Turkey's climate is varied and generally temperate, with the regions bordering the Mediterranean and Black Sea heavily affected by the coasts, and the interior being drier and more continental.
Coastal areas in the southern half of the country, including Antalya, İzmir, Adana, feature a very typical Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Coastal areas in the north are cooler and are either humid temperate or sub-Mediterranean, with cool, frequently rainy and occasionally snowy winters, and warm summers.
The lower plateaus of the interior are generally continental, and feature hot, dry summers, and cold, snowy winters. Winter precipitation varies widely, leading to humid precipitation regimes near areas like Bitlis, while rain-shadowed areas are semi-arid. On higher elevations, plateaus that nevertheless allow permanent settlement, like Kars and Ardahan, are high-continental and sometimes subalpine, with frigid, snowy winters, and mild, rainy summers.
Dry summers in the south and west, along with moderate aridity in the interior makes the country vulnerable to climate change.
A "true", or rather eu-Mediterranean (Köppen: Csa, Trewartha: Cs) climate exists on sea level from the coasts of Antakya to around Muğla, and north to around Manisa, which is generally considered to be its northern limit.[1] Average temperatures range between NaNC; winters have means around NaNC, while summers have mean temperatures between NaNC. Precipitation amounts to around NaNmm, all of it rain. Summers get almost no rain, while winters receive plentiful, and sometimes copious amounts of it. Winter precipitation depends on local topography, with enclosed bays of convergent air, such as Antalya, getting almost twice the amount of rain as storm-protected areas such as Mersin.
Mountains around the region still show the Mediterranean rainfall pattern, but have mild summers and below-freezing temperatures during winter, creating a zone which may be termed oro-Mediterranean.
A pre-Mediterranean climate ([2] Köppen: Csa, Trewartha: Cs/Do/Dc) exists in relatively continental areas influenced by the Mediterranean climatic system, notably around the inner Aegean and Southeastern Anatolia. Average temperatures range between NaNC with winter means around NaNC, and summers as hot as (or hotter than) the Mediterranean. Rainfall follows the general pattern of the Mediterranean region, but sunshine is sometimes noticeably lower, and precipitation amounts are lower than the Mediterranean region, between NaNmm. Snow can also fall in this area, unlike the coastal Mediterranean region.
See also: Climate of Istanbul. The climate around the Marmara Sea ([3] Köppen: Csa/Csb/Cfa/Cfb, Trewartha: Cs/Cf/Do) is complex, transitional and often microclimatic. It wraps around the sea, covering Bursa, Bilecik, southern İzmit and İstanbul, as well as Tekirdağ. Often of a meso- or supra-Mediterranean quality at sea-level; its vegetation at sea level is similar to the lower mountains of the "true" Mediterranean region, with heat-tolerant broadleaf oaks and occasional mesophilous trees, such as beech. Therefore, it is generally considered mild-temperate and not subtropical in Turkish sources and furthermore, Bohn, in a survey of European vegetation and climate, calls the climate sub-continental sub-Mediterranean.[4]
Its average temperatures range around NaNC at sea level. Its summers are generally cool for the Mediterranean, but warm for oceanic climates, with means around NaNC, varying on a microclimatic level. Winter means range between NaNC, with a noticeable decrease further inland. Precipitation amounts to NaNmm. Winters are very cloudy, with the amount of rainy days far surpassing much of Europe; while snow falls occasionally, often with sea-effect. Summers are moderately dry, but feature occasional thunderstorms, sometimes severe; along with the Black Sea climatic region further east, areas around the Marmara Sea have their peak thunderstorm activity in early and late summer.
Mountains here often quickly transition into subalpine climates, most notably Uludağ.
Inland regions northwest of the Marmara Sea have a transitional, sub-humid climate (Köppen: Csa/Cfa, Trewartha: Cs/Cf/Do), with average temperatures matching those of the Marmara Sea, albeit with colder, snowier winters and hotter summers. The vegetation here is pre-steppic, mostly oak savanna.
This area does have similarities to the pre-Mediterranean climate further south, but its lower sunshine, light winter precipitation and milder, wetter summers distinguish the two. The area's thunderstorm season peaks in May and early June, resulting in a slightly earlier season than that of the Marmara Sea.[5]
A mild, humid temperate climate (Köppen: Cfa/Cfb, Trewartha: Cf/Do) exists from the northern coast of Istanbul to İnebolu, at sea level around the coast of the Black Sea. Its vegetation is deciduous broadleaf, and resembles the supra-Mediterranean zone at sea level, although it is part of a different floristic zone, specifically the Euxinic one.
Its average temperatures range around NaNC at sea level, with summer means around NaNC and winter means around NaNC. Rainfall is well-distributed and quite frequent, generally around NaNmm with a spring drying pattern, instead of a summer-dry one. Winter snowfall is about the same amount as the Marmara region, but winter means are raised by Foehn winds.
In sheltered locations around Sinop and Samsun, the climate (Köppen: Cfa, Trewartha: Cf) is noticeably drier and warmer than the Western Pontic zone, but somewhat cooler, and much drier than the Eastern Pontic zone. Meso-Mediterranean vegetation resurfaces here, and coexists with broadleaf forest. Average temperatures range around NaNC, with summer means around NaNC and winter means around NaNC. Rainfall follows the general distribution of the region, but the area is less humid than expected in all seasons.
As the Black Sea coast assumes a southwest-northeast direction once again, rainfall increases, and forms the near-subtropical, extremely humid climate (Köppen: Cfa, Trewartha: Cf) prevalent in the eastern Black Sea region. Featuring temperate rainforests, its temperatures are very slightly warmer than the transitional zone further west, but rainfall in this region is nearly constant in frequency, varying only by intensity. Rainfall amounts are also quite copious at NaNmm, with a spring drying pattern. Some parts of the region get below 1,200 hours of sunshine, values far below Western Europe and more comparable to subpolar regions.[6]
Mountains in this region have a perhumid, alpine climate with verdant meadows alternating with krummholz and boreal forests.[7]
Between the humid Pontic climate and semi-arid conditions further inland, a sub-humid to humid continental climate (Köppen: Dfb, Trewartha: Dc) exists, most notably near Kastamonu. Average temperatures range around NaNC, with means of NaNC during the hottest month and winter means just below the freezing mark. Rainfall is around 500mm, with a spring storm season.
In the far-northeast of the country, often in elevations above 1500m (4,900feet), the summerly drying trend is no longer observed, and a unique, high-continental climate (Köppen: Dfb/Dfc, Trewartha: Dc/Ec) forms near Kars and Ardahan. Here, average temperatures are generally just above the freezing mark, while summers average around 15C. Winters are the most severe in the country, with lows routinely below -18C. Rainfall is generally around NaNmm with an early-summer wet season.
On the foothills of the Anti-Taurus and Zagros Mountains, south of the Armenian highlands and, in general, near the continental foothills of the southern Alpide belt in Turkey, an orographically-induced rainbelt forms a Mediterranean-influenced continental climate (Köppen: Dsa/Dsb, Trewartha: Dc), high in precipitation. Temperatures average around NaNC with winter means around -3C and summer temperatures averaging between NaNC. Precipitation is heaviest in early-spring, with totals above 800mm. Winters are very snowy. Despite this high precipitation, summer aridity keep the vegetation of the area pre-steppic.[8]
In drier areas of Central and Eastern Anatolia, a semi-arid, occasionally sub-humid climate (Köppen: BSk/Dsa, Trewartha: BS/Dc) takes hold, due to extensive rain-shadow