The continuous stirred-tank reactor (CSTR), also known as vat- or backmix reactor, mixed flow reactor (MFR), or a continuous-flow stirred-tank reactor (CFSTR), is a common model for a chemical reactor in chemical engineering and environmental engineering. A CSTR often refers to a model used to estimate the key unit operation variables when using a continuous agitated-tank reactor to reach a specified output. The mathematical model works for all fluids: liquids, gases, and slurries.
The behavior of a CSTR is often approximated or modeled by that of an ideal CSTR, which assumes perfect mixing. In a perfectly mixed reactor, reagent is instantaneously and uniformly mixed throughout the reactor upon entry. Consequently, the output composition is identical to composition of the material inside the reactor, which is a function of residence time and reaction rate. The CSTR is the ideal limit of complete mixing in reactor design, which is the complete opposite of a plug flow reactor (PFR). In practice, no reactors behave ideally but instead fall somewhere in between the mixing limits of an ideal CSTR and PFR.
A continuous fluid flow containing non-conservative chemical reactant A enters an ideal CSTR of volume V.
Assumptions:
l( | dNA |
dt |
=0r)
Integral mass balance on number of moles NA of species A in a reactor of volume V:
1.[Netaccumulationof~A]=[A~in]-[A~out]+[Netgenerationof~A]
2.
dNA | |
dt |
=FAo-FA+V\nuArA
where
Applying the assumptions of steady state and νA = −1, Equation 2 simplifies to:
3. 0=FAo-FA-VrA
The molar flow rates of species A can then be rewritten in terms of the concentration of A and the fluid flow rate (Q):
4. 0=QCAo-QCA-VrA
Equation 4 can then be rearranged to isolate rA and simplified:
5. rA=
Q | |
V |
(CAo-CA)
6. rA=
1 | |
\tau |
(CAo-CA)
where
\tau
\tau=\tfrac{V}{Q}
Residence time is the total amount of time a discrete quantity of reagent spends inside the reactor. For an ideal reactor, the theoretical residence time,
\tau
Depending on the order of the reaction, the reaction rate, rA, is generally dependent on the concentration of species A in the reactor and the rate constant. A key assumption when modeling a CSTR is that any reactant in the fluid is perfectly (i.e. uniformly) mixed in the reactor, implying that the concentration within the reactor is the same in the outlet stream.[3] The rate constant can be determined using a known empirical reaction rate that is adjusted for temperature using the Arrhenius temperature dependence. Generally, as the temperature increases so does the rate at which the reaction occurs.
Equation 6 can be solved by integration after substituting the proper rate expression. The table below summarizes the outlet concentration of species A for an ideal CSTR. The values of the outlet concentration and residence time are major design criteria in the design of CSTRs for industrial applications.
n=0 | CA={CAo | |||
n=1 | CA=
| |||
n=2 | CA=
| |||
Other n | Numerical solution required |
An ideal CSTR will exhibit well-defined flow behavior that can be characterized by the reactor's residence time distribution, or exit age distribution.[4] Not all fluid particles will spend the same amount of time within the reactor. The exit age distribution (E(t)) defines the probability that a given fluid particle will spend time t in the reactor. Similarly, the cumulative age distribution (F(t)) gives the probability that a given fluid particle has an exit age less than time t. One of the key takeaways from the exit age distribution is that a very small number of fluid particles will never exit the CSTR.[5] Depending on the application of the reactor, this may either be an asset or a drawback.
While the ideal CSTR model is useful for predicting the fate of constituents during a chemical or biological process, CSTRs rarely exhibit ideal behavior in reality. More commonly, the reactor hydraulics do not behave ideally or the system conditions do not obey the initial assumptions. Perfect mixing is a theoretical concept that is not achievable in practice.[6] For engineering purposes, however, if the residence time is 5–10 times the mixing time, the perfect mixing assumption generally holds true.Non-ideal hydraulic behavior is commonly classified by either dead space or short-circuiting. These phenomena occur when some fluid spends less time in the reactor than the theoretical residence time,
\tau
Although ideal flow reactors are seldom found in practice, they are useful tools for modeling non-ideal flow reactors. Any flow regime can be achieved by modeling a reactor as a combination of ideal CSTRs and plug flow reactors (PFRs) either in series or in parallel. For examples, an infinite series of ideal CSTRs is hydraulically equivalent to an ideal PFR. Reactor models combining a number of CSTRs in series are often termed tanks-in-series (TIS) models.[7]
To model systems that do not obey the assumptions of constant temperature and a single reaction, additional dependent variables must be considered. If the system is considered to be in unsteady-state, a differential equation or a system of coupled differential equations must be solved. Deviations of the CSTR behavior can be considered by the dispersion model. CSTRs are known to be one of the systems which exhibit complex behavior such as steady-state multiplicity, limit cycles, and chaos.
Cascades of CSTRs, also known as a series of CSTRs, are used to decrease the volume of a system.[8]
As seen in the graph with one CSTR, where the inverse rate is plotted as a function of fractional conversion, the area in the box is equal to
V | |
FAo |
FAo
From the design equation of a single CSTR where
\tau=
CAo-CA | |
-rA |
\taui=
CA(i-1)-CAi | |
-rAi |
\tau
CAo
CA
-rA
For an isothermal first order, constant density reaction in a cascade of identical CSTRs operating at steady state
For one CSTR:
CA1=
CAo | |
1+k\tau |
CA1
Two CSTRs:
CA1=
CAo | |
1+k\tau |
CA2=
CA1 | |
1+k\tau |
Plugging in the first CSTR equation to the second:
CA2=
CAo | |
(1+k\tau)2 |
Therefore for m identical CSTRs in series:
CAm=
CAo | |
(1+k\tau)m |
When the volumes of the individual CSTRs in series vary, the order of the CSTRs does not change the overall conversion for a first order reaction as long as the CSTRs are run at the same temperature.
At steady state, the general equation for an isothermal zeroth order reaction at in a cascade of CSTRs is given by
CAm=CAo-
m | |
\sum | |
i=1 |
ki\taui
When the cascade of CSTRs is isothermal with identical reactors, the concentration is given by
CAm=CAo-mki\taui
For an isothermal second order reaction at steady state in a cascade of CSTRs, the general design equation is
CAi=
-1+\sqrt{1+4ki\tauiCA(i-1) | |
With non-ideal reactors, residence time distributions can be calculated. At the concentration at the jth reactor in series is given by
Cj | |
Co |
=1
| ||||
-e |
where n is the total number of CSTRs in series, and
\bar{t}
\bar{t}=
V | |
Q |
From this, the cumulative residence time distribution (F(t)) can be calculated as
F(t)=
Cn | |
Co |
=1
| ||||
-e |
As n → ∞, F(t) approaches the ideal PFR response. The variance associated with F(t) for a pulse stimulus into a cascade of CSTRs is
2 | |
\sigma | |
t |
=
\bar{t | |
2}{n} |
When determining the cost of a series of CSTRs, capital and operating costs must be taken into account. As seen above, an increase in the number of CSTRs in series will decrease the total reactor volume. Since cost scales with volume, capital costs are lowered by increasing the number of CSTRs. The largest decrease in cost, and therefore volume, occurs between a single CSTR and having two CSTRs in series. When considering operating cost, operating cost scales with the number of pumps and controls, construction, installation, and maintenance that accompany larger cascades. Therefore as the number of CSTRs increases, the operating cost increases. Therefore, there is a minimum cost associated with a cascade of CSTRs.
From a rearrangement of the equation given for identical isothermal CSTRs running a zeroth order reaction:
\tau=
CAo-CAm | |
mk |
1 | |
m |
When considering parallel reactions, utilizing a cascade of CSTRs can achieve greater selectivity for a desired product.
For a given parallel reaction
k1
k2
n1>n2
For a parallel reaction with two or more reactants such as
k1
k2
n1>n2
m1>m2
n1>n2
m1<m2
Series reactions such as
CSTRs facilitate rapid dilution of reagents through mixing. Therefore, for non-zero-order reactions, the low concentration of reagent in the reactor means a CSTR will be less efficient at removing the reagent compared to a PFR with the same residence time. Therefore, CSTRs are typically larger than PFRs, which may be a challenge in applications where space is limited. However, one of the added benefits of dilution in CSTRs is the ability to neutralize shocks to the system. As opposed to PFRs, the performance of CSTRs is less susceptible to changes in the influent composition, which makes it ideal for a variety of industrial applications: