Religion and circumcision explained

Religious circumcision is generally performed shortly after birth, during childhood, or around puberty as part of a rite of passage. Circumcision for religious reasons is most frequently practiced in Judaism and Islam.

Abrahamic religions

Christianity

See also: Paul the Apostle and Jewish Christianity and Christian views on the Old Covenant.

Modern Christianity

Circumcision is considered a customary practice among Oriental Christian denominations such as the Coptic, Ethiopian, and Eritrean Orthodox churches.[1] The practice is near-universal in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.[2] Some Christian churches in South Africa oppose circumcision, viewing it as a pagan ritual, while others, including the Nomiya church in Kenya,[3] require circumcision. It is common in Cameroon, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Eritrea, Ghana, Liberia, and Nigeria. Circumcision is widely practiced among Christian communities in the Anglosphere, Oceania,[4] South Korea, the Philippines, and the Middle East.[5] Circumcision is rare in Europe, East Asia, as well as in India. Christians in the East and West Indies (excluding the Philippines) do not practice it. Circumcision is also widely practiced among Christian communities in Philippines, South Korea,[6] Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine, Israel, and North Africa.[7] [8]

The Lutheran Church and the Greek Orthodox Church celebrate the Circumcision of Christ on 1 January,[9] while Orthodox churches following the Julian calendar celebrate it on 14 January. All Orthodox churches consider it a "Great Feast".[10] In much of Western Christianity, the Feast of the Circumcision of Christ has been replaced by other commemorations,[11] such as the Solemnity of Mary in the Roman Catholic Church or the Feast of the Holy Name of Jesus in the Lutheran Churches.[12] Exceptions, such as among most Traditionalist Catholics, who reject Novus Ordo and other changes following Vatican II to varying degrees, maintained the feast as a Holy day of obligation.

According to Scholar Heather L. Armstrong of University of Southampton, about half of Christian males worldwide are circumcised, with most of them being located in Africa, Anglosphere countries (with notable prevalence in the United States) and the Philippines.[13] Many Christians have been circumcised for reasons such as family preferences, medical or cultural reasons.[13] Circumcision is also part of a traditional practice among the adherents of certain Oriental Christian denominations, including those of Coptic Christianity, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and Eritrean Orthodox Church.[13]

Roman Catholic Church

The Roman Catholic Church denounced religious circumcision for its members in the Cantate Domino, written during the 11th Council of Florence in 1442, warning of loss of salvation for converts who observe it.[14] This decision was based on the belief that baptism had superseded circumcision (Col 2:11-12),[15] and may also have been a response to Coptic Christians, who continued to practice circumcision.[16]

Origen stated in his work Contra Celsum that circumcision "was discontinued by Jesus, who desired that His disciples should not practise it."[17]

Pope Pius XII taught that circumcision is only §"[morally] permissible if, in accordance with therapeutic principles, it prevents a disease that cannot be countered in any other way."[18]

On another occasion, he stated:

The Church has been viewed as maintaining a neutral position on the practice of cultural circumcision, due to its policy of inculturation,[19] [20] although some Catholic scholars argue that the church condemns it as "elective male infant circumcision not only violates the proper application of the time-honored principle of totality, but even fits the ethical definition of mutilation, which is gravely sinful."[21]

Fr. John J. Dietzen, a priest and columnist, argued that paragraph number 2297 from the Catholic Catechism (Respect for bodily integrity) makes the practice of elective and neonatal circumcision immoral.[22] John Paul Slosar and Daniel O'Brien, counter that the therapeutic benefits of neonatal circumcision are inconclusive, but that recent findings that circumcision may prevent disease puts the practice outside the realm of paragraph 2297. They claim that the "Respect for bodily integrity" paragraph apply in the context of kidnapping, hostage-taking or torture, and that if circumcision is included, any removal of tissue or follicle could be considered a violation of moral law. The proportionality of harm versus benefit of medical procedures, as defined by Directives 29 and 33 of the Ethical and Religious Directives for Catholic Health Care Services (National Conference of Catholic Bishops),[23] have been interpreted to support and reject[24] circumcision. These arguments represent the conscience of the individual writers, and not official doctrine. The most recent statement from the Church was that of Pope Emeritus Benedict XVI:

The Church of Antioch sent Barnabas on a mission with Paul, which became known as the Apostle's first missionary journey . . . Together with Paul, he then went to the so-called Council of Jerusalem where after a profound examination of the question, the Apostles with the Elders decided to discontinue the practice of circumcision so that it was no longer a feature of the Christian identity (cf. Acts 15: 1-35). It was only in this way that, in the end, they officially made possible the Church of the Gentiles, a Church without circumcision; we are children of Abraham simply through faith in Christ.[25]

Latter Day Saints

Passages from scriptures connected with the Latter Day Saint movement (Mormons) explain that the "law of circumcision is done away" by Christ and thus unnecessary.[26] [27]

Druze

Circumcision is widely practiced by the Druze:[28] practiced as a cultural tradition, and has no religious significance.[29] No special interval is specified: Druze infants are usually circumcised shortly after birth,[30] however some remain uncircumcised until age ten or older.[30] Some Druses do not circumcise their male children, and refuse to observe this "common Muslim practice".[31]

Islam

See main article: Khitan (circumcision). The origin of circumcision in Islam is a matter of religious and scholarly debate.[32] [33] It is mentioned in some hadith and the sunnah, but it not in the Quran,[34] [35] though perhaps it is implied by the command to "follow the way of Ibrahim, the true in Faith".[36] In the time of Muhammad, circumcision was carried out by Pagan Arabian tribes, and by the Jewish tribes of Arabia for religious reasons. This was attested by al-Jahiz and by Jewish historian Flavius Josephus.[33] [35]

The four schools of Islamic jurisprudence have different views towards circumcision.[34] Some state that it is recommendable, others that it is permissible but not binding, while others regard it as a legal obligation.[33] According to Shafi‘i and Hanbali jurists male circumcision is obligatory for Muslims,[33] [34] while Hanafi jurists consider circumcision to be recommendable.[33] Some Salafis have argued that circumcision is required in Islam to provide ritual cleanliness based on the covenant with Abraham.[37]

Whereas Jewish circumcision is closely bound by ritual timing and tradition, Islam states no fixed age for circumcision.[32] [35] [38] In Muslim communities, children are often circumcised in late childhood or early adolescence.[38] It varies by family, region, and country.[38] The age when boys get circumcised, and the procedures used, tend to change across cultures, families, and time.[38] In some Muslim-majority countries, circumcision is performed after boys have learned to recite the Quran from start to finish.[39] In Malaysia and other regions, the boy usually undergoes the operation between the ages of ten and twelve, and is thus a puberty rite, serving to introduce him in the adult world. The procedure is sometimes semi-public, accompanied with music, special foods, and much festivity.

Islam has no equivalent of a Jewish mohel. Circumcisions are usually carried out in health facilities or hospitals, and performed by trained medical practitioners.[38] The circumciser can be either male or female,[38] and is not required to be a Muslim,[39] and circumcision is not required of converts to Islam.[40]

Indian religions

See also: Indian religions. Hindu canons make no reference to circumcision.[41] Both Hinduism and Buddhism appear to have a neutral view on circumcision.[42] However, Hinduism discourages non-medical circumcision, as according to them, the body is made by almighty God, and nobody has right to alter it without the concern of the person who is going for it. Certain Hindu gurus consider it to be directly against nature and God's Design.[43] [44] Sikh infants are not circumcised.[45] Sikhism criticizes the practice.[46] For example, Bhagat Kabir criticizes the practise of circumcision in the following hymn of Guru Granth Sahib.

Africa

See main article: Circumcision in Africa. In West Africa, infant circumcision had religious significance as a rite of passage or otherwise in the past; today in some non-Muslim Nigerian societies it is medicalised and is simply a cultural norm.[47] In many West African traditional societies circumcision has become medicalised and is simply performed in infancy without ado or any particular conscious cultural significance. Among the Urhobo of southern Nigeria it is symbolic of a boy entering into manhood. The ritual expression, Omo te Oshare ("the boy is now man"), constitutes a rite of passage from one age set to another.[48]

In East Africa, specifically in Kenya among various so-classified Bantu and Nilotic peoples, such as the Maragoli and Idakho of the Luhya super-ethnic group, the Kikuyu, Kalenjin and Maasai, circumcision is a rite of passage observed collectively by a number of boys every few years, and boys circumcised at the same time are taken to be members of a single age set.[49]

Authority derives from the age-group and the age-set. Prior to circumcision a natural leader or Olaiguenani is selected; he leads his age-group through a series of rituals until old age, sharing responsibility with a select few, of whom the ritual expert (Oloiboni) is the ultimate authority. Masai youths are not circumcised until they are mature, and a new age-set is initiated together at regular intervals of twelve to fifteen years. The young warriors (Il-Murran) remain initiates for some time, using blunt arrows to hunt small birds which are stuffed and tied to a frame to form a head-dress. Traditionally, among the Luhya, boys of certain age-sets, typically between 8 and 18 years of age would, under the leadership of specific men engage in various rites leading up to the day of circumcision. After circumcision, they would live apart from the rest of society for a certain number of days. Not even their mothers nor sisters would be allowed to see them.

The Xhosa Tribe from the Eastern Cape in South Africa has a circumcision ritual. The ceremony is part of a transition to manhood. It is called the Abakwetha - "A Group Learning". A group of normally five aged between 16 and 20 go off for three months and live in a special hut (sutu). The circumcision is the climax of the ritual. Nelson Mandela describes his experiences undergoing this ritual in his biography, Long Walk to Freedom.[50] [51] Traditional circumcisions are often performed in unsterile conditions where no anesthetic is administered; improper treatment of the wound can lead to sepsis and dehydration, which has in the past lead to initiate deaths.[52] [53]

Among some West African animist groups, such as the Dogon and Dowayo, circumcision represents a removal of "feminine" aspects of the male, turning boys into fully masculine males.[4]

Ancient Egypt

Sixth Dynasty (2345 - 2181 BC) tomb artwork in Egypt is thought to be the oldest documentary evidence of circumcision. The most ancient depiction is a bas-relief from the necropolis at Saqqara (ca. 2400 B.C) with the inscription "Hold him and do not allow him to faint". The oldest written account, by an Egyptian named Uha, in the 23rd century B.C, describes a mass circumcision and boasts of his ability to stoically endure the pain: "When I was circumcised, together with one hundred and twenty men ... there was none thereof who hit out, there was none thereof who was hit, and there was none thereof who scratched and there was none thereof who was scratched."[54]

Circumcision in ancient Egypt was thought to be a rite of passage from childhood to adulthood. The alteration of the body and ritual of circumcision was supposed to give access to ancient mysteries reserved for the initiated.[55] The content of those mysteries are unclear but are likely to be myths, prayers, and incantations central to Egyptian religion. The Egyptian Book of the Dead, for example, tells of the sun god ra performing a self-circumcision, whose blood created two minor guardian deities. Circumcisions were performed by priests in a public ceremony, using a stone blade. It is thought to have been more popular among society's upper echelons, although it was not universal and those lower down the social order also had the procedure.[56]

Asia

In early 2007 it was announced that rural aidpost orderlies in the East Sepik Province of Papua New Guinea were to undergo training in circumcision with a view to introducing the procedure as a means of prophylaxis against HIV/AIDS, which was becoming a significant problem in the country.

Neither the Avesta nor the Zoroastrian Pahlavi texts mention circumcision. Traditionally, Zoroastrians do not practice circumcision.[57] Circumcision is not required in Yazidism, but is practised by some Yazidis due to regional customs.[58]

Circumcision is forbidden in Mandaeism,[59] and the sign of the Jews given to Abraham by God, circumcision, is considered abhorrent.[60] According to the Mandaean doctrine a circumcised man cannot serve as a priest.[61]

Circumcision in South Korea is largely the result of American cultural and military influence following the Korean War.

The origin of circumcision (tuli) in the Philippines is uncertain. One newspaper article speculates that it is due to the influence of Western colonisation.[62] However, Antonio de Morga's 17th-century History of the Philippine Islands documents its existence in pre-Colonial Philippines, owing it to Islamic influence.[63]

Circumcision is not a religious practice of the Bahá'í Faith, and leaves that decision to the parents.[64]

Like Judaism, the religion of Samaritanism requires ritual circumcision on the eighth day of life.[65]

Oceania

Circumcision is part of initiation rites in some Pacific Island, and Australian aboriginal traditions in areas such as Arnhem Land,[66] where the practice was introduced by Makassan traders from Sulawesi.[67] Circumcision ceremonies among certain Australian aboriginal societies are noted for their painful nature, including subincision for some aboriginal peoples in the Western Desert.[68]

In the Pacific, ritual circumcision is nearly universal in the Melanesian islands of Fiji and Vanuatu;[69] participation in the traditional land diving on Pentecost Island is reserved for those who have been circumcised. Circumcision is also commonly practised in the Polynesian islands of Samoa, Tonga, Niue, and Tikopia. In Samoa, it is accompanied by a celebration.

See also

References

Works cited:

Clarence-Smith. William G.. Islam and Female Genital Cutting in Southeast Asia: The Weight of the Past. Finnish Journal of Ethnicity and Migration. 3. 2. 2008. bot: unknown. https://web.archive.org/web/20090306050235/http://www.etmu.fi/fjem/pdf/FJEM_2_2008.pdf. 2009-03-06.

The rabbinic literature and Converts to Judaism are sections are an evolution of the corresponding article which gives the followingBibliography:

Notes and References

  1. Customary in some Coptic and other churches:
    • "The Coptic Christians in Egypt and the Ethiopian Orthodox Christians—two of the oldest surviving forms of Christianity—retain many of the features of early Christianity, including circumcision. Circumcision is not prescribed in other forms of Christianity... Some Christian churches in South Africa oppose the practice, viewing it as a pagan ritual, while others, including the Nomiya church in Kenya, require circumcision for membership and participants in focus group discussions in Zambia and Malawi mentioned similar beliefs that Christians should practice circumcision since Jesus was circumcised and the Bible teaches the practice."
    • "The decision that Christians need not practice circumcision is recorded in 15 ; there was never, however, a prohibition of circumcision, and it is still practiced by Coptic Christians." "circumcision", The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2001-05.
  2. Web site: 2007 . Male circumcision: Global trends and determinants of prevalence, safety and acceptability . World Health Organization.
  3. Mattson . CL . Bailey . RC . Muga . R . Poulussen . R . Onyango . T . 2005 . Acceptability of male circumcision and predictors of circumcision preference among men and women in Nyanza province Kenya . AIDS Care . 17 . 2. 182–194 . 10.1080/09540120512331325671. 15763713 . 22917530 .
  4. Web site: Circumcision amongst the Dogon. 2006-09-03. 2006. The Non-European Components of European Patrimony (NECEP) Database. 2006-01-16. https://web.archive.org/web/20060116174702/http://www.necep.net/articles.php?id_soc=12&id_article=84. dead.
  5. Web site: Circumcision protest brought to Florence. Associated Press. March 30, 2008. However, the practice is still common among Christians in the United States, Oceania, South Korea, the Philippines, the Middle East and Africa. Some Middle Eastern Christians actually view the procedure as a rite of passage..
  6. Book: Thomas Riggs . Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices: Religions and denominations . Christianity: Coptic Christianity . 2006 . Thomson Gale . 978-0-7876-6612-5 . https://books.google.com/books?id=uTMOAQAAMAAJ.
  7. Book: Bakos. Gergely Tibor. On Faith, Rationality, and the Other in the Late Middle Ages:: A Study of Nicholas of Cusa's Manuductive Approach to Islam . 2011 . Wipf and Stock Publishers. 9781606083420. 228 . English . Although it is stated that circumcision is not a sacrament necessary for salvation, this rite is accepted for the Ethiopian Jacobites and other Middle Eastern Christians..
  8. Book: J. Sharkey. Heather . A History of Muslims, Christians, and Jews in the Middle East. 2017 . Cambridge University Press. 9780521769372. 63 . English . On the Coptic Christian practice of male circumcision in Egypt, and on its practice by other Christians in western Asia..
  9. Web site: April 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20080213044716/http://www.goarch.org/en/chapel/calendar.asp?Y=2007&M=1. dead. February 13, 2008. www.goarch.org.
  10. Web site: The Circumcision (Obrezanie) of the Lord. www.holytrinityorthodox.com.
  11. Web site: The Online Book of Common Prayer. www.bcponline.org.
  12. Web site: Year A 2019/2020 . . 24 December 2020 . 5 . en.
  13. Book: L. Armstrong, Heather . Encyclopedia of Sex and Sexuality: Understanding Biology, Psychology, and Culture [2 volumes]. 2021. 9781610698757. 115-117. ABC-CLIO.
  14. Book: Eugenius IV, Pope. Pope Eugene IV. Norman P. Tanner. Decrees of the ecumenical councils. 1442. 2007-04-25. 2 volumes. 1990. Georgetown University Press. Washington, D.C.. 978-0-87840-490-2. el, la. Ecumenical Council of Florence (1438–1445): Session 11—4 February 1442; Bull of union with the Copts. http://www.ewtn.com/library/COUNCILS/FLORENCE.HTM#5. [The Holy Roman Church] firmly believes, professes and teaches that the legal prescriptions of the Old Testament or the Mosaic law, which are divided into ceremonies, holy sacrifices and sacraments, because they were instituted to signify something in the future, although they were adequate for the divine cult of that age, once our Lord Jesus Christ who was signified by them had come, came to an end and the sacraments of the new Testament had their beginning. Whoever, after the Passion, places his hope in the legal prescriptions and submits himself to them as necessary for salvation and as if faith in Christ without them could not save, sins mortally. It does not deny that from Christ's passion until the promulgation of the Gospel they could have been retained, provided they were in no way believed to be necessary for salvation. But it asserts that after the promulgation of the gospel they cannot be observed without loss of eternal salvation. Therefore it denounces all who after that time observe circumcision, the [Jewish] sabbath and other legal prescriptions as strangers to the faith of Christ and unable to share in eternal salvation, unless they recoil at some time from these errors. Therefore it strictly orders all who glory in the name of Christian, not to practise circumcision either before or after baptism, since whether or not they place their hope in it, it cannot possibly be observed without loss of eternal salvation.. 90003209. 2009-04-25. https://web.archive.org/web/20090425150516/http://www.ewtn.com/library/COUNCILS/FLORENCE.HTM#5. dead.
  15. Web site: CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Circumcision. www.newadvent.org.
  16. Jones . David Albert . Infant Male Circumcision . The Linacre Quarterly . 85 . 1 . 49–62 . National Institutes of Health Search database Search term Clear input . 6027118 . 2018 . 29970937 . 10.1177/0024363918761714 .
  17. Book: Origen. Contra Celsum (Against Celus). XXII.
  18. Pope Pius XII, Discorsi e messaggi radiodiffusi, t. XIV, Rome 1952, s. 328-329
  19. Slosar . J. P. . D. O'Brien . 2003 . The Ethics of Neonatal Male Circumcision: A Catholic Perspective . American Journal of Bioethics . 3 . 2 . 62–64 . 10.1162/152651603766436306 . 12859824 . 38064474.
  20. Web site: Frequently Asked Questions: The Catholic Church and Circumcision.
  21. Web site: Marie . André . Circumcision: An Acceptable Practice? . . 23 December 2020 . en . 26 December 2016.
  22. Father John J. Dietzen. The Morality of Circumcision. The Tablet, Brooklyn, N.Y., 30 October 2004, p. 33.
  23. Web site: Ethical and Religious Directives for Catholic Health Care Services . Fourth . 2008-04-11 . 2001 . U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops . Directive 29 All persons served by Catholic health care have the right and duty to protect and preserve their bodily and functional integrity. The functional integrity of the person may be sacrificed to maintain the health or life of the person when no other morally permissible means is available. Directive 33 The well-being of the whole person must be taken into account in deciding about any therapeutic intervention or use of technology. Therapeutic procedures that are likely to cause harm or undesirable side-effects can be justified only by a proportionate benefit to the patient..
  24. Fadel . P. . 2003 . Respect for bodily integrity: a Catholic perspective on circumcision in Catholic hospitals . American Journal of Bioethics . 3 . 2 . 23–25 . 12859800 . 10.1162/152651603766436379 . 41776096 .
  25. Benedict XVI, General Audience, Wednesday, 31, January 2007.
  26. Book of Moroni 8:8 and Doctrine and Covenants Section 74
  27. Book of Mormon Student Manual, (2009), 395–400 https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/book-of-mormon-student-manual/chapter-55-moroni-8-9?lang=eng
  28. Book: Ubayd, Anis. The Druze and Their Faith in Tawhid. 2006. 9780815630975. 150. Syracuse University Press. Male circumcision is standard practice, by tradition, among the Druze.
  29. Book: Jacobs, Daniel. Israel and the Palestinian Territories: The Rough Guide. 1998. 9781858282480. 147. Rough Guides. Circumcision is not compulsory and has no religious significance..
  30. Book: Dana, Nissim. The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status. 2003. 9781903900369. 56. University of Michigan Press.
  31. Book: Brenton Betts, Robert. The Sunni-Shi'a Divide: Islam's Internal Divisions and Their Global Consequences. 2013. 9781612345239. 56. Potomac Books, Inc.. There are many references to the Druze refusal to observe this common Muslim practice, one of the earliest being the rediscoverer of the ruins of Petra, John Burckhardt. “The Druses do not circumcise their children.
  32. Sami Aldeeb . 1994 . To Mutilate in the Name of Jehovah or Allah: Legitimization of Male and Female Circumcision . Medicine and Law . . 13 . 7–8 . 575–622 . 7731348 . Aldeeb Abu-Sahlieh . Sami A..
    1995 . Islamic Law and the Issue of Male and Female Circumcision . Third World Legal Studies . . 13 . 73–101 . 13 February 2020 . Aldeeb Abu-Sahlieh . Sami A..
  33. Book: Kueny . Kathryn . Reeves . John C. . 2004 . Abraham's Test: Islamic Male Circumcision as Anti/Ante-Covenantal Practice . https://books.google.com/books?id=WNId86Eu4TEC&pg=PA161 . Bible and Qurʼān: Essays in Scriptural Intertextuality . . . 161–2, 169–173 . . 24 . 90-04-12726-7.
  34. Encyclopedia: Bosworth . C. E. . Clifford Edmund Bosworth . van Donzel . E. J. . Emeri Johannes van Donzel . Lewis . B. . Pellat . Ch. . Khitan . . . . 5 . 20–22 . 1986 . 90-04-07819-3.
  35. Encyclopedia: Šakūrzāda . Ebrāhīm . Omidsalar . Mahmoud . Circumcision . V/6 . 596–600 . . . . October 2011 . 13 February 2020.
  36. Alahmad . Ghiath . Dekkers . Wim . 2012-03-20 . Bodily Integrity and Male Circumcision: An Islamic Perspective . Journal of the Islamic Medical Association of North America . 44 . 1 . 44–1–7903 . 10.5915/44-1-7903 . 0899-8299 . 3516177 . 23610746.
  37. Book: Gauvain, Richard . 2013 . Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God . . . Routledge Islamic studies series . 335 . 978-0-7103-1356-0.
  38. Anwer . Abdul Wahid . Samad . Lubna . Baig-Ansari . Naila . Iftikhar . Sundus . January 2017 . Reported Male Circumcision Practices in a Muslim-Majority Setting . . 2017 . 4957348 . . 10.1155/2017/4957348 . 5282422 . 28194416. free .
  39. Web site: Islam: Circumcision of boys . 13 August 2009 . Religion & ethics - Islam . . 13 February 2020.
  40. Book: Clark M. Islam For Dummies. 10 March 2011. John Wiley & Sons. 978-1-118-05396-6. 170. https://web.archive.org/web/20160118224324/https://books.google.com/books?id=zPXu561ZpvgC&pg=PA178. 18 January 2016. live.
  41. News: Doctor . Tandavan . Routine Circumcision is Unnecessary . Hinduism Today . February 1989 . 2010-08-02 . https://web.archive.org/web/20030707213308/http://www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/1989/02/1989-02-09.shtml . 2003-07-07.
  42. Web site: Male circumcision: Global trends and determinants of prevalence, safety and acceptability. London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine. WHO. UNAIDS. 2007. 4.
  43. Web site: Routine Circumcision is Unnecessary. https://web.archive.org/web/20030707213308/http://www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/1989/02/1989-02-09.shtml. 2021-08-24. Hinduism Today. en-US. 2003-07-07. dead.
  44. Web site: Is self harming/suicide a sin in Hinduism?. 2021-08-24. worldhindunews. 19 August 2014. en-US.
  45. Web site: Guidelines for health Care Providers Interacting with Patients of the Sikh Religion and their Families . 2007-05-01 . Metropolitan Chicago Healthcare Council . November 2000 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070616011136/http://www.kyha.com/documents/CG-Sikh.pdf . June 16, 2007 .
  46. Book: Devinder Chahal. John Peppin. etal. Religious Perspectives on Bioethics. 2013. Taylor & Francis. 978-9026519673. 213.
  47. Ajuwon et al., "Indigenous surgical practices in rural southwestern Nigeria: Implications for disease," Health Educ. Res..1995; 10: 379-384 Health Educ. Res..1995; 10: 379-384. Retrieved 3 October 2006
  48. Agberia . John Tokpabere . 2006 . Aesthetics and Rituals of the Opha Ceremony among the Urhobo People . Journal of Asian and African Studies . 41 . 3 . 249–260 . 10.1177/0021909606063880 . 144983114 .
  49. Web site: Masai of Kenya. 2007-04-06.
  50. Web site: Eastern Cape - The Abakwetha Circumcision Ceremony - Xhosa . 2013-05-31 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20130602110524/http://ezakwantu.com/Gallery%20Lister%20Hunter%20Photo%20Set%20A%20-%20Abakwetha.htm . 2013-06-02.
  51. Book: Mandela, Nelson . The Long Walk To Freedom . 1995 . MacDonald Purnell . 978-0-316-87496-0 . 3–36 . registration .
  52. News: Smith. David. South Africa urged to end silence on dangerous circumcision rituals. The Guardian. 20 July 2014. 2012-07-27.
  53. Vincent. Louise. Cutting Tradition: the Political Regulation of Traditional Circumcision Rites in South Africa's Liberal Democratic Order. Journal of Southern African Studies. March 2008. 34. 77–91. 10.1080/03057070701832890. 144451029. 20 July 2014.
  54. Gollaher, p. 2.
  55. Cf. the old Hebrew classic, Midrash Rabba (Exodus Rabba 30:9), where Aquila of Sinope said to Hadrian the king, "I wish to become a proselyte." When the king retorted, "Go and study their Divine Law, but do not be circumcised." Aquila then said to him,"Even the wisest man in your kingdom, and an elder who is aged one-hundred, cannot study their Divine Law if he isn’t circumcised, for thus is it written: 'He makes known his words unto Jacob, even his precepts and judgments unto Israel. He has not done the like of which to any other nation' (Ps. 147:19-20). Unto whom, then, [has he done it]? Unto the sons of Israel!”
  56. Gollaher, p. 3.
  57. Book: Häberl, Charles . The Neo-Mandaic Dialect of Khorramshahr. 2009. 9783447058742. 4. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.
  58. Web site: Parry . O. H. (Oswald Hutton) . Six months in a Syrian monastery; being the record of a visit to the head quarters of the Syrian church in Mesopotamia, with some account of the Yazidis or devil worshippers of Mosul and El Jilwah, their sacred book . London : H. Cox . 1895.
  59. Book: Drower, Ethel Stefana. The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran. Oxford At The Clarendon Press. 1937.
  60. Book: Schmidinger, Thomas . Beyond ISIS: History and Future of Religious Minorities in Iraq. 2019. 9781912997152. 82. Transnational Press London.
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