Coal mining in the United States explained

See also: Coal power in the United States.

Coal mining is an industry in transition in the United States. Production in 2019 was down 40% from the peak production of 1171.8e6short ton in 2008. Employment of 43,000 coal miners is down from a peak of 883,000 in 1923. Generation of electricity is the largest user of coal, being used to produce 50% of electric power in 2005 and 27% in 2018.[1] The U.S. is a net exporter of coal. U.S. coal exports, for which Europe is the largest customer, peaked in 2012.[2] In 2015, the U.S. exported 7.0 percent of mined coal.[3]

According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), in 2015, Wyoming, West Virginia, Kentucky, Illinois, and Pennsylvania produced about 639abbr=offNaNabbr=off, representing 71% of total coal production in the United States.[4]

In 2015, four publicly traded U.S. coal companies filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection, including Patriot Coal Corporation, Walter Energy, and the fourth-largest Alpha Natural Resources. By January 2016, more than 25% of coal production was in bankruptcy in the United States[5] including the top two producers Peabody Energy[6] [7] and Arch Coal.[5] [8] When Arch Coal filed for bankruptcy protection, the price of coal had dropped 50% since 2011 and it was $4.5 billion in debt.[5] On October 5, 2016, Arch Coal emerged from Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection.[9] In October 2018, Westmoreland Coal Company filed for bankruptcy protection.[10] [11] [12] On May 10, 2019, the third largest U.S. coal company by production, Cloud Peak Energy, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection.[13] On October 29, 2019, Murray Energy filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection.[14]

History

See main article: History of coal mining in the United States.

Coal, primarily from underground mines east of the Mississippi was the nation's primary fuel source until the early 1950s. Surface (strip) and mountaintop removal mining overtook underground mines in the 1970s. In 2000, the majority of coal was produced west of the Mississippi.

Production

In 2018, coal mining decreased to 755 million short tons, and American coal consumption reached its lowest point in nearly 40 years.[15] In 2017, U.S. coal mining had increased to 775 million short tons.[2] In 2016, US coal mining declined to 728.2 million short tons, down 37 percent from the peak production of 1,172 million tons in 2008. In 2015, 896.9 million short tons of coal were mined in the United States,[16] with an average price of $31.83 per short ton,[17] worth $28.6 billion.[18]

Coal in the US (million short tons)
Production[19] [20] Net exports[21] [22] [23] Net available
2000 1,074 46 1,008
2001 1,128 29 1,099
2002 1,094 23 1,071
2003 1,072 18 1,054
2004 1,112 21 1,091
2005 1,131 19 1,112
2006 1,163 13 1,150
2007 1,147 23 1,124
2008 1,172 47 1,125
2009 1,075 36 1,039
2010 1,084 62 1,022
2011 1,096 94 1,002
2012 1,016 117 899
2013 985 109 876
2014 1,000 86 914
2015 896 63 833
2016 739 51 688
2017 775 97 678
2018 755 116 678
2019[24] 70593612

Coal production by region

The three regions producing the largest amount of coal are Powder River Basin of Wyoming and Montana, the Appalachian Basin and the Illinois Basin.In the United States, coal production declined from 2008 but the decline was unevenly distributed. Production from the largest coal mining-region in the U.S., the Powder River Basin, with most of the coal buried too deeply to be economically accessible,[25] declined 16 percent, the Appalachian Basin declined 32 percent 2008 to 2014 and the Illinois Basin increased its production 39 percent from 2008 to 2014.[26] In 2015, five states—Wyoming, West Virginia, Kentucky, Illinois, and Pennsylvania—produced almost 3/4 of all coal production nationwide. Wyoming produced 375.8 million short tons representing 42% of U. S. coal production, West Virginia produced 95.6 million short tons or 11%, Kentucky was third with 61.4 or 7%, Illinois was fourth with 56.1 or 6% and Pennsylvania was fifth with 50.0 or 6%.

, twenty-five states produced coal. The coal-producing states were, in descending order, with annual production in millions of short tons:[27]

2014 to 2018 US coal production (million short tons)
RankState20142018% ChangeNotes
align=right 1align=left Wyomingalign=right 395.7align=right 304.2align=right -23%align=left (see Coal mining in Wyoming)
align=right 2align=left West Virginiaalign=right 112.2align=right 95.4align=right -15%align=left
align=right 3align=left Pennsylvaniaalign=right 60.9align=right 49.9align=right -18%align=left
align=right 4align=left Illinoisalign=right 58align=right 49.6align=right -14%align=left (see Illinois#Coal)
align=right 5align=left Kentuckyalign=right 77.3align=right 39.6align=right -49%align=left (see Coal mining in Kentucky)
align=right 6align=left Montanaalign=right 44.6align=right 38.6align=right -13%align=left
align=right 7align=left Indianaalign=right 39.3align=right 34.6align=right -12%align=left
align=right 8align=left North Dakotaalign=right 29.2align=right 29.6align=right 1%align=left
align=right 9align=left Texasalign=right 43.7align=right 24.8align=right -43%align=left
align=right 10align=left Alabamaalign=right 16.4align=right 14.8align=right -10%align=left
align=right 11align=left Coloradoalign=right 24align=right 14align=right -42%align=left (see Coal mining in Colorado)
align=right 12align=left Utahalign=right 17.9align=right 13.6align=right -24%align=left
align=right 13align=left Virginiaalign=right 15.1align=right 12.7align=right -16%align=left
align=right 14align=left New Mexicoalign=right 22align=right 10.8align=right -51%align=left
align=right 15align=left Ohioalign=right 22.3align=right 9align=right -60%align=left
align=right 16align=left Arizonaalign=right 8.1align=right 6.6align=right -19%align=left
align=right 17align=left Mississippialign=right 3.7align=right 2.9align=right -22%align=left
align=right 18align=left Louisianaalign=right 2.6align=right 1.5align=right -42%align=left
align=right 19align=left Marylandalign=right 2align=right 1.3align=right -35%align=left
align=right 20align=left Alaskaalign=right 1.5align=right 0.9align=right -40%align=left
align=right 21align=left Oklahomaalign=right 0.9align=right 0.6align=right -33%align=right
align=right 22align=left Missourialign=right 0.4align=right 0.3align=right -25%align=left
align=right 23align=left Tennesseealign=right 0.8align=right 0.2align=right -75%align=left
align=right 24align=left Arkansasalign=right 0.1align=right 0align=right -100%align=left
align=right 25align=left Kansasalign=right 0.1align=right 0align=right -100%align=left
align=left US Totalalign=right 998.8align=right 755.5align=right -24%align=right

Coal production by type

The hardest coal, anthracite, originally used for steel production, heating, and as fuel for ships and railroads, had by 2000 dwindled to an insignificant portion of production. Softer bituminous coal replaced anthracite for steel production. The even softer sub-bituminous and lignite coals overtook bituminous for power generation in the 2000s.

Companies

Companies that produced minimum 5 million short tons in the United States, 2018
CompanyM short tons% of USNotes
1Peabody Energyalign=right 155.5align=right 20.6%Chapter 11 bankruptcy 2016, exited 2017[28]
2Arch Coalalign=right 100.3align=right 13.3%Chapter 11 bankruptcy 2016, exited 2016[29]
3Cloud Peak Energyalign=right 49.5align=right 6.6%Chapter 11 bankruptcy October 5, 2019[30] [31]
4Murray Energyalign=right 46.4align=right 6.1%Chapter 11 bankruptcy Oct 2019[32]
5Alliance Resourcealign=right 40.3align=right 5.3%Downgraded to BB status April 2021[33]
6Revelation/Blackjewelalign=right 38.5align=right 5.1%Chapter 11 Bankruptcy July 2019[34]
7NACCO Industriesalign=right 37.3align=right 4.9%
8CONSOL Energyalign=right 27.6align=right 3.6%Murray Energy took controlling stake in 2013[35]
9Foresight Energyalign=right 23.3align=right 3.1%Filed Chapter 11 Bankruptcy March 2020[36]
10Contura Energyalign=right 22.8align=right 3.0%
11Kiewitalign=right 18.5align=right 2.4%
12Westmoreland Coalalign=right 14.8align=right 2.0%Chapter 11 bankruptcy 2018, exited March 15, 2019[37] [38]
13Vistra Energyalign=right 14.0align=right 1.8%
14Blackhawk Miningalign=right 13.3align=right 1.8%Chapter 11 Bankruptcy July 19, 2019[39]
15Wolverine Fuelsalign=right 9.1align=right 1.2%
16Coronado Coalalign=right 8.5align=right 1.1%
17Warrior Metalign=right 7.7align=right 1.0%
18Hallador Energyalign=right 7.6align=right 1.0%
19Global Miningalign=right 7.6align=right 1.0%
20Prairie Statealign=right 6.3align=right 0.8%
21Western Fuelsalign=right 6.3align=right 0.8%
22White Stallionalign=right 5.6align=right 0.7%Chapter 11 Bankruptcy, December 2, 2020;

all 260 employees terminated, 24 to be rehired.[40] [41]

23J Clifford Forrestalign=right 5.2align=right 0.7%

In 2018, the production owned by the top ten companies was 71.6% of total US coal production.[42]

In 2018, the production owned by the top 23 companies was 87.9% of the total US coal production.[42]

Coal mining employment

At the end of July 2022, the coal industry employed approximately 38,400 miners.[43]

US employment in coal mining peaked in 1923, when there were 863,000 coal miners.[44] Since then, mechanization has greatly improved productivity in coal mining, so that employment has declined at the same time coal production increased. The average number of coal mining employees declined to 41,600 in 2020.[43] This was below the previous low of 70,000 in 2003, and the lowest number of US coal miners in at least 125 years.[45] [46]

Because of the sharp declines in the U.S. coal industry, the Harvard Business Review discussed retraining coal workers for solar photovoltaic employment because of the rapid rise in U.S. solar jobs.[47] A recent study indicated that this was technically possible and would account for only 5% of the industrial revenue from a single year to provide coal workers with job security in the energy industry as whole.[48]

Exports

The U.S. is a net exporter of coal.[49] US net coal exports increased ninefold from 2006 to 2012, peaked at 117 million short tons in 2012, and were 97 million short tons in 2017.[2] In 2015, 60% of net US exports went to Europe, 27% to Asia.[50] The largest individual country export markets were the Netherlands (12.9 million short tons), India (6.4 million short tons), Brazil (6.3 million short tons), and South Korea (6.1 million short tons). Coal exports to China, formerly one of the major markets, declined from 8.3 million short tons in 2013, down to 0.2 million tons in 2015.[22] [51]

In 2012, six coal export terminals were in the planning stages in the Pacific Northwest.[52] They were scheduled to be supplied by strip mines in the Powder River Basin. The export markets were South Korea, Japan, China, and other Asian nations. Like the Keystone Pipeline the building of the terminals raised environmental concerns with respect to global warming.[53] As of February 2016, four proposals for coal terminals had been withdrawn, leaving two still applied for. The withdrawals were ascribed to loss of demand and consequent lower coal prices.[54]

Usage

See main article: Coal power in the United States.

In 2013, 92.8 percent of US internal coal consumption was for electricity generation. Other uses were industrial (4.7 percent), coke manufacture (2.3 percent), and commercial and institutional (0.2 percent).[55] [56] In 2016, the EIA calculated that coal would provide 30% of electricity generation nationwide with natural gas providing 34%, nuclear, 19%, and renewables, 15%.[57]

Both the tonnage of coal used for electricity (1047 million short tons) and the amount of US electricity generated from coal (2020 TWh) peaked in 2007. By 2015, electrical generation from coal had declined to 1360 TWh and 966 TWh in 2019, as coal's share of total electrical generation in the US fell from 48.5 percent in 2007, to 33.1 percent in 2015, to 23 percent in 2019, and 19% in 2020.[58] Most of the decrease in coal electricity was offset by an increase in generation from natural gas-fired power plants.[59] [60] [61]

In 2006, there were 1493 coal-powered generating units at electrical utilities across the US, with total nominal capacity of 335.8 GW[62] (compared to 1024 units at nominal capacity of 278 GW in 2000).[63] Actual power generated from coal in 2006 was 227.1 GW,[64] the highest in the world and still slightly ahead of China at that time. In 2000, US production of electricity from coal was 224.3 GW .[64] In 2006, the US consumed 1027sp=usNaNsp=us or 92.3% of coal mined for electricity generation.[65]

As of 2013, domestic coal consumption for power production was being displaced by natural gas, but production from strip mines utilizing thick deposits in the western United States such as the Powder River Basin in northern Wyoming and Southern Montana for export to Asia increased.[66] In 2014, 3.0 percent of the coal shipments from Montana and Wyoming were exported.[67] The 2014 coal exports from the two states of 13.4 million short tons represented an increase of 1.2 million tons over 2012 export levels, which is 0.3 percent of the states’ 2014 total coal shipments of 439.8e6short ton.[68]

Coal mining on federal lands

As of 2013, 41 percent of US coal production was mined from federal land, almost all of it in the western US, where federal coal makes up about 80 percent of mined production. The federal coal program is overseen by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) under the US Department of Interior. Federal coal lands are leased by competitive sealed bids, for the highest bonus (initial payment) offered. In addition, the government receives an annual rental of $3 per acre, and a fixed percentage royalty of the market value of coal produced. The royalty is 8 percent for underground mines and 12.5 percent for surface mines.[69] In 2014, the program generated about $1.2 billion in lease bonuses, rentals, and royalties for coal mining on federal lands.[46]

In January 2016, the Obama administration announced a three-year moratorium on federal coal lease sales on public land, effective immediately, and leaving around 20 years-of coal production under way. He noted that the program had not had a "top-down review" for the past 30 years.[70] This would affect 50 licenses.[71] The Trump administration reversed the moratorium.[72]

The Government Accountability Office has questioned whether bonus and royalty rates reflect coal's market value. Per GAO, since 1990 Colorado earned about $22 million less from bonus bids than Utah, though Colorado leased out almost 76 million tons more coal than Utah. BLM personnel noted that the coal mined in Utah was closer to its market, and so was more valuable due to lower transportation cost.[69]

The GAO report noted that the BLM publishes little information on federal coal lease sales, also does not include their appraisal report, because some of this information is "sensitive and proprietary"; this violates BLM's own guidance.[69]

The GAO also noted that the competitiveness of federal coal lease sales was limited by lack of multiple bids. Of the 107 tracts leased since 1990, 96 drew only a single bidder. This was attributed to the fact that most leased tracts were close to a single existing mine, and the large capital cost of installing a new mine discouraged competition. The BLM can reject bids which do not meet its estimate of fair market value, and 18 of the coal tracts leased since 1990 were tracts re-bid after the BLM had rejected the initial bids as too low. However, the GAO found that some BLM offices did not have the personnel to prepare adequate estimates of market value.[69]

A Boston-based think tank, the Institute for Energy Economic & Financial Analysis study estimated that, since 1991, $29 billion over a 30-year period was lost in the Powder River Basin, due to lack of competitive bidding.[73] [74] The institute's mission statement notes that its goals include: “… to reduce dependence on coal and other non-renewable energy resources.”[75]

Energy value

The average heat content of mined US coal has declined over the years as higher-rank coal production (anthracite, and then bituminous coal) declined, and production of lower rank coal (Sub-bituminous and lignite) increased. The average heat content of US-mined coal decreased 21% from 1950 to 2016, and 6.8% in the 20 years from 1996 to 2016.[76]

The tonnage of mined coal hit a peak in 2008, and has declined since. The energy value of mined US coal hit its all-time peak a decade earlier, in 1998, at 26.2 quadrillion BTU. The energy value of US coal mined in 2016 was 14.6 quadrillion BTU, 44 percent lower than the peak.[77]

YearMillion short tonsMillion BTU/short tonQuadrillion BTU[78]
2000 1,074 align=right 21.07 align=right 22.74
2001 1,128 align=right 20.77 align=right 23.55
2002 1,094 align=right 20.67 align=right 22.73
2003 1,072 align=right 20.50 align=right 22.09
2004 1,112 align=right 20.42 align=right 22.85
2005 1,131 align=right 20.35 align=right 23.18
2006 1,163 align=right 20.31 align=right 23.79
2007 1,147 align=right 20.34 align=right 23.49
2008 1,172 align=right 20.21 align=right 23.85
2009 1,075 align=right 19.96 align=right 21.62
2010 1,084 align=right 20.17 align=right 22.04
2011 1,096 align=right 20.14 align=right 22.04
2012 1,016 align=right 20.22 align=right 20.68
2013 985 align=right 20.18 align=right 20.00
2014 1,000 align=right 20.15 align=right 20.29
2015 897 align=right 19.88 align=right 17.95
2016 728 align=right 19.88 align=right 14.58
2017 774 align=right 19.78 align=right 16.00
36.68 million BTU = 1 tonne of oil equivalent (toe)

Accidents

Mine disasters have still occurred in recent years in the US,[79] Examples include the Sago Mine disaster of 2006, and the 2007 mine accident in Utah's Crandall Canyon Mine, where nine miners were killed and six entombed.[80] In the decade 2005–2014, US coal mining fatalities averaged 28 per year.[44] The most fatalities during the 2005–2014 decade were 48 in 2010, the year of the Upper Big Branch Mine disaster in West Virginia, which killed 29 miners.[81]

Human and environmental health

Accidents are not the only threat to modern coal miners and those living in coal regions. Respiratory disorders from coal dust and heart disease are both prevalent, especially in the West Virginia Appalachian coal mining region.[82] When mountaintop removal mining is used, not only do the miners suffer, but people living in the regions develop health issues. Excess rock, also known as overburden, removed from the mountains is dumped into valleys creating toxic runoff, that often pollutes streams used for local water sources or even the groundwater and wells. Flooding and air pollution is also common in mining regions.[83] Burning coal releases CO2 into the atmosphere which is contributing to global climate change.

In addition to the respiratory and cardiac illnesses that remain a threat to coal miners, these individuals are also at risk for mental health related issues. While short term, coal extraction companies can create more jobs within communities and increase capital investment, research has shown that these heavily coal dependent communities have suffered when it comes to their mental and emotional health. According to the Gallup-Healthways Index, in the years 2009 and 2010, West Virginia, one of the top contributors of coal in the United States, ranked last in "Physical Health," “Emotional Health," “Life Evaluation," as well as "Overall Well-Being." On top of that, it was also found that individuals who were closely involved or located near mountaintop removal sites were more at risk for higher mortality rates, developing life-threatening diseases, and total poverty than those who extracted coal underground.[84]

Adverse economic impacts

Critics of coal mining in West Virginia sometimes refer to the mine locations as energy sacrifice zones,[85] being loosely defined as areas where the health of the people and the environment has been sacrificed for the energy, jobs and profits that can be derived from the activity.

Because of the poor economy in the region, coal mining is many miners' only economic option.

While data can be misleading about the creation of jobs in mining regions, The authors, Perdue and Pavela, of "Addictive Economies and Coal Dependency," highlight the fact that communities with no mining had lower levels of poverty than the communities with mining. Perdue and Pavela blamed this on the fact that "dependency on natural resources resulted in stifled development and negative socioeconomic outcomes." According to the article, West Virginia is one of the top producers of coal. Regardless, West Virginia only contributed 7% to the gross product.

Opposition

Concern about global warming in the US[86] – especially in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina and Al Gore's receipt of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for his raising awareness of climate change – temporarily increased public opposition to new coal-fired power plants.[87] [88] Simultaneously with these events, the anti-coal movement in the US – similar to that in the UK and Australia – had made coal-fired power projects more politically costly, and spurred further shifts in public opinion against coal-fired power.[89] [90] [91]

In a 2004 effort to foster positive public opinion of coal, many large coal mining companies, electric utilities, and railroads in the U.S. launched a high-profile marketing campaign to convince the American public that coal-fired power can be environmentally sustainable, despite the fact that coal is the largest contributor of CO2 emissions in the electricity sector.[92] [93] [94] However, some environmentalists condemned this campaign as a "greenwashing" attempt to use environmentalist rhetoric to disguise what they call "the inherently environmentally unsustainable nature of coal-fired power generation".[95]

Reserves

The United States has 477 billion tons of demonstrable reserves.[96] The energy content of this coal exceeds that of the country's oil and gas reserves.

See also

Further reading

External links

Notes and References

  1. Web site: EIA – Electricity Data. eia.gov. April 27, 2019.
  2. Web site: U.S. coal exports increased by 61% in 2017 as exports to Asia more than doubled – Today in Energy – U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). eia.gov.
  3. http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id=18251 U.S. coal exports fall on lower European demand, increased global supply
  4. News: Which states produce the most coal? . February 28, 2017 . May 9, 2016 . EIA.
  5. News: Tracy Rucinski . Arch Coal files for bankruptcy, hit by mining downturn . Reuters . January 10, 2016.
  6. Web site: Peabody Energy Chapter 11 Petition. PacerMonitor . May 9, 2016.
  7. News: Top coal miner Peabody files for bankruptcy . April 13, 2016 . The Sydney Morning Herald . March 28, 2017 . April 14, 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160414152544/http://www.smh.com.au/business/energy/top-coal-miner-peabody-files-for-bankruptcy-20160413-go5jsn.html . dead .
  8. News: How Trump's executive order will affect coal industry . Matthew Brown . Mead Gruver . Associated Press . Billings Gazette . March 28, 2017 . March 28, 2017.
  9. News: Chaney . Sarah. Arch Coal Emerges from Chapter 11 . The Wall Street Journal . October 5, 2016. October 6, 2016.
  10. Web site: Westmoreland Enters into Restructuring Support Agreement with Members of Ad Hoc Lending Group; WMLP Simultaneously Files Chapter 11 to Sell Assets . Westmoreland Coal Company . westmoreland.com. October 10, 2018.
  11. News: Kilgore. Tomi . Coal producer Westmoreland Resource Partners files for bankruptcy . October 9, 2018. MarketWatch . October 10, 2018.
  12. News: Westmoreland Coal Company files for bankruptcy protection. October 10, 2018.
  13. Web site: Third-Biggest U.S. Coal Company Files for Bankruptcy . May 10, 2019. Flathead Beacon. May 15, 2019.
  14. Web site: October 29, 2019 . Murray Energy News: Coal Miner Goes Bust as Trump Rescue Fails . Bloomberg.com . October 29, 2019.
  15. Web site: In 2018, U.S. coal production declined as exports and Appalachian region prices rose – Today in Energy – U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). eia.gov.
  16. US Energy Information Administration, Table 1 Coal Production, Annual Coal Report, 2015.
  17. US Energy Information Administration, Table 28, Average Price of Coal, Annual Coal Report, 2015.
  18. News: Annual Coal Report . November 3, 2016 . March 28, 2017 . U.S. Department of Energy.
  19. http://www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/annual/pdf/sec7_7.pdf Annual coal production
  20. http://www.eia.gov/coal/production/quarterly/pdf/t1p01p1.pdf Quarterly coal production
  21. http://www.eia.gov/coal/production/quarterly/pdf/t7p01p1.pdf Quarterly coal exports
  22. http://www.eia.gov/coal/production/quarterly/pdf/t18p01p1.pdf Quarterly coal exports
  23. http://www.eia.gov/coal/data.cfm#imports Coal exports and imports
  24. Book: Quarterly Coal Report October–December 2019. U.S. Energy Information Administration. 2020.
  25. Inventory of Assessed Federal Coal Resources and Restrictions to Their Development. August 2007. U.S. Departments of Energy, Interior and Agriculture. 94. March 28, 2017. February 4, 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190204043217/http://www.law.indiana.edu/publicland/files/epact437_final_rpt.pdf. dead.
  26. http://www.eia.gov/beta/coal/data/browser/#/topic/33?agg=2,0,1&rank=g&geo=g0000000000003vu&mntp=8&linechart=COAL.PRODUCTION.TOT-US-SUR.A~~&columnchart=COAL.PRODUCTION.TOT-US-SUR.A&map=COAL.PRODUCTION.TOT-US-SUR.A&freq=A&start=2001&end=2014&ctype=linechart&ltype=pin&rtype=b&pin=&rse=0&maptype=0 Coal browser
  27. http://www.eia.gov/beta/coal/data/browser/#/topic/33?agg=2,0,1&rank=g&geo=nvg1qag9vvlpns&mntp=g&linechart=COAL.PRODUCTION.TOT-US-TOT.A&columnchart=COAL.PRODUCTION.TOT-US-TOT.A&map=COAL.PRODUCTION.TOT-US-TOT.A&freq=A&start=2013&end=2014&ctype=columnchart&ltype=pin&rtype=b&maptype=0&rse=0&pin= Coal data browser
  28. Web site: Peabody – Newsroom. Peabodyenergy.com. March 10, 2019.
  29. News: Chaney. Sarah. Arch Coal Emerges from Chapter 11. The Wall Street Journal. October 5, 2016. October 6, 2016.
  30. News: Cloud Peak Energy Voluntarily Files For Bankruptcy . Cooper McKim . May 10, 2019 . Wyoming Public Media.
  31. Web site: Case number: 1:19-bk-11047 – Cloud Peak Energy Inc. – Delaware Bankruptcy Court. December 8, 2020. inforuptcy.com.
  32. Web site: Murray Energy joins growing list of coal companies to declare bankruptcy. CNBC. October 29, 2019.
  33. Web site: Fitch Downgrades Alliance Resource Partners IDR to 'BB'; Outlook Remains Negative. 8 April 2021. Fitch Ratings . 29 November 2023.
  34. Web site: Seven Bombshells in the Blackjewel Bankruptcy. July 9, 2019.
  35. Web site: POLITICO Pro.
  36. Web site: Foresight Energy is latest U.S. Coal miner in bankruptcy.
  37. Web site: Westmoreland Chapter 11 marks 4th major US coal company to declare bankruptcy . Robert Walton . October 10, 2018 . December 16, 2018 . Utility Dive.
  38. Web site: Proctor . Darrell . March 17, 2019 . Westmoreland Coal Emerges from Chapter 11 Bankruptcy . December 8, 2020 . POWER Magazine.
  39. Web site: Prime Clerk. December 8, 2020. cases.primeclerk.com.
  40. Web site: Endale. Brook. White Stallion Energy files for bankruptcy, terminates all 260 employees . December 8, 2020 . Evansville Courier & Press.
  41. Web site: Proctor. Darrell. December 4, 2020 . Continued Toll on Coal; More Companies File Bankruptcy . December 8, 2020. POWER Magazine.
  42. Web site: Major U.S. Coal Producers, 2018 . U.S. Energy Information Administration . https://web.archive.org/web/20191116011257/https://www.eia.gov/coal/annual/pdf/table10.pdf . November 16, 2019.
  43. https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/CEU1021210001#0 Total employment: coal mining
  44. Web site: Coal Fatalities for 1900 Through 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160419010203/http://arlweb.msha.gov/stats/centurystats/coalstats.asp . April 19, 2016 . live . US Mine Safety and Health Administration . April 17, 2016.
  45. Historical Statistics of the United States, US Department of Commerce, 1960, p.358-359.
  46. News: Coral Davenport . In Climate Move, Obama Halts New Coal Mining Leases on Public Lands . The New York Times . January 14, 2016.
  47. Joshua M. Pearce . What If All U.S. Coal Workers Were Retrained to Work in Solar? . Harvard Business Review . August 8, 2016.
  48. Edward P. Louie . Joshua M. Pearce . Retraining Investment for U.S. Transition from Coal to Solar Photovoltaic Employment . Energy Economics . 57 . 295–302 . 2016 . 10.1016/j.eneco.2016.05.016. 2016EneEc..57..295L .
  49. Web site: Quarterly Coal Report – Energy Information Administration. eia.gov.
  50. Web site: US COAL – High GCV Coal. uscoal.in. November 14, 2017.
  51. http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id=24472 Coal prices and production decline in 2015
  52. News: Coal Scorecard: Your Guide To Coal In The Northwest. March 26, 2013. EarthFix Oregon Public Broadcasting. June 28, 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20130310041958/http://earthfix.opb.org/energy/article/coal-score-card/. March 10, 2013. dead.
  53. News: NW governors ask White House to exam coal exports. March 26, 2013. The San Francisco Chronicle. March 25, 2013. Phuong Le. Associated Press.
  54. http://www.opb.org/news/article/qa-what-coals-decline-means-for-northwest-export-projects/ "What coal's decline means for Northwest export markets,"
  55. Web site: Pittsburghlive.com. October 23, 2009. https://web.archive.org/web/20080911010805/http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/news/cityregion/s_586978.html. September 11, 2008. dead.
  56. http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/epm/table1_1.html US Energy Information Administration: Net generation by energy source
  57. News: Natural gas-fired electricity generation expected to reach record level in 2016 . July 14, 2016 . March 28, 2017 . EIA.
  58. Web site: Electricity in the U.S. – U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA).
  59. http://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/epm_table_grapher.cfm?t=epmt_2_01_a Coal: Consumption for electricity generation
  60. http://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/epm_table_grapher.cfm?t=epmt_1_1 Net generation by energy source
  61. Web site: Electricity in the U.S. – U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). September 6, 2020. eia.gov.
  62. Web site: Existing Electric Generating Units in the United States . . 2007 . June 19, 2008.
  63. Web site: Inventory of Electric Utility Power Plants in the United States 2000 . . March 2002 . June 19, 2008.
  64. Web site: Electric Power Annual with data for 2006 . . October 2007 . June 19, 2008.
  65. Web site: U.S. Coal Consumption by End-Use Sector . . July 25, 2008. August 29, 2008.
  66. News: Company eyes coal on Montana's Crow reservation. March 18, 2013. The San Francisco Chronicle. March 17, 2013. Matthew Brown. Associated Press.
  67. http://www.eia.gov/coal/distribution/annual/pdf/o_14foreign.pdf Domestic and international coal distribution
  68. http://www.eia.gov/coal/distribution/annual/archive/2012/o_12foreign.pdf US Domestic and Foreign Coal Distribution
  69. Government Accountability Office Coal Leasing: BLM Could Enhance Appraisal Process, More Explicitly Consider Coal Exports, and Provide More Public Information GAO-14-140. Published December 18, 2013. Released February 4, 2014
  70. CORAL DAVENPORT In Climate Move, Obama Halts New Coal Mining Leases on Public Lands The New York Times, January 14, 2016. Retrieved January 16, 2016.
  71. Oliver Milman Obama administration halts new coal mining leases on public land The Guardian, January 15, 2016. Retrieved January 16, 2016
  72. News: Henry. Devin. Trump administration ends Obama's coal-leasing freeze. September 25, 2017. The Hill. March 29, 2017.
  73. Matt Pearce Obama temporarily bans new coal leases on federal land Los Angeles Times, January 15, 2016.
  74. http://ieefa.org/study-almost-30-billion-in-revenues-lost-to-taxpayers-by-giveaway-of-federally-owned-coal-in-powder-river-basin/ “Report- Almost $30 billion in revenues lost to taxpayers by “giveaway” of federally owned coal in Powder River Basin”
  75. http://ieefa.org/about/ “About”
  76. US Energy Information Administration, Table A5, Approximate heat content of coal and coal coke.
  77. US Energy Information Administration, Total coal mined.
  78. http://www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/monthly/pdf/sec1_5.pdf Primary energy production by source
  79. Web site: Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2006) . Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries Summary, 2006 Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor .
  80. News: Associated Press . September 4, 2007 . Panel to Explore Deadly Mine Accident . The New York Times .
  81. News: Urbina . Ian . No Survivors Found After West Virginia Mine Disaster . The New York Times . April 9, 2010.
  82. Braun. Shannon. 2010. Coal, Identity, and the gendering of environmental justice activism in central appalacia.. 25789907. Gender and Society. 24. 6. 794–813. 10.1177/0891243210387277. 145551786.
  83. Web site: Flood Advisory Task Force. 2002. May 2, 2018.
  84. Perdue, R., and G. Pavela. 2012.  Addictive Economies and Coal Dependency: Methods of Extraction and Socioeconomic Outcomes in West Virginia 1997–2009. Organization and Environment. 25(4): 368–384.
  85. Fox . Julia . MOUNTAINTOP REMOVAL IN WEST VIRGINIA: An Environmental Sacrifice Zone . Organization & Environment . 1999 . 12 . 2 . 168–183 . 10.1177/1086026699122002 . 26161863 . 110253546 . January 2, 2022.
  86. http://research.yale.edu/envirocenter/uploads/epoll/YaleEnvironmentalPoll2007Keyfindings.pdf "Yale Center for Environmental Law & Policy 2007 Environment Survey"
  87. http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/dec2007/2007-12-21-093.asp "Iowans Want Energy Conservation Before New Coal Plants"
  88. http://www2.ljworld.com/news/2008/jan/04/kansans_support_decision_nix_coal_plants_want_focu/ "Kansans Support Decision to Nix Coal Plants, Want Focus on Wind Energy"
  89. Nace, Ted. "Stopping Coal In Its Tracks", Orion, January/February 2008.
  90. https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/20/business/20coal.html "Fight Against Coal Plants Draws Diverse Partners"
  91. http://www.eastbayexpress.com/news/you_re_getting_warmer/Content?oid=596643 "You're Getting Warmer"
  92. http://www.mindfully.org/Energy/Coal-Scores-Bush.htm "Coal Scores With Wager on Bush Belief"
  93. http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/11/03/BUG7P9KG4H1.DTL "Spreading Misleading Messages"
  94. https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/01/17/AR2008011702837.html "Coal Industry Plugs Into the Campaign"
  95. http://understory.ran.org/2008/01/23/greenwash-of-the-week-coal-industry-buys-off-cnn-debates/ "Greenwash of the Week: Coal Industry Buys Off CNN debates"
  96. Web site: U.S. Coal Reserves. EIA. October 13, 2017. November 4, 2016.

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Coal mining in the United States".

Except where otherwise indicated, Everything.Explained.Today is © Copyright 2009-2024, A B Cryer, All Rights Reserved. Cookie policy.