Civil Cooperation Bureau Explained

The South African Civil Cooperation Bureau (CCB), was a government-sponsored death squad,[1] [2] during the apartheid era. The CCB, operated under the authority of Defence Minister General Magnus Malan. The Truth and Reconciliation Committee pronounced the CCB guilty of numerous killings, and suspected more killings.[3] [4] [5]

Forerunners and contemporaries

When South African newspapers first revealed its existence in the late 1980s, the CCB appeared to be a unique and unorthodox security operation: its members wore civilian clothing; it operated within the borders of the country; it used private companies as fronts; and it mostly targeted civilians. However, as the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) discovered a decade later, the CCB's methods were neither new nor unique. Instead, they had evolved from precedents set in the 1960s and 70s by Eschel Rhoodie's Department of Information (see Muldergate Scandal), the Bureau of State Security (B.O.S.S.) and Project Barnacle[6] (a top-secret project to eliminate SWAPO detainees and other "dangerous" operators).[7]

From information given to the TRC by former agents seeking amnesty for crimes committed during the apartheid era, it became clear that there were many other covert operations similar to the CCB, which Nelson Mandela would label the Third Force. These operations included Wouter Basson's 7 Medical Battalion Group, the Askaris, Witdoeke, Experimental Group Program (also called "Clandestine Cooperation Bureau") and C1/C10 or Vlakplaas.

Besides these, there were also political front organisations like the International Freedom Foundation, Marthinus van Schalkwyk's Jeugkrag (Youth for South Africa), and Russel Crystal's National Student Federation which would demonstrate that while the tactics of the South African government varied, the logic remained the same: Total onslaught demanded a total strategy.

Establishment

Inaugurated in 1986 with the approval of Minister of Defense General Magnus Malan and Chief of SADF General Jannie Geldenhuys, the CCB became fully functional by 1988. As a reformulation of Project Barnacle, the nature of its operations were disguised, and it disassociated itself from all other Special Forces and DMI (Directorate Military Intelligence) structures. The CCB formed the third arm of the Third Force, alongside Vlakplaas C1 and the Special Tasks projects.[8]

In his 1997 submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, General Malan described the CCB as follows:

Reports about the CCB were first published in 1990 by the now-defunct weekly Vrye Weekblad, and more detailed information emerged later in the 1990s at a number of TRC amnesty hearings. General Joep Joubert, in his testimony before the TRC, revealed that the CCB was a long-term special forces project in the South African Defence Force. It had evolved from the 'offensive defence' philosophy prevalent in P.W. Botha's security establishment.

Nominally a civilian organisation that could be plausibly disowned by the apartheid government, the CCB drew its operatives from the SADF itself or the South African Police. According to Joubert, many operatives did not know that they were members of an entity called the CCB.[9]

In the wake of the National Party government's Harms Commission, whose proceedings were considered seriously flawed by analysts and the official opposition, the CCB was disbanded in August 1990.[10] Some members were transferred to other security organs.[11] No prosecutions resulted.

Structure

The CCB consisted of four groups with different functions:[12] an executive, a management board, two staff functions, eight operational sections known as regions, and an ad hoc collection of contractors. The overall size of the CCB never exceeded 250–300 full-time personnel.[13]

Executive

There is much dispute about what senior military officers knew when. However it is common cause that the CCB was a unit of special forces at first controlled by the General Officer Commanding Special Forces, Major-General Eddie Webb[14] [15] who reported to the Chief of the SADF.

Management board

The CCB operated as a civilian entity, so it had a chairman of the board and a group of 'directors'. The GOC Special Forces – Major General Joep Joubert (1985–89) followed by Major General Eddie Webb from the beginning of 1989 – was the chairman. The rest of the board included Joe Verster (managing director), Dawid Fourie (deputy MD), WJ Basson, Theuns Kruger, and Lafras Luitingh.

Staff functions

Although there is consistent evidence that the CCB had two staff functions[14] it is not clear what the names of these groups were and whether these remained the same over the life of the CCB. Region 9, is sometimes referred to as Intelligence or Psychological Warfare and elsewhere as Logistics. Region 10 is known as Finance and Administration or simply Administration.[16]

Operational sections

Each region had an area manager and its own co-ordinator who reported to the managing director.

▪Pseudo Unit: Operated by ex S.A.D.F. members. Members named: John McCloud (ex Rhodesian) (aka:Ausie), Willem Schalk Van Der Merwe, aka: (William Reid, William Bennet).

Blue plans and red plans

Operatives were required to have a 'blue plan'. This referred to a front operation (mostly a business) funded by the CCB. Slang Van Zyl, for instance, started a private investigation business while Chappies Maree ran an electronic goods export company called Lema. Operatives were allowed to keep the proceeds of their activities.[17] Proceeds from all blue plan activities vastly exceeded the funding CCB received from the state. A large private sector was created, which employed tens of thousands of people. Former security officers not in the CCB ran these companies alongside CCB officers. In the December 1993 Goldstone Commission, the task group found that ex CCB members were involved in various illegal activities including gun and drug smuggling

Red plans, on the other hand, detailed the activities they would undertake against the enemy. Operations could be of a criminal nature as long as they had prior approval from the CCB bureaucracy. These mostly began with a feasibility study. If the report showed merit it was verified, then reviewed by a panel of five: the operative, the manager or handler, the coordinator, the managing director and in the case of violent operations, the chairman. Where loss of life was anticipated the chairman was required to obtain approval from the Chief of the Army or the Chief of Staff.

The 'red plan' targeted victims and detailed action to be taken against them. The scenario, as described by Max Coleman in A Crime Against Humanity: Analysing the Repression of the Apartheid State, was as follows:

Known and suspected operations

To date there is no published record covering all operations conducted during the CCB's five-year existence. Some of the active operations conducted included the following:

Murders allegedly carried out by the CCB!Name of victim!Year!Date!Status!TRC finding on responsibility!Ref.
Tsitsi Chiliza198711 MaySuspectedCCB / members of Military Intelligence[24]
Anton Lubowski198912 SeptemberSuspectedCCB conspiracy[25]
Jacob 'Boy' MolekwaneSuspectedEvidence of CCB involvement
Gibson Ncube1987ConfirmedHenri van der Westhuizen granted amnesty[26]
Matsela Polokela198614 JunePossibleNo finding – Polokela was killed in a Special Forces operation, but one participant claimed to be a CCB member
Dulcie September198829 MarchSuspectedNo definitive finding – probably a CCB conspiracy with the hit contracted out
David Webster19891 MayConfirmedFerdi Barnard convicted in criminal court[27]
Attempted murders allegedly carried out by the CCB!Name of victim!Year!Date!Incident!Status!TRC finding on responsibility!Ref.
Joan and Jeremy Brickhill198813 OctoberCar bomb in Harare[28]
Michael Lapsley199028 AprilLetter bomb in Harare[29]
Godfrey Motsepe19884 FebruaryIn Brussels
January Masilela
Dullah Omar1989[30]
Anton RoskamReceived threatening letters, car was set alight[31]
Albie Sachs19887 AprilCar bomb in Maputo (targeting Indres Naidoo)ConfirmedHenri van der Westhuizen granted amnesty[32]

Operations planned but not executed

According to TRC records,[33] [34] [35] CCB operatives were tasked to seriously injure Martti Ahtisaari, UN Special Representative in Namibia,[36] and to eliminate the following:

Known associates

While the CCB was a section of the SADF's Special Forces they were joined on many operations by individuals from other parts of the state's broad security apparatus,[38] sometimes making it difficult to ascertain whether a specific person was part of the CCB or not. Of the estimated one hundred covert members, evidence exists that the following individuals were deployed as administrators or operatives:[39]

Senior military decision-makers

Operatives and associates

Associates who died mysteriously

Truth and Reconciliation Commission

Although the entire truth about the Civil Cooperation Bureau may never be known, South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) concluded that:

...the CCB was a creation of the SADF and an integral part of South Africa's counter-insurgency system which, in the course of its operations, perpetrated gross violations of human rights, including killings, against both South African and non-South African citizens. The Commission finds that the activities of the CCB constituted a systematic pattern of abuse which entailed deliberate planning on the part of the leadership of the CCB and the SADF. The Commission finds these institutions and their members accountable for the aforesaid gross violations of human rights.

As per the policy of the TRC, its findings were set out, but no action was taken.

According to General Malan, the CCB's three objectives—comparable to those of the British Special Operations Executive (SOE)—were:

In his testimony before the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, Malan declared that he had never issued an order or authorised an order for the assassination of anybody, and that the killing of political opponents of the government never formed part of the brief of the South African Defence Force.[91]

Negative outcomes

The front company Oceantec among others was used to embezzle $100 million US from private investors and a collateral trading house as part of a supposed sanctions busting operation between 1989 and 1991.[92]

CCB member Eben Barlow and Michael Mullen recruited other CCB members to start Executive Outcomes, a private military contractor that provided combatants, training and equipment.

See also

Notes and References

  1. Web site: Apartheid Killer to Be Paroled in South Africa . Council on Foreign Relations . 16 June 2023 . en.
  2. Web site: Burns . John F. . Times . Special To the New York . Cape Town Death-Squad Inquiry Opens . The New York Times . 16 June 2023 . 6 March 1990.
  3. Web site: Author unknown. (1998). A self-confessed apartheid era assassin told the Pretoria High Court yesterday that he did not apply for amnesty for his deeds, with one exception, because he believed his seniors, who gave him the orders, were the ones who should be punished. Business Day. . 9 May 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20071230093958/http://www.businessday.co.za/Articles/TarkArticle.aspx?ID=294669 . 30 December 2007 . dead .
  4. Web site: 1998. Former Civil Co-operation Bureau agent Ferdi Barnard. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20071230101405/http://www.businessday.co.za/Articles/TarkArticle.aspx?ID=369048. 30 December 2007. 21 May 2007. Business Day.
  5. http://www.doj.gov.za/trc/media/1999/9904/s990409d.htm SAPA. (1999). Joubert authorises car bomb that killed Piet Ntuli.
  6. Book: Lamb, Guy. From Military to Civilian Life: The case of retired Special Forces Operators. Centre for Conflict Resolution. 2003. 44.
  7. News: Confession 'built case against Basson' . Daily Dispatch . 7 December 2000 . 21 May 2007 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20071230095116/http://www.dispatch.co.za/2000/12/07/southafrica/BASSON.HTM . 30 December 2007 .
  8. O'Brien, Kevin. "The Use of Assassination as a Tool of State Policy: South Africa's Counter-Revolutionary Strategy 1979–92 (Part II)." Terrorism and Political Violence 13.2 (2001): 131
  9. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa Report, Volume 2, pp. 137–8. Retrieved 4 May 2007
  10. http://hrw.org/reports/1991/southafrica1/5.htm Human Rights Watch. (1991). The Killings in South Africa: The Role of the Security Forces and the Response of the State
  11. http://www.doj.gov.za/trc/amntrans/2000/200929ct.htm Transcript of proceedings of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa (Day 18), 29 September 2000. Accessed 17 May 2007.
  12. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa Report, Volume 2, pp. 139. Retrieved 4 May 2007
  13. O'Brien, Kevin A. The South African Intelligence Services: From Apartheid to Democracy, 1948–2005. Routledge, 2010., pg. 134–135
  14. Book: Barlow. E.. 2007. Executive Outcomes. Against all odds. Alberton, South Africa. Galago.
  15. News: Burger. Marlene. Basson trial to reveal dark CCB secrets. 2 February 2015. Sunday Independent. 29 April 2000.
  16. Web site: The South African Chemical and Biological Warfare Programme. Trial Report: Thirty-Three. . https://web.archive.org/web/20050416103700/http://ccrweb.ccr.uct.ac.za/archive/cbw/33.html . dead . 2005-04-16 . Gould . C . Burger . M. . n.d. . Centre for Conflict Resolution . University of Cape Town . 17 May 2007 .
  17. http://www.doj.gov.za/trc/decisions/2001/ac21232.htm Amnesty Committee. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa. Application in terms of section 18 of the Promotion of National Unity and Reconciliation Act, 34 of 1995. AC/2001/232. Accessed 17 May 2007.
  18. http://152.111.1.251/argief/berigte/dieburger/2005/11/26/BY/9/OranjeMax.html Author unknown. (2005). Die geskiedenis van Vrye Weekblad in 170 bladsye. Die Burger. Accessed 12 December 2007
  19. Web site: Author unknown. (2007). Van bliksem tot grotman. Die Burger. Accessed 12 December 2007 . 4 December 2007 . 7 January 2008 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080107180404/http://www.dieburger.com/Stories/Features/By/15.0.3112006236.aspx . dead .
  20. https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE5DF1339F931A25756C0A966958260&sec=health&spon=&pagewanted=print Associated Press. (1990). Paper Says Pretoria Put Germs in Namibian Water. The New York Times, 12 May. Accessed 17 May 2007.
  21. http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/cpc-pubs/war_next_time/burgess.pdf Burgess, S. & Purkitt, H. (undated). The secret program. South Africa's chemical and biological weapons. Accessed 22 May 2007.
  22. Web site: Targeted by the Civil Cooperation Bureau . 24 October 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080916171009/http://www.doj.gov.za./trc/amntrans/2000/200928ct.htm . 16 September 2008 . dead .
  23. http://www.iol.za.org/index.php?sf=2901&set_id=&sf=2901&click_id=13&art_id=qw958148220578B250&set_id=1 Baboon foetus 'sent to bewitch Tutu’. Independent Newspapers Youthvote.
  24. http://www.doj.gov.za/trc/report/finalreport/TRC%20VOLUME%202.pdf
  25. Web site: 2008-07-30. Lubowski: Who pulled the trigger?. 2021-11-30. The Mail & Guardian. en-ZA.
  26. Web site: 2001-07-11. TRC rules on Sachs life-attempt. live. 2021-11-30. News24. en-US. https://web.archive.org/web/20211130151425/https://www.news24.com/news24/trc-rules-on-sachs-life-attempt-20010710 . 30 November 2021 .
  27. Web site: 2019-04-02. Ferdi Barnard: Apartheid-era hitman released from prison. 2021-11-30. The South African. en-ZA.
  28. Web site: von Paleske, A. (undated). Woods was part of murky past. The Zimbabwean. Accessed 22 May 2007.. https://web.archive.org/web/20070930201649/http://www.thezimbabwean.co.uk/viewinfo.cfm?linkcategoryid=9&linkid=14&id=4498. dead. 30 September 2007.
  29. Web site: South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission Video Collection. Yale Law School Lilian Goldman Library. Accessed 17 May 2007.. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20070602180849/http://www.law.yale.edu/trc/index.htm. 2 June 2007. 21 May 2007.
  30. Web site: 2019-04-03. SACP slams release of apartheid-era death squad member Ferdi Barnard. live. 2021-11-30. IOL. en. https://web.archive.org/web/20190403065111/https://www.iol.co.za/the-star/news/sacp-slams-release-of-apartheid-era-death-squad-member-ferdi-barnard-20540860 . 3 April 2019 .
  31. News: 30 March 1998. OMAR WAS LUCKY BARNARD DIDN'T KILL HIM: PTA HIGH COURT TOLD. SAPA. 26 May 2007.
  32. Web site: 2000-10-09. 'Sachs not target in bomb that took his arm'. live. 2021-11-30. IOL. en. https://web.archive.org/web/20160522170435/http://www.iol.co.za:80/news/politics/sachs-not-target-in-bomb-that-took-his-arm-50348 . 22 May 2016 .
  33. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa Report, Volume 2, p. 141. Retrieved 4 May 2007
  34. Web site: FindArticles.com CBSi. 2021-11-04. findarticles.com.
  35. http://www.doj.gov.za/trc/media/1998/9803/s980317e.htm SAPA. (1998). Winnie and Tutu were on Ferdi Barnard's hit list: ex-wife
  36. http://www.doj.gov.za/trc/amntrans/2000/200928ct.htm Transcript of proceedings of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa (Day 17), 28 September 2000. Accessed 17 May 2007.
  37. Web site: Business Day. BusinessLIVE.
  38. http://www.doj.gov.za/trc/amntrans/2000/201009jb.htm Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa. (2000). Transcript of proceedings: Amnesty Hearing of Henri van der Westhuizen. Application no: AM8079/97. (Day 1), October, 9. Accessed 17 May 2007.
  39. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa Report, Volume 2, pp. 80, 82, 89, 110, 120, 136–8, 139, 140. Retrieved 4 May 2007
  40. Stiff, P. (2001). Warfare by other means. South Africa in the 1980s and 1990s. Alberton, South Africa: Galago. pp 389.
  41. Author unknown. (2007). Eeben Barlow on the record. Molotov Cocktail, 1, 9–13.
  42. http://www.doj.gov.za/trc/media/1998/9806/s980601a.htm SAPA. (1998). Former CCB agent Ferdi Barnard convicted of murder. Accessed 16 May 2007.
  43. Web site: South African Chemical and Biological Warfare Programme. 23 August 2004. https://web.archive.org/web/20040823150824/http://ccrweb.ccr.uct.ac.za/archive/cbw/37.html . 23 August 2004 .
  44. http://www.doj.gov.za/trc/report/finalreport/TRC%20VOLUME%202.pdf Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa Report, Volume 2, p. 142, accessed 4 May 2007
  45. Web site: Schwegler, O, & Watts, D. (2006) Kevin Woods. Exclusive interview. Carte Blanche. Broadcast date: 23 July. Accessed 3 December 2007. . 10 May 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20070624032304/http://www.carteblanche.co.za/Display/Display.asp?Id=3126 . 24 June 2007 . dead .
  46. Web site: DispatchLIVE. DispatchLIVE.
  47. Web site: NTI. South Africa profile. Biological overview. Accessed 22 May 2007..
  48. Web site: Gavin du Venage, The Australian, Apartheid assassins meet match in Iraq, 27 April 2004, accessed 16 May 2007.
  49. The State vs Wouter Basson . Case CCT 30/03 . Constitutional Court of South Africa . 10 March 2004 . http://www.constitutionallaw.co.za/alert/cases/CCT3003.pdf.
  50. Web site: Menges, W. (1999). SA cops cautious on Lubowski progress. The Namibian, 6 August. Accessed 22 May 2007.. https://web.archive.org/web/20050227110631/http://www.namibian.com.na/Netstories/August99/lubowski.htm. dead. 27 February 2005.
  51. Web site: Akkers & Aikonas (SJI 1996). academic.sun.ac.za.
  52. Web site: DispatchLIVE.
  53. Web site: Justice/Home .
  54. Web site: CBSi . FindArticles.com . 2022-04-30.
  55. Web site: South African Chemical and Biological Warfare Programme . ccrweb.ccr.uct.ac.za . 15 January 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20040823150813/http://ccrweb.ccr.uct.ac.za/archive/cbw/20a.html . 23 August 2004 . dead.
  56. Web site: Archived copy . ccrweb.ccr.uct.ac.za . 15 January 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20040823150401/http://ccrweb.ccr.uct.ac.za/archive/cbw/20.html . 23 August 2004 . dead.
  57. Web site: Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa Report, Vol 2, Sec 2 Accessed 3 December 2007.. https://web.archive.org/web/20080101193805/http://www.news24.com/Content_Display/TRC_Report/2chap2.htm. dead. 1 January 2008.
  58. Web site: ANC Submission to the TRC - 4 . 2007-05-05 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070627064947/http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/misc/trc04.html . 27 June 2007.
  59. Web site: Rapport JOHANNESBURG VROEG Sondag 22 Maart 1998 Bl. 7: Goosens bitter oor hofbeslissing . 2007-05-11 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070927224040/http://152.111.1.251/argief/berigte/rapport/1998/03/22/7/2.html . 27 September 2007 .
  60. http://www.doj.gov.za/trc/report/finalreport/TRC%20VOLUME%202.pdf
  61. http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=13&art_id=ct20000316093733290C150166
  62. Web site: Archived copy . www.ccr.uct.ac.za . 15 January 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080227082934/http://www.ccr.uct.ac.za/fileadmin/template/ccr/pdf/demob_sept.pdf . 27 February 2008 . dead.
  63. Web site: Emachel . 2008-10-06 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20050426154135/http://www.dispatch.co.za/2003/01/13/southafrica/EMACHEL.HTM . 26 April 2005.
  64. Web site: Archived copy . 2011-11-19 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20111001024821/http://www.africanstudies.uct.ac.za/postamble/vol2-2/assassination.pdf . 1 October 2011.
  65. News: Former ccb man lied to harms commission about webster . SAPA . 18 March 1998 . 3 December 2007 .
  66. Web site: NTI: Country Overviews: South Africa: Biological Capabilities . 2007-05-05 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070107203623/http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/SAfrica/Biological/2428.html . 7 January 2007 .
  67. News: Lethal Legacy: Bioweapons for Sale. Warrick. Joby. Mintz. John. The Washington Post. 20 April 2003. A01. 3 March 2021. https://archive.today/20210303165641/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2003/04/20/lethal-legacy-bioweapons-for-sale/4f1c6c0c-3733-4804-ba17-8f0051fda91d/. 3 March 2021. live.
  68. Web site: Business Day .
  69. Web site: South African Chemical and Biological Warfare Programme . ccrweb.ccr.uct.ac.za . 15 January 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20040823150824/http://ccrweb.ccr.uct.ac.za/archive/cbw/37.html . 23 August 2004 . dead.
  70. "TRC clears Lubowski's name". The Namibian. 1998. Accessed 21 May 2007.
  71. Web site: Archived copy . 2007-05-05 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070710104822/http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/Books/PeaceProfitPlunder/Chap5.pdf . 10 July 2007 .
  72. Web site: Justice/Home .
  73. Web site: Business Day .
  74. Web site: Archived copy . 5 May 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20070928041526/http://www.sabcnews.co.za/politics/government/0,2172,14187,00.html . 28 September 2007 . dead .
  75. Web site: Carte Blanche . 10 May 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20070624032304/http://www.carteblanche.co.za/Display/Display.asp?Id=3126 . 24 June 2007 . dead .
  76. Web site: Archived copy . 2007-05-05 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070702205455/http://www.unidir.org/pdf/articles/pdf-art1854.pdf . 2 July 2007 .
  77. Web site: Volume TWO Chapter TWO . 9 May 2007 . 25 January 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20070125004022/http://www.stanford.edu/class/history48q/Documents/EMBARGO/2chap2.htm . dead .
  78. http://152.111.1.251/argief/berigte/beeld/1997/02/17/5/1.html Adri Kotzé, Beeld, Veldtog van BSB moes ANC `diskrediteer' `Wou ondergrondse strukture skep', 1997, accessed 16 May
  79. Web site: Peta Thornycroft, Mail and Guardian, Shady past of FW's heir, 29 Aug 1997, accessed 16 May 2007 . 16 May 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20071001015803/http://www.mg.co.za/articledirect.aspx?articleid=178217&area=%2farchives%2farchives__print_edition%2f . 1 October 2007 . dead .
  80. Web site: Volume TWO Chapter SEVEN . 9 May 2007 . 13 November 2006 . https://web.archive.org/web/20061113013455/http://www.stanford.edu/class/history48q/Documents/EMBARGO/2chap7.htm . dead .
  81. Book: Devil Incarnate: A Depraved Mercenary's Lifelong Swathe of Destruction: Amazon.co.uk: Thallon, Wayne: 9781845962067: Books . .
  82. Web site: Sign in - Google Accounts. accounts.google.com.
  83. Web site: Truth Commission - Special Report - Volume 3, Chapter 6 . Sabctrc.saha.org.za . 1985-12-07 . 2022-04-30.
  84. Web site: Regional Office Reports . 10 May 2007 . 17 December 2004 . https://web.archive.org/web/20041217195510/http://www.stanford.edu/class/history48q/Documents/EMBARGO/1chap12.htm . dead .
  85. Web site: TimesLIVE .
  86. Stiff, P. (2001). Warfare by other means. South Africa in the 1980s and 1990s. Alberton, South Africa: Galago. pp 413–4.
  87. Web site: Peluang Bisnis Agen Asuransi Jiwa Terdahsyat Tahun Ini | Agen Asuransi Jiwa.
  88. Web site: Mail & Guardian Online . 5 May 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20070930204942/http://www.mg.co.za/articledirect.aspx?area=%2finsight%2finsight__national&articleid=20017 . 30 September 2007 . dead .
  89. Web site: South African Communist Party . 23 July 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120205041842/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?include=docs%2Fpr%2F1997%2Fhani.html . 5 February 2012 . dead .
  90. Web site: SASFA – South African Special Forces Association. https://web.archive.org/web/20080302233251/http://www.recce.co.za/index.php?module=ContentExpress&file=index&func=display&ceid=39&meid=38. dead. 2 March 2008. www.recce.co.za.
  91. Web site: Truth and Reconciliation Commission .
  92. Web site: Us Bankers Sue South African Government. 27 June 2002 .