| Tsimshian | |
| Nativename: | Tsimshian: Sm'algyax |
| States: | Canada, United States |
| Region: | northwest British Columbia, southeast Alaska |
| Ethnicity: | 8,162 Tsimshian |
| Speakers: | 275 in Canada, 3 in the United States |
| Date: | 2016 census, 2020 |
| Ref: | [1] [2] [3] |
| Familycolor: | American |
| Fam1: | Tsimshianic |
| Fam2: | Maritime Tsimshian |
| Nation: | [4] |
| Iso2: | tsi |
| Iso3: | tsi |
| Iso3comment: | (with Sgüüx̣s) |
| Glotto: | coas1300 |
| Glottorefname: | Coast Tsimshian |
| Notice: | IPA |
Tsimshian, known by its speakers as Sm'álgyax,[6] is a dialect of the Tsimshian language spoken in northwestern British Columbia and southeastern Alaska. Tsimshian: Sm'algyax means literally "real or true language."
The linguist Tonya Stebbins estimated the number of speakers of Tsimshian in 2001 as around 400 and in 2003 as 200 or fewer (see references below). Whichever figure is more accurate, she added in 2003 that most speakers are over 70 in age and very few are under 50. About 50 of an ethnic population of 1,300 Tsimshian in Alaska speak the language.
Next to transcriptions in the IPA are the conventional orthography in angle brackets.
| Front | Back | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Unrounded | Rounded | ||||||
| short | long | short | long | short | long | ||
| High | pronounced as /link/ (i) | pronounced as /link/ (ii) | pronounced as /link/ (ü) | pronounced as /link/ (üü) | pronounced as /link/ (u) | pronounced as /link/ (uu) | |
| Mid | pronounced as /link/ (e) | pronounced as /link/ (ee) | pronounced as /link/ (a) | pronounced as /link/ (o) | pronounced as /link/ (oo) | ||
| Low | pronounced as /link/ (a) | pronounced as /link/ (aa) | pronounced as /link/ (a̰) | ||||
The unrounded mid back vowel can either be the long pronounced as /link/ or the short and slightly raised pronounced as /link/ depending on context. John Asher Dunn assumes this vowel as the schwa pronounced as /link/.
Underlining pronounced as //a// is optional for indicating the back long vowel, and fluent speakers will usually omit it.
Dunn's representation of the high back vowel seems to be slightly more forward than the IPA equivalent, since he uses the phonetic symbols pronounced as /[ɨ̈]/ or pronounced as /[ɪ̈]/.
First symbol is IPA, then the conventional orthography equivalent is given in brackets.
| Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| plain | sibilant | lateral | plain | labial | ||||||
| Plosive | voiceless | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ (ky) | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ (kw) | pronounced as /link/ (ḵ) | pronounced as /link/ (ʼ) | |
| ejective | pronounced as /link/ (ʼp) | pronounced as /link/ (ʼt) | pronounced as /link/ ('ts) | pronounced as /link/ (ʼk) | pronounced as /link/ (ʼkw) | pronounced as /link/ (ʼḵ) | ||||
| voiced | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ (gy) | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ (gw) | pronounced as /link/ (g̲) | |||
| Fricative | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ (ɫ) | pronounced as /link/ (x) | pronounced as /link/ | ||||||
| Sonorant | plain | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ (y) | pronounced as /link/ (ẅ) | pronounced as /link/ | |||
| glottalized | pronounced as /link/ (ʼm) | pronounced as /link/ (ʼn) | pronounced as /link/ (ʼl) | pronounced as /link/ (ʼy) | pronounced as /link/ (ʼw) | |||||
The glottalization diacritic (') may be switched to the other side of a velar segment depending on whether it falls pre-, post- or intervocalically. In speech, glottalized segments before a vowel will result in simultaneous realization of both, pronounced as /link/. Glottalized segments that follow vowels produce the glottalization first, then the consonant closure, pronounced as /[ʼk]/. Intervocalically, the glottalization depends on where the stress falls. pronounced as /[ʼk]/ is pronounced after a stressed syllable, and pronounced as /[kʼ]/ is pronounced before a stress.
Tsimshian utilizes (C)CV or (C)CVC(C) syllable structures in which the vowels can occur long or short. Syllabic consonants are common and can technically occur anywhere within the word. The only consonants that qualify as syllabic (indicated optionally by underlining) are the sonorants pronounced as //m//, pronounced as //n// and pronounced as //l// (and their glottalized counterparts). (Some writers will follow the Gitksan orthographic practice of writing the syllabic sonorants as pronounced as //im//, pronounced as //in// and pronounced as //il//.)
Examples:
Consonant clusters are common. Schulenberg reports finding pronounced as //pt, pts, ptl, kts, qp, qtk, qtsc, qsk, nts, tɟ// among many others, though only a smaller portion can occur in the rime. Note that these clusters do not contain syllabic consonants, but are only either in the onset or the coda. Clusters at the ends of words often have an epenthetic vowel inserted, which is usually pronounced as //a/ [ʌ]/ but can also be either pronounced as //i/ [ɪ]/ or pronounced as //ɯ/ [ɯ]/.
Examples (with other phonological changes):
The long vowels of Tsimshian must be pronounced in one of three distinct ways: with a sustained pitch pronounced as //eː/ → [eː]/; a "falling pitch and offglide" pronounced as //eː/ → [êə]/, or with the insertion of a glottal stop pronounced as //eː/ → [eʔe]/. In every day writing, the diacritical marks may be left out, so that the first two could be written (ee), whereas it is common to represent pronounced as /[eʔe]/.
Examples:
The primary stress generally falls on the last syllable of a word. In the case of a suffix or connective being added, then the stress falls on the penultimate syllable.
There are a number of complex phonological processes that affect segments. The following is just a sample of some of the changes that may occur.
pronounced as //wælp// → pronounced as //wæːp// "house"
pronounced as //sɒk’æɬ// → [sɒʔæɬ] "divide, settle an estate"
pronounced as //iːmq// → pronounced as //imχ// "beard"
pronounced as //χæ// → pronounced as //χæː// "male slave"
pronounced as //c’inˀæm// → pronounced as //c’ilc’inˀæm// "give"
pronounced as //ɬoːl// → pronounced as //ɬoʊ̯l// "push through the water"
In the practical orthography, uvulars are indicated by underlining the velar letters, (ḵ g̲), and the position of the apostrophe before or after the consonant letter distinguishes glottalization.
The Tsimshian orthography in use today is based on that developed by Tsimshianicists since the 1960s. It originally stems from Bruce Rigsby's work on the Gitksan language and includes John A. Dunn's work on Tsimshian and Marie-Lucie Tarpent's work on Nisga'a and Southern Tsimshian. Dunn, Tarpent, and Susan Marsden substantially revised it for School District No. 52 (Prince Rupert) when preparing the Suwilaay'msga Na Ga'niiyatgm, Teachings of Our Grandfathers book series in the early 1990s, with the blessing of the Tsimshian hereditary chiefs. Since then, the orthography and the recording of the language have largely been conducted by the Tsimshian Sm'algyax Authority. The Living Legacy Talking Dictionary provides both written and spoken samples of the language.[7]
Another orthography, used only in Alaska, is taught by a private organization called Dum Baal-dum.[8]
Tsimshian can be classified as a polysynthetic language, although it is less so than other Native North American languages. Tense, for instance, is not marked with the verb, but always appears as a separate pre-verbal word. The verb stands out as the most important word in the sentence—much of the information can be expressed by affixing onto it. Nouns, however, do have a number of clitics that may be attached. There are multiple connectors that are suffixed or prefixed onto adjacent words which can create long strings of lexical items.
Tsimshian has an extensive system of reduplication, which is used in most cases to form the plural of both nouns and verbs. There is a complex set of phonological processes that affect both the vowel and the consonant in reduplication. Schulenberg records at least 12 different classes of reduplication but Dunn later condenses these to just five, depending on which part of the word is copied, and whether it is prefixed, suffixed or infixed. However, each class contains irregular forms.
| Pattern | Example | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Class I | /CVk-/ | Tsimshian: yexɫ → Tsimshian: yikyexɫ | |
| Class II | /CVx-/ | Tsimshian: da’axɫk → Tsimshian: daxda’axɫk | |
| Class III | /CVC-/ | Tsimshian: dal → Tsimshian: dildal | |
| Class IV | /CV-/ | Tsimshian: siipk → Tsimshian: sipsiipk | |
| Class V | /-V/ or /-VC/ | Tsimshian: yuutsk → Tsimshian: yu’itsk |
Besides reduplication, plurals can also be formed by adding lexical clitics. Prefixing or infixing Tsimshian: g̲a acts as a distributive. It is best translated as "each one his/her own". The words that take this prefix usually have a specific relation to an individual, such as body parts, clothing and kin.
The word Tsimshian: gyik 'again' may be prefixed to form some plurals, especially those referring to time.
The word for 'very' Tsimshian: lu'kwil can be shortened to Tsimshian: lu- and pre- or infixed onto some words to form the plural. This process may result in extremely divergent forms, because of phonological processes.
Finally, some plural forms are the same as the singular (Tsimshian: lak "fire" → Tsimshian: lak "fires") and some words have suppletive plurals, where there is no morphological relationship between the two: (Tsimshian: waa "name" → Tsimshian: uust "names").
There are ten suffixes that may be attached to words to derive words with meanings related in some way to the original morpheme . These suffixes can change either the grammatical relationship and/or the grammatical function. The names for the types listed below are shortened descriptions of those provided by Dunn.
Tsimshian: ḵ'o'a̰l "forget" → Tsimshian: ḵ'oolax "dull; warm one's back by the fire"
Tsimshian: gyemk "sun, moon" → Tsimshian: gyemga̰t "astronomer"
Tsimshian: buu "blow, sound (of a whale)" → Tsimshian: buul "warn"
Tsimshian: gwisgwaas "bluejay" → Tsimshian: gwisgwaask "blue"
Tsimshian: yuutk "carry around the neck" → Tsimshian: yuutsk "necklace"
Tsimshian: ɫoo "drift, swim (fish)" → Tsimshian: ɫo'otk "clouds"
There are five lexically derived morphemes that can be attached to words to alter the meaning. The affixed morphemes can be extremely altered from their original forms, sometimes according to phonological rules, sometimes arbitrarily. Usually the suffix root is shortened to one syllable before it is attached.
Below is a sample list of some of the many proclitics in Tsimshian. Attached to nouns and verbs, they may convey locative, aspectual, modal, case relational and lexical information. The following descriptions of the prefixes are intended to convey what sort of position the object or person is in. So Tsimshian: lax- can be used to express the top of the foot, because it has the properties of being "above" and "parallel", and Tsimshian: t'm- could be used for the backbone, because it has the properties of being "above" and "perpendicular". "Tangent" indicates that the object or action is taking place next to, or alongside of something. "Efferent" refers to going away from the action.
Like the lexical suffixes, these proclitics derive from existing morphemes and can alter the stem meaning in various ways. Proclitics are much more common than suffixes; only a small list is provided.
Tsimshian is an ergative–absolutive language. Although nominal and verbal marking allows syntax to be freer than English, word order is still an important aspect of the phrase. The basic word order for transitive and intransitive sentences is:
Inversions to this order are permitted. To place specific emphasis on the ergative noun (topicalization), it may be moved to the front of the phrase with the subsequent changes: temporal marker + Tsimshian: -t and Tsimshian: in- + verb. However, this order is only permitted if the topicalized ergative is a pronoun (independent, demonstrative, interrogative or relative). Proper nouns are never placed first in the sentence, except in a vocative sense. Any absolutive noun may be topicalized as well with the following changes: temporal marker + Tsimshian: t and verb + Tsimshian: da. (Dunn has shown that the affixed particles on the temporal marker and the verb are falling out of use among the younger generation. It now is quite "formal" to use either in speech.
The basic verb phrase in Tsimshian is ordered: TEMPORAL MARKER, verb. However, many of the noun phrases in the sentence can be represented on both the verb and/or the temporal marker as pre-, in- or suffixes. There are five temporal markers which can combine to form various tenses or aspects.
Some combined temporal expressions:
The basic noun phrase is ordered as: NUMERICAL MARKER, adjective, noun, determinater, possessive. A numerical marker and a determiner cannot appear in the same phrase together.
Similar to classifiers in other languages, there are seven different counting systems depending on what is being counted. Abstract entities, flat objects and animals, round objects and units of time, human beings, long objects, canoes and lastly, measurements, all must be counted differently. The numeral gets an Tsimshian: -a connective if it ends in a stop, affricate or fricative.
Like numerals, adjectives appear before the noun they modify. They take an Tsimshian: -m connective as well as match the noun in number (singular or plural). If both a numeral and an adjective appear together, the numeral always precedes the adjective.
Determiners follow the noun they modify and the noun gets a connective Tsimshian: -a suffix. There are six determinative words:
Possession is shown by placing the possessing noun after the object being possessed, which gets an Tsimshian: -a connective. If the object being possessed is not considered to be closely connected to the owner in some way (body parts, clothing, kin) then the object also gets a Tsimshian: na- prefix.
If the verb is transitive then the agent of the verb is treated as an ergative and the object as an absolutive. In these cases, the temporal marker receives the suffix Tsimshian: -t, the verb receives Tsimshian: -da and the ergative noun itself has an Tsimshian: -a suffix. (Proper nouns require variant suffixes.)
Transitive sentences in which the verb is closely related to the absolutive can actually allow the noun to be attached onto the verb, a process called incorporation. A verbal connector Tsimshian: -m- is then used to suffix the noun onto the verb.
When an intransitive verb is used, the agent of the verb is treated as an absolutive. If the absolutive directly follows the verb then the verb receives an Tsimshian: -a suffix. (Proper nouns again require different suffixes.)
Much of the information appearing in a noun phrase can be expressed on the verb phrase as a pronominal. Ergative and absolutive phrases affix onto the verb phrase and take a different form depending on person and number. Below are the most common forms of absolutive suffixes, although depending on the tense, different suffixes are applicable.
| Singular | Plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st Person | Tsimshian: -u | Tsimshian: -m | |
| 2nd Person | Tsimshian: -n | Tsimshian: -sm | |
| 3rd Person | Tsimshian: -t | Tsimshian: -t |
If there is an (unmarked) ergative noun in the sentence along with the absolutive pronoun, the temporal marker also gets a suffixed Tsimshian: -t.
Dunn has found that some temporal markers take a suffix and others do not. It seems to be "a matter of local and personal style".
Ergative pronominals appear before the verb on the temporal marker as infixes or suffixes. Some tense markers call for different affixes. With the perfective tense Tsimshian: nah, for instance, the ergative suffixes are identical to the absolutive suffixes. Below is the most common form of ergative affix.
| Singular | Plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person | Tsimshian: -n- | Tsimshian: -dip- | |
| 2nd person | Tsimshian: -m- | Tsimshian: -m-sm- | |
| 3rd person | Tsimshian: -t- | Tsimshian: -t- |
Both pronominals can occur in one sentence:
TEMP:temporal markerVERB:verb