Commercial Orbital Transportation Services Explained

Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) was a NASA program to spur the development of private spacecraft and launch vehicles for deliveries to the International Space Station (ISS). Launched in 2006, COTS successfully concluded in 2013 after completing all demonstration flights.

NASA's final report on the program considered it a success and a model for future public-private collaboration. Compared to traditional cost-plus contracts employed by NASA, such as the $12 billion contract for the Orion spacecraft, the $800 million COTS investment resulted in "two new U.S. medium-class launch vehicles and two automated cargo spacecraft".[1] After the conclusion of the COTS program, NASA shifted towards fixed-price contracts for crew and cargo services. While the approach has significantly lowered costs for NASA, companies other than SpaceX have struggled under the fixed-price system, with some refusing to bid and others experiencing large losses on contracts.[2]

COTS contracts were awarded to SpaceX and Rocketplane Kistler, but the latter's agreement was terminated due to insufficient progress. Orbital Sciences Corporation replaced Rocketplane Kistler in the program in 2008.

COTS differs from the Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) program, which procured cargo delivery services using the COTS developed vehicles. COTS employed Space Act Agreements with milestone-based payments, while CRS utilizes binding contracts with strict performance obligations. The Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program, focusing on crew transportation, is similar to COTS and, along with CRS, falls under NASA's Commercial Crew and Cargo Program Office (C3PO).

Purpose

Unlike any previous NASA project, the proposed spacecraft were intended to be owned and financed primarily by the companies themselves and were designed to serve both U.S. government agencies and commercial customers. NASA will contract for missions as its needs become clear.

This was more challenging than existent commercial space transportation because it required precision orbit insertion, rendezvous and possibly docking with another spacecraft. The private spaceflight vendors[3] were competing for four specific service areas:

Program rationale

NASA explored a program for ISS services in the mid 1990s entitled "Alt Access" for Alternate Access. While NASA funded Alt Access no further than preliminary studies, this program convinced numerous entrepreneurs that ISS could emerge as a significant market opportunity.

After years of keeping orbital transport for human spaceflight in-house, NASA concluded that firms in a free market could develop and operate such a system more efficiently and affordably than a government bureaucracy.[4] The then NASA Administrator Michael D. Griffin stated that without affordable Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS), the agency will not have enough funds remaining to achieve the objectives of the Vision for Space Exploration. In November 2005, Dr. Griffin articulated that:

"With the advent of the ISS, there will exist for the first time a strong, identifiable market for 'routine' transportation service to and from LEO, and that this will be only the first step in what will be a huge opportunity for truly commercial space enterprise. We believe that when we engage the engine of competition, these services will be provided in a more cost-effective fashion than when the government has to do it."[5]

Furthermore, if such services were unavailable by the end of 2010, NASA would have been forced to purchase orbital transportation services on foreign spacecraft such as the Russian Federal Space Agency's Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, the European Space Agency's Automated Transfer Vehicle, or the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency's H-II Transfer Vehicle since NASA's own Crew Exploration Vehicle, since refocused, would not have been ready until 2014.

In 2007 NASA asserted that once COTS was operational, it would no longer procure Russian cargo delivery services.[6] NASA anticipates that COTS services to ISS will be necessary through at least 2015. NASA projects at most a half-dozen COTS flights a year that would transport 10 tonnes annually. The NASA Administrator has suggested that space transportation services procurement may be expanded to orbital fuel depots and lunar surface deliveries should the first phase of COTS prove successful.[7]

On 22 May 2012, Bill Gerstenmaier confirmed that NASA was no longer purchasing any cargo resupply services from Russia and would rely solely on the American CRS vehicles, the SpaceX Dragon and Orbital Sciences' Cygnus; with the exception of a few vehicle-specific payloads delivered on the European ATV and the Japanese HTV.[8]

History

Background

In February 2004, NASA awarded a contract to Kistler Aerospace (which later became Rocketplane Kistler) for $227 million, despite the fact that Kistler had already filed for bankruptcy a year before. Some observers saw this as a gift for the head of Kistler, NASA legend George Mueller. This upset Elon Musk, as there had not been a competition and Musk could have used the funding at SpaceX. Musk protested, and NASA withdrew the contract to Kistler after hearing that the Government Accountability Office planned to issue a ruling in support of Musk. NASA returned to the planning phase, and this eventually resulted in the COTS competition.[9]

First round

Boeing may have submitted a proposal in conjunction with Arianespace to launch the ESA ATV module on a Delta IV rocket.[10] Whereas the ESA launches the ATV on an Ariane 5, the two companies worked together to make this proposal. The ATV can carry up to 7.6 metric tons with a suitable launcher.

In May 2006, NASA selected six semifinalist proposals for further evaluation: SpaceX, Andrews Space, Transformational Space Corp., Rocketplane Kistler ("RpK"), Spacehab, and SpaceDev.[11] [12]

On 18 August 2006, NASA's Exploration Systems Mission Directorate (ESMD) announced that SpaceX and Rocketplane Kistler won Phase I of the COTS program.[13] NASA planned to engage winners in funded Space Act agreements through 2010.[14]

On 8 November 2006 RpK and ATK announced that ATK would become the lead contractor for the K-1.[15]

NASA terminated the COTS agreement with RpK in September 2007 after NASA warned RpK that it had failed to raise sufficient private funding by 31 July 2007 deadline,[16] [17] freeing up $175 million from the COTS budget to be awarded to another company or companies.

Second round

By 18 June 2007, NASA had signed separate non-reimbursable Space Act Agreements with three additional firms, Constellation Services International (CSI), SpaceDev and Spacehab.[18] [19] These agreements included no financial support, however NASA agreed to share information to help the companies to develop their proposed vehicles.

On 22 October 2007, NASA solicited proposals for the $175 million in unawarded first round funds.[20] Some of the new contenders who entered before the deadline in November 2007 for the funding were Spacehab, t/Space, Andrews Space, PlanetSpace and SpaceDev.[21]

In January 2008 industry sources claimed that the field had been downselected to four; Spacehab, Andrews Space, PlanetSpace and Orbital Sciences, with the announcement date set to 7 February.[22] Several sources later suggested that Boeing and not Andrews was a final contestant.[23]

On 19 February 2008, the second round selection was made to Orbital Sciences Corporation, for the Cygnus spacecraft.[24] NASA's selection statement showed that Orbital beat Boeing on expected lower costs and the added benefit of a new medium lift launcher Taurus II with Andrews, PlanetSpace and Spacehab being eliminated on funding concerns.[25]

Following the original $500M Space Act Agreement, an additional $288M in "augmentation" funding was awarded to the two contractors before the demonstration flights.

Program conclusion

The COTS program was successfully concluded in November 2013 after two companies, SpaceX and Orbital Sciences, designed, built and launched "a pair of new spacecraft on rockets that also were newly designed".[26] NASA has published its own history of the COTS program including the controlling of the development program using Space Act Agreements (SAA), with lessons for future programs.[27]

Awards

Competitors

More than twenty organizations had submitted COTS proposals by March 2006.[32] NASA received new COTS proposals from at least seven firms by 21 November 2007.[33]

CompanySpacecraftLaunch vehiclePartnerFirst
round
participant		First
round
semi-finalist		Second
round
participant		Won
round
Orbital Sciences[34] CygnusAntares[35]
SpaceXDragonFalcon 9
Andrews Space[36] Andrews Cargo ModuleHerculesAlliant Techsystems, MDA
BoeingATVDelta IVArianespace, EADS Astrium
PlanetSpace[37] [38] Orbital Transfer Vehicle[39] Athena III[40] Alliant Techsystems, Lockheed Martin
SpaceHab[41] [42] ARCTUSAtlas VLockheed Martin
Rocketplane KistlerK-1K-1Orbital Sciences[43]
Venturer AerospaceS-550Falcon 9SpaceX
SpaceDev[44] [45] Dream ChaserAtlas VLockheed Martin
t/Space[46] [47] Crew Transfer VehicleQuickReachAirLaunch
Constellation Services International[48] ProgressSoyuzRKK Energia
Lockheed MartinATV or HTVAtlas VEADS Astrium or JAXA
PanAeroSpace VanSpace Van
Space Systems/LoralSpace TugAquariusConstellation Services International[49]
Advent Launch Services[50]
Exploration Partners
Odyssey Space Research
Thortek Laboratories
Triton Systems

Demonstration flight tests

Flight Date Description
Launch of boilerplate Dragon spacecraft to test Falcon 9 rocket
Launch of Dragon spacecraft to test its orbital maneuvering and reentry
CRS mission simulation including docking with ISS
Launch of boilerplate Cygnus spacecraft to test Antares rocket
CRS mission simulation including docking with ISS

Commercial Resupply Services

See main article: Commercial Resupply Services. On 22 December 2008, NASA stated they would discuss the contract selection to provide commercial cargo resupply services for the International Space Station.[51] NASA announced the awarding of contracts to both SpaceX and Orbital Sciences Corporation in a press conference on 23 December 2008.[52] The contracts include a minimum of 20 missions, 12 missions for SpaceX ($1.6 Billion) and 8 missions for Orbital Sciences ($1.9 Billion).[53] [54] PlanetSpace submitted a protest to the Government Accountability Office after receiving a NASA debriefing on the outcome of the award.[55] On 22 April 2009 GAO publicly released its decision to deny the protest.[56]

See also

External links

Notes and References

  1. NASA Releases COTS Final Report . 3 June 2014 . NASA . 8 June 2014 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20200807024626/https://www.nasa.gov/content/nasa-releases-cots-final-report/ . 7 August 2020.
  2. News: Berger . Eric . 2024-07-23 . SpaceX just stomped the competition for a new contract—that’s not great . 2024-07-24 . Ars Technica . en-us.
  3. Web site: COTS Vendors . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20060929071448/http://procurement.jsc.nasa.gov/cots/Vendors.xls . 29 September 2006 . NASA Johnson Space Center . xls.
  4. Web site: 20 October 2006 . X Prize Comments by Mike Griffin . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20090824204943/http://www.comspacewatch.com/news/viewsr.html?pid=22396 . 24 August 2009 . 6 June 2007 . NASA.
  5. Griffin . Michael . Valin Thorn . 11 January 2007 . Commercial Crew & Cargo Program Overview . Reno, Nevada . NASA . 2 . https://web.archive.org/web/20121020051528/http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/168735main_AIAA_2007_COTS.pdf . 20 October 2012 . 6 June 2007 . 45th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting . dead.
  6. Gerstenmaier . William . 18 May 2007 . Need for Commercial Cargo to ISS . Washington, D.C. . FAA . 2 . https://web.archive.org/web/20090226213845/http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/industry/advisory_committee/meeting_news/media/COMSTAC_Gerstenmaier%205_18_07.ppt . 26 February 2009 . 13 June 2007 . FAA Commercial Space Transportation Advisory Council . dead.
  7. http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/203082main_C3PO%20-TEC%20Briefing%20Nov_2007.pdf "Commercial Space Development – What's the Next?"
  8. Web site: 22 May 2012 . SpaceX/NASA Discuss launch of Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon capsule . live . https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211219/hJNNiYPyAeQ . 19 December 2021 . 23 June 2012 . NASA.
  9. Book: Berger, Eric . Liftoff . . 2021 . 978-0-06-297997-1 . 109–110.
  10. Web site: 12 April 2005 . Boeing set to offer Delta IV-launched ATV .
  11. Valin Thorn, "Commercial Crew & Cargo Program Overview," AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting, 11 January 2007 (accessed 28 April 2014).
  12. Web site: Belfiore . Michael . 9 May 2006 . NASA makes first round of cuts for COTS . https://web.archive.org/web/20060614075601/http://michaelbelfiore.com/blog/2006/05/nasa-makes-first-round-of-cuts-for.html . 14 June 2006 . 21 November 2006 . Dispatches from the Final Frontier.
  13. NASA Selects Crew and Cargo Transportation to Orbit Partners . 18 August 2006 . NASA . 21 November 2006 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110820074547/http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2006/aug/HQ_06295_COTS_phase_1.html . 20 August 2011.
  14. Web site: Dunbar . Brian . NASA – NASA Invests in Private Sector Space Flight with SpaceX, Rocketplane-Kistler . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20210908075306/https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/news/COTS_selection.html . 8 September 2021 . 18 May 2021 . www.nasa.gov . en.
  15. Rocketplane Kistler and ATK Announce Agreement for K-1 Launch Vehicle and COTS Program . 8 November 2006 . ATK . 21 November 2006.
  16. News: 10 September 2007 . RpK's COTS Contract Terminated . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110512185739/http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story.jsp?id=news%2Frocketplane091007.xml&headline=RpK%27s%20COTS%20Contract%20Terminated%20&channel=space . 12 May 2011 . 10 September 2007 . Aviation Week.
  17. https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB118946125133622954?mod=googlenews_wsj NASA Cuts Funds for Private Space Venture
  18. NASA, Nonreimbursable Space Act Agreement, 5 June 2007. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
  19. SpaceHab, and SpaceDevNews: 19 June 2007 . NASA Signs Space Act Agreements with Three More Firms . 11 December 2007 . Space News.
  20. News: 19 October 2007 . NASA Reopens COTS Bidding . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110512185753/http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story.jsp?id=news%2Fbidding101907.xml&headline=NASA%20Reopens%20COTS%20Bidding&channel=space . 12 May 2011 . 28 October 2007 . Aviation Week.
  21. News: 7 January 2008 . COTS 1.5 Roundup . dead . https://archive.today/20120730162053/http://spacefellowship.com/News/?p=4127 . 30 July 2012 . 12 January 2008 . Space Fellowship.
  22. News: 8 January 2008 . NASA Picks Finalists for Space Station Resupply Demonstrations . 27 January 2008 . Imaginova/Space.com.
  23. Web site: 5 February 2008 . COTS I ReAward Final Cut Poll . forum.NasaSpaceflight.com.
  24. http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/content/?cid=5361 NASASpaceflight.com – Orbital beat a dozen competitors to win NASA COTS contract
  25. Web site: 24 April 2008 . COTS Selection Statement – Feb, 08 . forum.NasaSpaceflight.com.
  26. News: Messier . Doug . 6 December 2013 . NASA Holds Commercial Crew Pre-proposal Conference . 7 December 2013 . Parabolic Arc.
  27. Web site: February 2014 . Commercial Orbital Transportation Services – A New Era in Spaceflight . 4 June 2014 . NASA . NASA/SP-2014-617.
  28. Web site: 26 May 2011 . Statement of William H. Gerstenmaier Associate Administrator for Space Operations before the Committee on Science, Space and Technology Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics U.S. House of Representatives . 28 April 2014 . U.S. House of Representatives.
  29. Web site: Moskowitz . Clara . 31 May 2012 . SpaceX Dragon Capsule Splashes Down in Pacific, Ending Historic Test Flight . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120601034043/http://www.space.com/15939-spacex-dragon-capsule-landing-pacific.html . 1 June 2012 . 31 May 2012 . Space.com . New York.
  30. Web site: Orbital Successfully Launches First Antares Rocket . 21 April 2013 . press release . Orbital Sciences Corporation.
  31. Web site: Dunn,Marcia . 17 September 2013 . Orbital Sciences about to make first space station run . Phys.org.
  32. Web site: Boyle . Alan . 2006-03-20 . Private ventures vie to service space station . https://web.archive.org/web/20201029173835/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna11927039 . dead . 29 October 2020 . 2024-06-21 . NBC News . en.
  33. Space Systems/Loral Proposes Bus for NASA's Cargo Needs . 10 December 2007 . Space News . 10 December 2007.
  34. Orbital and Rocketplane Kistler Announce Strategic Relationship . 24 July 2006 . Rocketplane Limited, Inc. . 21 November 2006 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20061017084830/http://www.rocketplane.com/en/company/press/20060724a.asp . 17 October 2006.
  35. Web site: Spaceflight Now | Antares | Commercial rocket gets new name as debut launch nears .
  36. Web site: 2 March 2012 . COTS 2006 Demo Competition . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20170622173238/https://www.nasa.gov/offices/c3po/about/cots_demo_competition.html . 22 June 2017 . 3 November 2022 . NASA.
  37. NASA signs Space Act Agreement with Planetspace . 1 February 2007 . PlanetSpace . 11 December 2007 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070317041209/http://www.planetspace.org/pdf/PressRelease020107.pdf . 17 March 2007.
  38. PlanetSpace, Lockheed Martin and ATK team up to bid on NASA COTS . 21 November 2007 . PlanetSpace . 11 December 2007 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20080723184624/http://www.planetspace.org/pdf/PressRelease112107.pdf . 23 July 2008.
  39. Web site: Strange space bedfellows . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20071202054149/http://cosmiclog.msnbc.msn.com/archive/2007/11/30/490524.aspx . 2 December 2007 . MSNBC.
  40. Web site: Bergin . Chris . 21 January 2008 . ATK's new vehicle to provide multi-access options . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20080124170355/http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/content/?cid=5337 . 24 January 2008.
  41. Spacehab Finalist as NASA's Commercial Space Station Logistics Supplier . 10 May 2006 . Spacehab, Inc. . 21 November 2006.
  42. Spacehab Responds to NASA RFP Seeking Commercial ISS Resupply Means . 29 November 2007 . Spacehab, Inc. . 11 December 2007.
  43. Orbital To Pull Out of Rocketplane Kistler's COTS Team . 25 September 2006 . Space News . 17 December 2007.
  44. SpaceDev Selected as a Finalist in NASA's Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) Solicitation . 15 May 2006 . SpaceDev, Inc. . 21 November 2006 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20061124093156/http://www.spacedev.com/newsite/templates/subpage_article.php?pid=569 . 24 November 2006.
  45. SpaceDev signs Space Act Agreement with NASA for development of commercial access to space . 18 June 2007 . SpaceDev . 11 December 2007 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110927120050/http://www.spacedev.com/press_more_info.php?id=205 . 27 September 2011.
  46. NASA signs agreement with t/Space . 1 February 2007 . t/Space . 11 December 2007 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070202194053/http://www.transformspace.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=news.view&newsid=7F2AC3EA-D8D6-2305-B3F4768809786AAF . 2 February 2007.
  47. t/Space enters COTS second round . 29 November 2007 . t/Space . 11 December 2007 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20071130165647/http://www.transformspace.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=news.view&newsid=8D34F05A-E7F7-11C1-74E37AB2DBDA99CC . 30 November 2007.
  48. NASA Signs Agreement with CSI . 18 June 2007 . Constellation Services International, Inc. . 11 December 2007 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070728131705/http://www.constellationservices.com/csi%20release_cots%20saa_18jun07.pdf . 28 July 2007.
  49. Constellation Services International and Space Systems Loral Team on NASA COTS Proposal using a U.S. version off CSI’s LEO express cargo system . 11 December 2007 . Constellation Services International, Inc. . 11 December 2007 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20090226213850/http://www.constellationservices.com/Press_Release_20071211.pdf . 26 February 2009.
  50. Web site: Belfiore . Michael . 2006-03-17 . Dispatches from the Final Frontier: Advent going for COTS . 2024-06-21 . Dispatches from the Final Frontier.
  51. Web site: 22 December 2008 . NASA to Announce Space Station Resupply Services Contract . NASA HQ.
  52. http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2008/dec/HQ_C08-069_ISS_Resupply.html "NASA Awards Space Station Commercial Resupply Services Contracts"
  53. Web site: NewSpace: The Emerging Commercial Space Industry . 3 November 2022 . NASA.gov.
  54. Morring, Jr., Frank. "Space Station Resupply Contracts Awarded" . Aviation Week, 24 December 2008.
  55. Web site: Chris Bergin . 15 January 2009 . Planetspace officially protest NASA's CRS selection .
  56. Web site: 22 April 2009 . B-401016; B-401016.2, PlanetSpace, Inc., April 22, 2009 . GAO.

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