and exposing the norms, axioms, social relations, institutions, and so on, that reproduced capital.^[26]

The central works in Marx's critique of political economy are Grundrisse, A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy and Das Kapital. Marx's works are often explicitly named for example: A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, or Capital: A Critique of Political Economy.^[27] Marx cited Engels' article Outlines of a Critique of Political Economy several times in Das Kapital. Trotskyists and other Leninists tend to implicitly or explicitly argue that these works constitute and or contain "economical theories", which can be studied independently.^{[28] [29] [30]} This was also the common understanding of Marx's work on economy that was put forward by Soviet orthodoxy.^[31] Since this is the case, it remains a matter of controversy whether Marx's critique of political economy is to be understood as a critique of the political economy or, according to the orthodox interpretation another theory of economics.^{[32] [33]} The critique of political economy is considered the most important and central project within Marxism which has led to, and continues to lead to a large number of advanced approaches within and outside academic circles.^[34]

Foundational concepts

• Labour and capital are historically specific forms of social relations, and labour is not the source of all wealth.^{[35] [36]}
• Labour is the other side of the same coin as capital, labour presupposes capital, and capital presupposes labour.^[37]
• Money is not in any way something transhistorical or natural, which goes for the whole economy as well as the other categories specific to the mode of production, and its gains in value are constituted due to social relations rather than any inherent qualities.^{[38] [39]}
• The individual does not exist in some form of vacuum but is rather enmeshed in social relations.^{[40] [41]}

Marx's critique of the quasi-religious and ahistorical methodology of economists

Marx described the view of contemporaneous economists and theologians on social phenomena as similarly unscientific.^[42]

Marx continued to emphasize the ahistorical thought of the modern economists in the Grundrisse, where he among other endeavors, critiqued the liberal economist Mill.^[43] Marx also viewed the viewpoints which implicitly regarded the institutions of modernity as transhistorical as fundamentally deprived of historical understanding.^{[44] [45]}

According to the French philosopher Jacques Rancière, what Marx understood, and what the economists failed to recognise was that the value-form is not something essential, but merely a part of the capitalist mode of production.^[46]

On scientifically adequate research

Marx offered a critique regarding the idea of people being able to conduct scientific research in this domain.^[47] He wrote:

On vulgar economists

Marx criticized what he regarded as the false critique of political economy of his contemporaries, sometimes even more forcefully than when he critiqued the classical economists he described as vulgar economists. In Marx's view, the errors of some socialist authors led the workers' movement astray. He rejected Ferdinand Lassalle's iron law of wages, which he regarded as mere phraseology.^[48] He also rejected Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's attempts to do what Hegel did for religion, law, and so on for political economy, as well as regarding what is social as subjective, and what was societal as merely subjective abstractions.^[49]

Interpretations of Marx's critique of political economy

Some scholars view Marx's critique as being a critique of commodity fetishism and the manner in which this concept expresses a criticism of modernity and its modes of socialisation.^[50] Other scholars who engage with Marx's critique of political economy affirm the critique might assume a more Kantian sense, which transforms "Marx's work into a foray concerning the imminent antinomies that lie at the heart of capitalism, where politics and economy intertwine in impossible ways."

Contemporary Marxian

Regarding contemporary Marxian critiques of political economy, these are generally accompanied by a rejection of the more naturalistically influenced readings of Marx, as well as other readings later deemed German: weltanschaaungsmarxismus (worldview Marxism),^{[51] [52]} that was popularised as late as toward the end of the 20th century.

According to some scholars in this field, contemporary critiques of political economy and contemporary German Ökonomiekritik have been at least partly neglected in the anglophone world.^[53]

Feminism

There has been a growing literature on feminist critiques of economics in the 21st century.^{[54] [55] [56] [57]} But feminist critiques of economics can be found as early as the beginning of the 18th century.^[58] According to Julie A. Nelson, feminist critiques of economics should start from the premise that "economics, like any science, is socially constructed."^[59] These feminists therefore argue economics is a field socially constructed to privilege Western, and heterosexual persons that identify as male.^{[60] [61]} They generally incorporate feminist theory and frameworks to show how economics communities signal expectations regarding appropriate participants to the exclusion of outsiders. Such criticisms extend to the theories, methodologies and research areas of economics, in order to show that accounts of economic life are deeply influenced by biased histories, social structures, norms, cultural practices, interpersonal interactions, and politics. Feminists often also make a critical distinction that masculine bias in economics is primarily a result of gender, not sex.^[59] But feminist critiques of economics, and the economy, can also include other views such as concern with an ever increasing rate of environmental degradation.^[62]

Differences between critics of economy and critics of economical issues

One may differentiate between those who engage in critique of political economy, which takes on a more ontological character, where authors criticise the fundamental concepts and social categories which reproduce the economy as an entity.^{[63] [64]} While other authors, which the critics of political economy would consider only to deal with the surface phenomena of the economy, have a naturalized understanding of these social processes. Hence the epistemological differences between critics of economy and economists can also at times be very large.

In the eyes of the critics of political economy, the critics of economic issues merely critique certain practices in attempts to implicitly or explicitly rescue the political economy; these authors might for example propose universal basic income or to implement a planned economy.^[65]

Others

Contemporary

Economists

• Richard D. Wolff
• Steve Keen
• John Komlos

Sociologists

• Orlando Patterson, John Cowles professor of sociology at Harvard University, argues that economics is a pseudoscience.^[66]

Philosophers

• Slavoj Žižek^[67]

Historians

• Moishe Postone

Historical

Historians

• Thomas Carlyle^[68]
• Roman Rozdolsky^[69]

Poets

• Carl Jonas Love Almqvist^[70]
• August Strindberg^[71]

Miscellaneous

• Paul Lafargue^[72]

See also

• Anti-work
• Chinese economic reform
• Critique of work
• Katrine Marçal
• Hans-Georg Backhaus
• Helmut Reichelt
• Humanistic economics
• Moishe Postone
• Neue Marx-Lektüre

Bibliography

• Book: Postone, Moishe . Time, Labor and Social Domination: A Reinterpretation of Marx's Critical Theory . 1993 . Cambridge University Press . 9780521391573 . New York and Cambridge . 231578868 . Moishe Postone.
• Johnsdotter S, Carlbom A, editors. Goda sanningar: debattklimatet och den kritiska forskningens villkor. Lund: Nordic Academic Press; 2010.
• Braudel F. Kapitalismens dynamik. (La Dynamique du Capitalisme) [Ny utg.]. Göteborg: Daidalos; 2001.
• Ankarloo D, editor. Marx ekonomikritik. Stockholm: Tidskriftsföreningen Fronesis; 2008.
• Eklund K. Vår ekonomi: en introduktion till världsekonomin. Upplaga 15. Lund: Studentlitteratur; 2020.
• Tidskriftsföreningen Fronesis. Arbete. Stockholm: Tidskriftsfören. Fronesis; 2002.
• Baudrillard J. The Mirror of Production. Telos Press; 1975.
• Marx K. Till kritiken av den politiska ekonomin. [Ny utg.]. Göteborg: Proletärkultur; 1981.

Further reading

Articles

Scholarly articles

• Alan Christopher Finlayson, Thomas A. Lyson, Andrew Pleasant, Kai A. Schafft and Robert J. Torres "Invisible Hand": Neoclassical Economics and the Ordering of Society" Critical Sociology 2005 31: 515
• Backhaus, H. G. (1969). Zur Dialektik der Wertform. Thesis Eleven, 1(1), 42-76. (In German)
• Granberg, M. (2015). The ideal worker as real abstraction: labour conflict and subjectivity in nursing. Work, Employment and Society, 29(5), 792–807. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017014563102
• Granberg, Magnus "Reactionary radicalism and the analysis of worker subjectivity in Marx's critique of political economy"
• Mau, Søren (2018). Den dobbelte fordrejning: Begrebet fetichisme i kritikken af den politiske økonomi. Slagmark - Tidsskrift for idéhistorie, (77), 103–122. https://doi.org/10.7146/slagmark.vi77.124228
• Paul Trawick and Alf Hornborg. (2015) Revisiting the Image of Limited Good: On Sustainability, Thermodynamics, and the Illusion of Creating Wealth, Current Anthropology, Vol. 56, No. 1 pp. 1-27, The University of Chicago Press on behalf of Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research

Romantic critique of political economy articles

• Mortensen, Anders – Att göra "penningens genius till sin slaf". Om Carl Jonas Love Almqvists romantiska ekonomikritik – Vetenskapssocieteten i Lund. Årsbok (in Swedish).

Books

Critique of political economy

• Bernard Steigler (2010) – For a New Critique of Political Economy
• Bonefield Werner (2014) – Critical Theory and the Critique of Political Economy: On Subversion and Negative Reason
• Gibson-Graham, J. K. – The End of Capitalism (As We Knew It): A Feminist Critique of Political Economy
• Baudrillard, Jean – The Mirror of Production
• Baudrillard, Jean – For a Critique of the Political Economy of the Sign
• Lawson, T. (1997). Economics and reality. Routledge.
• Nelson, Robert Henry, 1944-. - Economics as religion : from Samuelson to Chicago and beyond / Robert H. Nelson ; foreword by Max Stackhouse.. - 2001. -
• Marçal, Katrine Mother of Invention: How Good Ideas Get Ignored in an Economy Built for Men English edition of Att uppfinna världen

On Marx critique of political economy

• Murray, Patrick (2016) – The mismeasure of wealth – Essays on Marx and social form - Brill
• Kurz, Robert, 1943-2012. - The substance of capital / Robert Kurtz ; translated from German by Robin Halpin. - 2016. -

Neue Marx-Lektüre

• Book: Elbe, Ingo. Marx Im Westen. Die neue Marx-Lektüre in der Bundesrepublik seit 1965. 2010. Akademie Verlag. 9783050061214. Berlin. Marx in the west. The new reading of Marx in the Federal Republic since 1965. 992454101.

History

• Bryer, Robert – Accounting for History in Marx's Capital: The Missing Link
• Kurz, Robert, 1943–2012, Schwarzbuch Kapitalismus: ein Abgesang auf die Marktwirtschaft (also known as: The Satanic Mills) – 2009 – Erweit. Neuasg.
• Pilling, Geoff - Marx's Capital, Philosophy and Political Economy

Classic works

• Book: Lietz, Barbara. Marxistische Studien: Jahrbuch des IMSF. 1987. 12. S. 214–219. Ergänzungen und Veränderungen zum ersten Band des Kapitals (Dezember 1871 – Januar 1872). Additions and changes to the first volume of Das Kapital (December 1871 – January 1872). 915229108.
• Marx, Karl – Grundrisse
• Ruskin, John, Unto this Last LibriVox.

Essays

• Postone, Moishe – Necessity, Labor and Time: A Reinterpretation of the Marxian Critique of Capitalism

External links

• 1995–2004 Conference Papers – Critique Of Political Economy / International Working Group on Value Theory (COPE-IWGVT)
• A collection of material related to Engels and Marx's critique of political economy
• Critique of Political Economy – a 2016 edition of the philosophy journal: crisis and critique
• Capitalism, Temporality, and the Crisis of Labor. Fall 2015. Postone. Moishe. Moishe Postone. Ellen Maria Gorrissen lectures. A lecture regarding Marx's critique of political economy.
• Texts translated to english from a contemporary German group critical of political economy

Notes and References

1. Book: Louis . Althusser . Reading Capital . Balibar . Etienne . Verso Editions . 1979 . 158 . 216233458 . 'To criticize Political Economy' means to confront it with a new problematic and a new object: i.e., to question the very object of Political Economy.
2. Mortensen . Ekonomi . Tidskrift för litteraturvetenskap . 3 . 4 . 9.
3. Book: Postone, Moishe . Time, labor, and social domination : a reinterpretation of Marx's critical theory . 1995 . 0-521-56540-5 . 130, 5 . Cambridge University Press . 910250140.
4. Web site: Jönsson. Dan. John Ruskin: En brittisk 1800-talsaristokrat för vår tid? - OBS. live. 24 September 2021. sverigesradio.se. 7 February 2019 . Sveriges Radio. sv. Den klassiska nationalekonomin, som den utarbetats av John Stuart Mill, Adam Smith och David Ricardo, betraktade han som en sorts kollektivt hjärnsläpp ... [Transl. Ruskin viewed the classical political economy as it was developed by Mill, Smith, and Ricardo, as a kind of 'collective mental lapse'.]. https://web.archive.org/web/20200305082621/https://sverigesradio.se/avsnitt/1244376 . 5 March 2020 .
5. Web site: Ramsay. Anders. 21 December 2009. Marx? Which Marx? Marx's work and its history of reception. live. 16 September 2021. www.eurozine.com. https://web.archive.org/web/20180212144158/http://www.eurozine.com/marx-which-marx/ . 12 February 2018 .
6. Web site: Ruccio . David . 10 December 2020 . Toward a critique of political economy MR Online . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20201215173028/https://mronline.org/2020/12/10/toward-a-critique-of-political-economy/ . 15 December 2020 . 20 September 2021 . mronline.org . Marx arrives at conclusions and formulates new terms that run directly counter to those of Smith, Ricardo, and the other classical political economists..
7. Murray. Patrick. March 2020. The Illusion of the Economic: Social Theory without Social Forms. Critical Historical Studies. 7. 1. 19–27. 10.1086/708005. 2326-4462. 219746578.
8. Web site: Patterson. Orlando. Fosse. Ethan. Overreliance on the Pseudo-Science of Economics. live. The New York Times. https://web.archive.org/web/20150209225723/http://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2015/02/09/are-economists-overrated/overreliance-on-the-pseudo-science-of-economics . 2015-02-09 . (OpEd)
9. Ruda . Frank . Hamza . Agon . 2016 . Introduction: Critique of Political Economy . Crisis and Critique . 3 . 3 . 5–7.
10. Book: Ruskin, John. Unto This Last, and Other Essays on Political Economy. 1877. George Allen. Sunnyside, Orpington, Kent. Project Gutenberg.
11. Web site: Jönsson. Dan. John Ruskin: En brittisk 1800-talsaristokrat för vår tid? - OBS. 16 September 2021. sverigesradio.se. 7 February 2019 . Sveriges Radio. sv.
12. Swann. G M Peter. 2001. "No Wealth But Life": When Does Mercantile Wealth Create Ruskinian Wealth?. European Research Studies Journal. IV (3–4). 5–18.
13. Web site: 30 August 2018. Ruskin the radical: why the Victorian critic is back with a vengeance. live. 12 November 2021. The Guardian. en. https://web.archive.org/web/20180830095752/https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2018/aug/30/john-ruskin-artists-victorian-social-critic . 30 August 2018 .
14. Book: Henderson, Willie. John Ruskin's political economy. 2000. Routledge. 0-203-15946-2. London. 48139638. ... Ruskin attempted a methodological/scientific critique of political economy. He fixed on ideas of 'natural laws', 'economic man' and the prevailing notion of 'value' to point out gaps and inconsistencies in the system of classical economics..
15. Book: Ruskin, John. Unto this Last. 128–129.
16. Web site: From Labor to Value: Marx, Ruskin, and the Critique of Capitalism. 12 November 2021. victorianweb.org.
17. Book: Henderson, Willie. John Ruskin's political economy. 2000. Routledge. 0-203-15946-2. London. 100. 48139638. Ruskin's criticism of Mill is that he based the science of political economy on ‘the opinions of the public’ as expressed by market prices, i.e. on ‘fuddled’ thought induced by contemplating the shadow of value rather than thinking upon, by implication, a true (Platonic) object of cognition..
18. Conttren, V.. 2022. Conttren, V.. István Mészáros: The Critique of Political Economy. 10.17605/OSF.IO/65MXD.
19. Web site: Deutsch-Franzosische Jahrbucher. German-French Yearbooks. 16 September 2021. www.marxists.org.
20. Liedman. Sven-Eric. Engelsismen. Fronesis. sv. 134. Engels var också först med att kritiskt bearbeta den nya nationalekonomin; hans "Utkast till en kritik av nationalekonomin" kom ut 1844 och blev en utgångspunkt för Marx egen kritik av den politiska ekonomin. 28. Engels was the first to critically engage the new political economy his Outlines of a Critique of Political Economy came out in 1844 and became a starting point for Marx's own critique of the political economy.
21. Murray. Patrick. March 2020. The Illusion of the Economic: Social Theory without Social Forms. Critical Historical Studies. 7. 1. 19–27. 10.1086/708005. 2326-4462. "There are no counterparts to Marx's economic concepts in either classical or utility theory." I take this to mean that Marx breaks with economics, where economics is understood to be a generally applicable social science.. 219746578.
22. Marx Ekonomikritik. Fronesis. sv. 1 September 2021. 28.
23. Bellofiore . Riccardo . 2016 . Marx after Hegel: Capital as Totality and the Centrality of Production . Crisis & Critique . 3 . 3 . 31.
24. Jung. Henrik. 1 January 2019. Slagen av abstraktioner: Förnuftiga och reala abstraktioner i Marx ekonomikritik. Lychnos: Årsbok för idé- och lärdomshistoria. sv-SE. 0076-1648. Marx consistently reveals the social abstraction of the substance of value and capital, i.e. abstract labour, as a Realabstraktion dominating individuals in bourgeois society through money and capital..
25. Book: Fareld. Victoria. From Marx to Hegel and back capitalism, critique, and utopia. Kuch. Hannes. 9 January 2020. Bloomsbury Academic. 978-1-350-08268-7. Ann Arbor, Michigan. 150, 143. 1141198381.
26. Web site: Freeman. Alan. The psychopathology of Walrasian Marxism. live. Munich Personal RePEc Archive. 'Economic' categories, appearing as inhuman things with a mind of their own – prices, money, interest rates – are for Marx the disguised form of relations between people.. https://web.archive.org/web/20180410185945/https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/1539/1/MPRA_paper_1539.pdf . 10 April 2018 .
27. Book: Balibar, Étienne. The philosophy of Marx. 2007. Verso. 978-1-84467-187-8. London. 18. 154707531. The expression 'critique of political economy' figures repeatedly in the title or programme of Marx's main works ... To these we may add a great many unpublished pieces, articles and sections in polemical works..
28. Book: Volkov, Genrikh Nikolaevich. The Basics of Marxist-Leninist Theory. 1982. Progress. Progress guides to the social sciences. Moscow. 51, 188, 313. en. 695564556.
29. Book: Ernest, Mandel. An introduction to Marxist economic theory. 1973. Pathfinder. 0-87348-315-4. 609440295.
30. Web site: Brooks. Mick. An introduction to Marx's Labour Theory of Value. 16 September 2021. In Defence of Marxism. 12 July 2005 . en-gb.
31. Web site: Ramsay. Anders. Marx? Which Marx? Marx's work and its history of reception. live. 16 September 2021. www.eurozine.com. 21 December 2009 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180212144158/http://www.eurozine.com/marx-which-marx/ . 12 February 2018 .
32. Web site: Excerpt from discussion on SPSM listserv on whether Capital can be understood as a "Critique" of Political economy or as "Marxist" political economy, highlighting the view of Juan Inigo. www.marxists.org.
33. Book: Wolff. Jonathan. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Leopold. David. Karl Marx . 2 September 2021. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Zalta. Edward N.. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
34. Web site: Programme of the French Worker's Party. 27 October 2021. www.marxists.org.
35. Book: Marx. Karl. Grundrisse : foundations of the critique of political economy (rough draft). Nicolaus. Martin. 1993. Penguin Books in association with New Left Review. 0-14-044575-7. London. 296, 239, 264. 31358710.
36. Web site: Marx's Critique of Classical Economics. live. 2 October 2021. www.marxists.org. https://web.archive.org/web/20010309231926/http://marxists.org:80/archive/pilling/works/capital/geoff4.htm . 9 March 2001 .
37. Book: Pradella, Lucia. Globalisation and the critique of political economy : new insights from Marx's writings. 2015. 978-1-317-80072-9. Abingdon, Oxon. 147. 897376910.
38. Book: Saitō, Kōhei. Karl Marx's ecosocialism: capitalism, nature, and the unfinished critique of political economy. 2017. 978-1-58367-643-1. New York. 1003193200. Marx's critique of classical political economy as a critique of the fetishistic (that is, ahistorical) understanding of economic categories, which identifies the appearance of capitalist society with the universal and transhistorical economic laws of nature. Marx, in contrast, comprehends those economic categories as "specific social forms" and reveals the underlying social relations that bestow an objective validity of this inverted world where economic things dominate human beings..
39. Book: Behrens, Diethard. Gesellschaft und Erkenntnis. 1993. Ça ira. 3-924627-34-7. Freiburg i. Br.. 71–72. 30457885.
40. Web site: Marx. Karl. Economic Manuscripts: Appendix I: Production, Consumption, Distribution, Exchange. live. 4 October 2021. www.marxists.org. https://web.archive.org/web/20020208230946/http://www.marxists.org:80/archive/marx/works/1859/critique-pol-economy/appx1.htm . 8 February 2002 .
41. Web site: Marx. Karl. Critique of the Gotha Programme-- I. live. 12 October 2021. www.marxists.org. https://web.archive.org/web/20020823044912/http://www.marxists.org:80/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/ch01.htm . 23 August 2002 .
42. Peperell. 2018. Beyond reification: Reclaiming Marx's Concept of the Fetish Character of the Commodity. Kontradikce: A Journal for Critical Thought. 2. 35.
43. Web site: Marx. Grundrisse. live. The aim is, rather, to present production – see e.g. Mill – as distinct from distribution, etc., as encased in eternal natural laws independent of history, at which opportunity bourgeois relations are then quietly smuggled in as the inviolable natural laws on which society in the abstract is founded. This is the more or less conscious purpose of the whole proceeding. In distribution, by contrast, humanity has allegedly permitted itself to be considerably more arbitrary. Quite apart from this crude tearing-apart of production and distribution and of their real relationship, it must be apparent from the outset that, no matter how different distribution may have been arranged in different stages of social development, it must be possible here also, just as with production, to single out common characteristics, and just as possible to confound or to extinguish all historic differences under general human laws.. https://web.archive.org/web/20020202110805/http://www.marxists.org:80/archive/marx/works/1857/grundrisse/ch01.htm . 2 February 2002 .
44. Web site: Ruccio. David. 10 December 2020. Toward a critique of political economy MR Online. live. 20 September 2021. mronline.org. Second, Marx's concern is always with social and historical specificity, as against looking for or finding what others would consider being given and universal.. https://web.archive.org/web/20201215173028/https://mronline.org/2020/12/10/toward-a-critique-of-political-economy/ . 15 December 2020 .
45. Web site: Duarte. Filipe. 2019-02-04. Marx's method of political economy. 2022-02-14. Progress in Political Economy (PPE). en-GB. Social phenomena exist, and can be understood, only in their historical context..
46. Rancière. Jacques. August 1976. The concept of 'critique' and the 'critique of political economy' (from the 1844 Manuscript to Capital). Economy and Society. en. 5. 3. 352–376. 10.1080/03085147600000016. 0308-5147. JSTOR.
47. Book: Marx, Karl. Karl Marx

    . Capital: A Critique of Political Economy. 1887. I: The Process of Production of Capital. 1867. www.marxists.org. Karl Marx.

48. Book: Rosa Luxemburg and the Critique of Political Economy. 27 May 2009. Routledge. 978-1-134-13507-3. Bellofiore. Riccardo. 161. 10.4324/9780203878392.
49. Web site: The Poverty of Philosophy - Chapter 2.1. 25 September 2021. www.marxists.org.
50. Pimenta. Tomás Lima. August 2020. Alienation and fetishism in Karl Marx's critique of political economy. Nova Economia. 30. 2. 605–628. 10.1590/0103-6351/4958. 1980-5381. free.
51. Läs kapitalet - igen. Capital - again. Fronesis. 28. 12 (p.5 in the pdf). His striving to develop a materialist ontology and a unitary theory, which could speak on all parts of reality, made a wider use for the schools and parties in the east which far into the sixties and seventies stood for different forms of worldview Marxism..
52. Läs kapitalet - igen. Read Capital - again. Fronesis. 28. 10 (p.3 in the pdf).
53. O’Kane. Chris. 29 January 2018. On the Development of the Critique of Political Economy as a Critical Social Theory of Economic Objectivity: A Review of Critical Theory and the Critique of Political Economy by Werner Bonefeld. Historical Materialism. 26. 1. 175–193. 10.1163/1569206X-12341552. 1465-4466. ... a number of important critical- theoretical approaches to the critique of political economy ... have been largely neglected in the anglophone world..
54. Book: Gibson-Graham, J. K.. The end of capitalism (as we knew it) : a feminist critique of political economy. 2006. University of Minnesota Press. 978-0-8166-9844-8. First University of Minnesota Press. Minneapolis. 218708717.
55. Scholz. Roswitha. 2013. Patriarchy and Commodity Society: Gender Without the Body. Mediations. 27. 1–2.
56. Dimitrakaki. Angeliki. 2018-05-04. Feminism and the Critique of the Political Economy of Art. English.
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