Chronology of the Crusades after 1400 explained

See main article: Chronologies of the Crusades. The chronology of the Crusades after 1400 provides a detailed timeline of the Crusades and considers the Crusades of the 15th century. This continues the chronology of the later Crusades through 1400. In the Middle East, the threats to the Christian West were from the Mamluks, the Timurids and the Ottomans. The latter would also threaten Eastern Europe and would emerge as the primary Islamic dynasty opposing the West. The Byzantine Empire would no longer exist, but the Reconquista was working well and would be resolved by the end of the 15th century. The works of Norman Housley, in particular, describe the Crusading movement in this timeframe, the impact of the fall of Constantinople in 1453, and the manifestation of Crusading propaganda.

Chronologies of the Crusades in print

Numerous chronologies of the Crusades have been published and include the following.

A Chronology of the Crusades, covering the crusades from 1055–1456, by Timothy Venning.
Chronology and Maps, covering 1095–1789, in The Oxford History of the Crusades, edited by Jonathan Riley-Smith.
A Chronological Outline of the Crusades: Background, Military Expeditions, and Crusader States, covering 160–1798, in The Routledge Companion to the Crusades, by Peter Lock.
A Narrative Outline of the Crusades, covering 1096-1488, ibid.
The Crusades: A Chronology, covering 1096–1444, in The Crusades—An Encyclopedia, edited by Alan V. Murray.^[1]
Important Dates and Events, 1049–1571, in History of the Crusades, Volume III, edited by Kenneth M. Setton.^[2]
Oxford Reference Timelines: Byzantine Empire, 330 – c. 1480;^[3] Ottoman Empire, c. 1295 – 1923.^[4]

Incumbent rulers in 1400

At the start of the 15th century, the rulers of the relevant countries, orders and dynasties were as follows.

Western Europe and Byzantium

19 September 1380. Charles the Beloved (Charles VI) becomes king of France.^[5]
6 April 1385. John of Aviz (John I) becomes king of Portugal.^[6]
31 March 1387. Sigismund of Luxembourg crowned king of Hungary. He will later become Holy Roman Emperor in 1433, filling the position vacant since 1378.^[7]
2 November 1389. Boniface IX elected pope.^[8]
9 October 1390. Henry the Suffering (Henry III) becomes king of Castile and León.^[9]
16 February 1391. Manuel II Palaiologos begins his reign as Byzantine emperor.
30 November 1393. Conrad of Jungingen elected Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights.^[10]
19 May 1396. Martin the Humane (Martin of Aragon) becomes king of Aragon.^[11]
(Date unknown) 1396. Philibert de Naillac elected Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller.
30 September 1399. Henry IV of England, son of John of Gaunt, becomes king after the deposition of Richard II of England.^[12] ^[13]

Muslim World

9 April 1370. Timur becomes emir of the Timurid Empire.^[14]
16 June 1389. Bayezid I becomes Ottoman sultan after the death of Murad I at the Battle of Kosovo.^[15]
3 October 1392. Muhammad VII of Granada becomes sultan of the Emirate of Granada.
19 March 1398. Abu Sa'id Uthman III becomes Marinid sultan of Morocco^[16]
June 1399. An-Nasir Faraj becomes Mamluk sultan after the death of his father Barquq.^[17]

Events from the late 14th century

A number of events from the late 14th century are key to the later timelines, including the following.

15 June 1389. At the Battle of Kosovo, armies under Lazar of Serbia and Murad I meet. Both armies are destroyed and their commanders killed.^[18]
July 1391. Ottoman invasion of Anatolia stopped at the Battle of Kırkdilim.^[19]
26 April 1394. The military Order of Alcántara^[20] organizes the failed Crusade of 1394 against Granada.
17 May 1395. Bayezid's invasion of Wallachia is stopped at the Battle of Rovine.
Spring/Summer 1396. Hungary organizes the Crusade of Nicopolis to relieve the pressure on Constantinople.
25 September 1396. Ottomans defeat the allied Western forces at the Battle of Nicopolis.^[21]

15th century

1400

October–November. Timurids defeat the Mamluks at the Sack of Aleppo.^[22]
(Date unknown). Siege of Damascus results in a Timudid victory over the Mamluks.^[23]

1402

20 July. Timurids defeat the Mamluks at the Battle of Ankara.^[24]
20 July. Bayezid I and Olivera Despina captured at Ankara, beginning Ottoman Interregnum.
(Date unknown). Siege of Constantinople ends with the Byzantines remaining in control of the city.^[25]
December. Timurids take the city from the Hospitallers at the Siege of Smyrna.

1404

17 October. Innocent VII elected pope.^[26]

1405

14 February. Timur dies, Shah Rukh becomes ruler of Timurid Empire.^[27]
24 June. Innocent VII directs action against the heretical teachings of the Hussites.^[28]

1406

30 November. Gregory XII elected pope.^[29]
(Date unknown). Forces commanded by Henry III of Castile defeat Muhammad VII of Granada at the Battle of Collejares.
25 December. John II of Castile becomes king after the death of his father Henry III.^[30]

1408

12 December. Sigismund of Luxembourg and his wife Barbara von Cilli found the Order of the Dragon to fight the Turks.

1409

30 June. Martin I of Sicily defeats forces of Arborea at the Battle of Sanluri.^[31]
6 August. Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War begins.
(Date unknown). John I of Portugal plans the invasion of Ceuta, supported by Edward the Eloquent and Henry the Navigator.^[32]

1410

15 June. Ottoman prince and claimant to the throne Süleyman Çelebi defeats his brother Musa Çelebi at the Battle of Kosmidion.
15 July. At the Battle of Grunwald, allies Władysław II Jagiełło and Vytautas defeat the Teutonic Knights under Ulrich von Jungingen, with most of their leadership killed or taken prisoner.^[33]
26 July. After Grunwald, the Poles and Lithuanians unsuccessfully attempt to take the Teuton's capital in the Siege of Marienburg.
16 September. Ferdinand I of Aragon takes the city in the Battle of Antequera, the first such victory against the Muslims in 50 years.^[34]
(Date unknown). Álvaro de Luna becomes key advisor to John II of Castile.^[35]

1411

1 February. Peace of Thorn is signed ending the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War.
3 September. Treaty of Selymbria is concluded between Musa Çelebi and Venice.
(Date unknown). Sixth Siege of Gibraltar left the territory under Granadan control.

1412

Early. Mehmed Çelebi defeated by Musa Çelebi at the Battle of İnceğiz.
23 May. Death of an-Nasir Faraj leads to a series of ineffectual Mamluk sultans through 1422.

1413

20 March. Henry V of England becomes king after the death of his father Henry IV.^[36] ^[37]
5 July. Mehmed Çelebi defeats Musa Çelebi at the Battle of Çamurlu.
5 July. Mehmed I becomes Ottoman sultan, ending the Interregnum.^[38]

1414

Summer. Hunger War conducted between Poland and Lithuania against the Teutonic Knights.
16 November. Council of Constance begun, to last until 1418.^[39]

1415

5 June. The Council of Constance condemns the writings of John Wycliffe and Jan Hus.^[40]
4 July. Gregory XII abdicates.^[41]
6 July. Jan Hus is burned at the stake in Konstanz.^[42]
21 August. John I of Portugal completes the Conquest of Ceuta, beginning the series of Moroccan–Portuguese conflicts.^[43]

1416

29 May. Venetian admiral Pietro Loredan destroys the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Gallipoli.^[44]
30 May. Hussite Jerome of Prague burned at the stake as a heretic.^[45]

1417

11 November. Martin V elected pope,^[46] ending the Great Schism of 1378–1417.
(Date unknown). Mircea the Elder loses Dobruja to the Ottomans, preventing Wallachia from becoming an Ottoman province.^[47]

1418

(Date unknown). Martin V authorizes of a crusade against Africa to combat the slave trade.

1419

30 July. First Hussite Crusade begins.
13 August. Marinid sultan Abu Said Uthman III launches the unsuccessful Siege of Ceuta to recapture the city from Portuguese led by Pedro de Menezes.
14 August. Hussite forces begin the Battle of Vyšehrad against crusaders sent by Sigismund leading to a Hussite victory on 1 November.^[48]
6 November. Ottoman–Venetian peace treaty signed ending a short conflict and confirming Stato da Màr and stipulating the rules of maritime trade between them.^[49]

1420

25 May. Henry the Navigator is appointed governor of the Military Order of Christ.^[50]
12 June – 14 July. Hussite forces of Jan Žižka defeat those of the Holy Roman Empire at the Battle of Vítkov Hill.
30 June. Oldřich II of Rosenberg and Lipolt Krajíř are defeated by the Hussites at the Battle of Tábor.
12 July. Crusade of Martin V, to be led by Sigismund, declared against the Ottomans.

1421

26 May. Murad II begins his first reign as Ottoman sultan after the death of his father Mehmed I.^[51]
August. Second Hussite Crusade begins.^[52]
21 December. Hussites defeat German and Hungarian forces at the Battle of Kutná Hora.

1422

10 January. Bohemian forces defeated by Jan Žižka at the Battle of Německý Brod.^[53]
9 March. Third Hussite Crusade begins.
1 April. Barsbay, a former slave of the first Burji sultan Barquq, becomes Mamluk sultan.^[54]
10 June. Byzantines hold off the Ottomans at the Siege of Constantinople. Forces withdrawn after the rebellion of Küçük Mustafa.
June. Siege of Thessalonica by the Ottomans begins.^[55]
17 July – 27 September. Teutonic Knights defeated by Poland and Lithuania in the Gollub War, ending with the signing of the Treaty of Melno.
1 September. Henry VI of England becomes king following the death of his father Henry V.^[56]
21 October. With the death of Charles VI, his son Charles VII of France becomes king in unoccupied France.^[57]

1423

27 April. Orebites faction of the Hussites led by Jan Žižka defeat the Bohemians led by Čeněk of Wartenberg at the Battle of Hořice.^[58]
18 May. Treaty of Melno is ratified by all parties and approved by Martin V on 10 July.

1424

2 June. Coalition of Florence and Milan under Francesco Sforza defeats Braccio da Montone and Niccolò Piccinino in the Battle of L'Aquila.
Late September. Mamluk Conquest of Cyprus begins.
11 October. Prokop the Great takes command of the Hussites after the death of Jan Žižka from the plague.^[59]

1425

July. Alvise Loredan leads Venetian naval operations in defense of Thessalonica and raided the fortress at Ierissos and then Christopolis.^[60]

1426

16 June. Hussites under Sigismund Korybut and Prokop the Great defeat Catholic forces at the Battle of Aussig.
June. Fourth Hussite Crusade begins.
7 July. Mamluks defeat the Cypriots at the Battle of Khirokitia.^[61]
18 July. Janus of Cyprus captured, Cyprus becomes a Mamluk tributary state.

1427

4 August. Hussites defeat the armies led by Henry Beaufort at the Battle of Tachov.^[62]
(Date unknown). Byzantines defeat the fleet of Carlo I Tocco at the Battle of the Echinades, the last victory of their navy.

1428

(Date unknown). Henry Beaufort and Philip the Good plan a joint crusade against Bohemia in the midst of the on-going Anglo-French War.^[63]
October. English decision to attack Orléans reduces Philip's support for the Bohemian crusade.

1429

29 April. Joan of Arc joins the Siege of Orléans with a relief expedition.^[64]
17 July. Charles VII of France is crowned.
(Date unknown). Hafsids mount the Siege of Malta, then withdraw.^[65]

1430

10 January. Philip the Good founds the Order of the Golden Fleece.^[66]
23 March. Joan of Arc dictates a letter threatening to lead a crusading army against the Hussites unless they returned to the Catholic Faith.^[67]
29 March. Murad II captures Thessalonica after the eight-year Siege of Thessalonica.
30 May. Joan of Arc burned at the stake in Rouen.
11 July. The Hussites defeat the Hungarian-Moravian-Serbian army at the Battle of Trnava.
(Date unknown). With the surrender of Chalandritsa and Patras to Morea, the Principality of Achaea comes to an end.

1431

11 March. Eugene IV elected pope.^[68]
16 June. Teutonic Knights and Švitrigaila sign the Treaty of Christmemel creating an anti-Polish alliance.
1 July. Castilian forces led by Álvaro de Luna defeat Granada at the Battle of La Higueruela.
1 August. Fifth Hussite Crusade begins.
14 August. Hussites under Prokop the Bald and Sigismund Korybut defeat the forces of Frederick of Brandenburg at the Battle of Domažlice.^[69]
9 November. Hungarians defeat the Hussites at the Battle of Ilava.
13 December. Vlad II Dracul is made a member of the Order of the Dragon.^[70]
16 December. Henry VI of England is crowned king of France at Notre-Dame de Paris.^[71]
(Date unknown). Polish–Teutonic War begins.

1432

19 November. Milan defeats Venice at the Battle of Delebio, part of the Wars in Lombardy.^[72]
31 August. Lithuanian Civil War begins.
(Date unknown). Albanian Revolt of 1432–1436 suppressed by the Ottomans. Skanderbeg, son of Albanian rebel Gjon Kastrioti, remains in Ottoman service.^[73]

1433

31 May. Sigismund is crowned Holy Roman Emperor, becoming the first emperor since the death of his father Charles IV in 1378.
14 August. Edward of Portugal becomes king after the death of his father John of Aviz.^[74]

1434

30 May. Taborites and Obebites led by Prokop the Great and Jan Čapek of Sány are defeated by the Utraquists at the Battle of Lipany.^[75]

1435

5 August. Filippo Visconti decisively defeats Alfonso V of Aragon at the naval Battle of Ponza. Anfonso is captured.^[76] ^[77]
1 September. Sigismund Kęstutaitis decisively defeats Grand Duke Švitrigaila at the Battle of Wiłkomierz.
1 December. Peace of Brześć Kujawski signed, ending the Polish–Teutonic War.

1436

5 July. Hussite Crusades end with the signing of The Compacts.^[78]
31 October. Castillian Enrique Pérez de Guzmán fails to capture the stronghold after the Seventh Siege of Gibraltar, drowning during the siege.

1437

13 August. Castilian Civil War begins, pitting John II of Castile, Álvaro de Luna and Henry IV of Castile against John II of Aragon and Henry of Villena, sons of Ferdinand of Antequera.
13 September – 19 October. Henry the Navigator is defeated by the Marinids at the Battle of Tangier. Ferdinand the Saint Prince is taken captive.

1438

14 April. Jahan Shah becomes sultan of the Qara Qoyunlu.^[79]
10 September. Sayf ad-Din Jaqmaq overthrows Barsbay's son al-Aziz Jamal ad-Din Yusuf to become Mamluk sultan. Yusuf ruled only 87 days.
13 September. Alfonso the African becomes king of Portugal after the death of his father Edward of Portugal.^[80]

1439

4 May. Władysław III of Poland and Zbigniew Oleśnicki defeat the Hussite confederates under Spytko III of Melsztyn at the Battle of Grotniki.^[81]

1440

1 February. Prussian Confederation is formed to oppose the Teutonic Knights.^[82]
End of April. Hungarians under Ivan Talovac defeat the Ottomans led by Murad II and Ali Bey Evrenosoğlu at the five-month Siege of Belgrade.
October. Hadım Şehabeddin leads Ottoman blockage at the Siege of Novo Brdo to last until 27 June 1441.
29 June. Florentine forces under Francesco Sforza defeat the Milanians led by Niccolò Piccinino in the Battle of Anghiari.^[83]

1441

Early. John Hunyadi appointed as Voivode of Transylvania by Władysław III.^[84]

1442

18 March. John Hunyadi defeats an Ottoman army at the Battle of Sibiu.
September. John Hunyadi defeats a second Ottoman army led by Hadım Şehabeddin near the Ialomița River and places Basarab II as ruler of Wallachia.

1443

1 January. Eugene IV calls for the Crusade of Varna (1443–1444), an unsuccessful attempt to stop the intrusion of the Ottomans into Central Europe. The crusade was led by Władysław III of Poland, John Hunyadi and Philip the Good.
5 June. Ferdinand the Saint Prince dies in captivity in Fez.^[85]
Early November. As part of the Crusade of Varna, John Hunyadi and Đurađ Branković defeat the Ottomans led by Kasim Pasha at the Battle of Niš.
November. Skanderbeg's Rebellion against the Ottoman occupation of Albania begins.
12 December. The Ottomans defeat the Serbian and Hungarian forces at the Battle of Zlatitsa.

1444

2 January. The forces of John Hunyadi defeat those of the Ottomans at the Battle of Kunovica, capturing the Ottoman commander Mahmud Çeleb.
2 March. Skanderbeg establishes the League of Lezhë.^[86]
12 June. Murad II makes peace with Hungary and soon abdicates in favor of his son.
29 June. League of Lezhë defeats the Ottomans at the Battle of the Plain of Torvioll.
July/August. Mehmed II becomes Ottoman sultan after the abdication of his father Murad II.^[87]
10 August – 18 September. The Hospitallers defeat the Ottomans at the first Siege of Rhodes.
15 August. The Treaties of Edirne and Szeged are signed between Hungary and the Ottoman Empire.
10 November. In the final battle of the Crusade of Varna, the Ottomans under Murad II defeated the crusaders under Władysław III of Poland (killed in action), John Hunyadi and Mircea II of Wallachia at the Battle of Varna.

1445

19 May. John II of Aragon is defeated by John II of Castile at the First Battle of Olmedo, ending the Castilian Civil War.^[88]
10 October. League of Lezhë defeats the Ottomans at the Battle of Mokra.
(Date unknown) Álvaro de Luna becomes Grand Master of the Order of Santiago.

1446

September. Murad II returns as Ottoman sultan.^[89]
27 September. Skanderbeg defeats the Ottomans at the Battle of Otonetë.
10 December. Ottomans destroy the Hexamilion wall, and the Despotate of the Morea is turned into an Ottoman vassal state.

1447

6 March. Nicholas V elected pope.^[90]
November. Vlad II Dracul and his son Mircea II of Wallachia are assassinated. Vladislav II of Wallachia.
December. Albanian–Venetian War of 1447–1448 begins.

1448

14 May – 31 July. Ottomans defeat the League of Lezhë at the first Siege of Svetigrad.
14 August. Albania is victorious over Venice at the first Battle of Oranik.
4 October. Peace established between Albania and Venice.
17–20 October. Ottomans defeat the Hungarians at the second Battle of Kosovo.^[91]
October–November. Vlad the Impaler serves his first term as Voivode of Wallachia.^[92]

1449

6 January. Constantine XI Palaiologos is crowned Byzantine Emperor, the last in a line of rulers that can be traced to the founding of Rome.^[93]
4 May. The Albanian garrison surrenders at the second Siege of Sfetigrad and the Ottomans seize the fortress.
20 May. Afonso V of Portugal and Afonso of Braganza suppress the rebellion of Peter of Coimbra at the Battle of Alfarrobeira. Peter died in this battle.

1450

26 February. Francesco Sforza enters Milan after a siege, founding a dynasty that will rule Milan for a century.^[94]
9 May. Timurid emir Abdal-Latif Mirza is assassinated.
14 May – 23 November. Albanians defeat the Ottomans at the first Siege of Krujë.
(Approximate). The Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire begins.

1451

3 February. Mehmed II is restored as Ottoman sultan after the death of his father Murad II.^[95]
26 March. Treaty of Gaeta signed, Skanderbeg becomes a vassal of Naples.
(Date unknown). The Ottomans conquer Karaman, beginning the long list of Mehmed II's campaigns.^[96]
(Date unknown). Abu Sa'id Mirza becomes sultan of the Timurid Empire.

1452

17 March. Castile and Murcia defeat Granada at the Battle of Los Alporchones.^[97]
19 March. Frederick III of Germany becomes the last Holy Roman Emperor to be crowned in Rome.^[98]
Autumn. Uzun Hasan becomes sultan of the Aq Qoyunlu.^[99]

1453

1 February. Jaqmaq abdicates and his son al-Mansur Uthman becomes Mamluk sultan. Jaqmaq dies 12 days later.
16 March. Sayf ad-Din Inal overthrows Uthman to become Mamluk sultan.
22 April. Albanians defeat the Ottomans at the Battle of Polog.
29 May. The Fall of Constantinople marks the fall of the Byzantine Empire after Mehmed the Conqueror takes the city in a siege that began on 6 April.
28 October. Ladislaus the Posthumous is crowned king of Bohemia, with George of Poděbrady remaining in control of the government.^[100]

1454

4 February. Thirteen Years' War between Poland and the Teutonic Knights begins.
6 March. Casimir IV of Poland renounces allegiance to the Teutonic Knights.^[101]
9 April. Treaty of Lodi is signed, ending the Wars in Lombardy.^[102]
22 July. Henry IV of Castile becomes king.^[103]
18 September. Bernhard von Zinnenberg leads the Teutons to a victory over Casimir IV at the Battle of Chojnice.

1455

8 January. Nicholas V publishes Romanus Pontifex, an encyclical to Afonso V of Portugal sanctioning slavery.^[104]
8 April. Callixtus III elected pope.^[105]

1456

15 April. Vlad the Impaler begins his second term as Voivode of Wallachia.^[106]
18 May. Skanderbeg defeats a large Ottoman force sent to capture Albania at the second Battle of Oranik.
4–22 July. Crusade of 1456: Hungarians and Serbians defeat the Ottomans in the blockade known as the Siege of Belgrade. The crusade was led by John Hunyadi, Michael Szilágyi and John of Capistrano, defeating Mehmed II, who was wounded, Grand Viziers Zagan Pasha and Mahmud Pasha, and Karaca Pasha, who was killed in action.^[107]
20 August. Vladislav II of Wallachia is killed by Vlad the Impaler.

1457

2 September. Albanian forces under Skanderbeg and defeat the Ottomans led by Isak bey Evrenoz and Hamza Kastrioti at the Battle of Albulena.

1458

24 January. Matthias Corvinus (Matthias I Hunyadi) becomes king of Hungary at age 14.^[108]
19 August. Pius II elected pope.^[109]
13 September. Stephen the Great becomes Voivode of Moldavia.^[110]
23 October. Afonso the African completes the Portuguese conquest of Ksar es-Seghir.

1459

27 May. Council of Mantua convenes to plan crusade against the Ottomans.^[111]
(Date unknown). Mehmed II's defeat of Stjepan Tomašević at Siege of Smederevo results in the fall of the Serbian Despotate.

1460

(Date unknown). Ottoman commander Ali Bey Mihaloğlu captures Hungarian regent Michael Szilágyi.^[112]

1461

26 February. Shihab ad-Din Ahmad becomes Mamluk sultan after the death of his father Sayf ad-Din Inal. He abdicates after only four months.
28 June. Sayf ad-Din Khushqadam becomes Mamluk sultan after the abdication of Shihab ad-Din Ahmad.^[113]
10 July. Stephen Tomašević becomes the last king of Bosnia upon the death of his father Stephen Thomas.^[114]
22 July. Louis XI of France becomes king upon the death of his father Charles VII.^[115]
July. Graitzas Palaiologos surrenders Salmeniko Castle, the last garrison of the Despotate of the Morea, to Ottoman forces after a year-long siege.
15 August. The Empire of Trebizond falls to the Ottomans after the 32-day Siege of Trebizond.

1462

17 June. Vlad the Impaler attempts to assassinate Mehmed II at the Night Attack at Târgoviște, forcing him to retreat from Wallachia.
July. Radu the Handsome replaces his brother Vlad the Impaler as Voivode of Wallachia. Vlad is captured by Matthias Corvinus and imprisoned for 12 years for treason.
1 September. Mehmed II captures the town after the Siege of Mytilene, conquering the island of Lesbos.
17 September. Poland defeats the Teutons at the Battle of Świecino, part of the Thirteen Years' War.^[116]
(Date unknown). Castilians capture the city after the Eighth Siege of Gibraltar.

1463

3 April. Ottoman-Venetian War begins.^[117]
25 May. Ottoman conquest of Bosnia completed with the death of Stjepan Tomašević.^[118]
15 September. Prussian Confederation defeats the Teutonic Order in the naval Battle of Vistula Lagoon (Zatoka Świeża).
22 September – 25 December. Hungary captures Jajce Fortress in Bosnia from the Ottomans in the first Siege of Jajce.
22 October. Ezechielis prophetae issued, calling for a crusade against the Ottomans.

1464

10 July – 22 August. Mehmed II is unsuccessful in his attempt to recover the fortress in the second Siege of Jajce.
18 July. Crusade of Pius II begins with the departure of the pope for Ancona. Pius II would die on 14 August.
30 August. Paul II elected pope.^[119]
14 September. As Athleta Christi of the Holy See in Pius II's Crusade, Skanderbeg breaks his ten-year peace treaty with the Ottomans signed in 1463, by initiating the Battle of Ohrid. The Albanian–Venetian forces were successful.

1465

14 August. Marinid sultan Abd al-Haqq II is murdered in the Moroccan revolution.^[120]

1466

June. Mehmed II begins the second Siege of Krujë, to last nearly 11 months.
19 October. Thirteen Years' War ends with the second Peace of Toruń.^[121]
(Date unknown). Juan Alonso de Guzmán takes the city from Castile in the Ninth Siege of Gibraltar.

1467

23 April. Skanderbeg, Tanush Thopia and Lekë Dukagjini defeat the Ottomans under Ballaban Badera at Krujë.
Summer. Albanians defeat the Ottomans at the Third Siege of Krujë.
20 August. Henry IV of Castile defeats his half-brother Alfonso of Asturias at the Second Battle of Olmedo.
9 October. Sayf ad-Din Khushqadam dies, Bilbay and then Timurbugha serve as Mamluk sultan.
30 October or 11 November. Uzun Hasan defeats Jahan Shah at the Battle of Chapakchur.^[122]
15 December. Stephen the Great halts the advance of Matthias Corvinus at the Battle of Baia. This is the last Hungarian attempt to subdue Moldavia.^[123]

1468

31 January. Qaitbay becomes Mamluk sultan after Timurbugha is overthrown in a coup.
30 June. Catherine Cornaro is married by proxy to James II of Cyprus.^[124]
(Date unknown). Portuguese fleet commanded by Fernando of Viseu razes a region of Morocco in the Anfa Expedition.^[125]

1469

4 February. Uzun Hasan defeats Timirud emir Abu Sa'id Mirza at the Battle of Qarabagh.
19 October. Ferdinand II of Aragon marries Isabella I of Castile.^[126]

1470

10 July – 5 August. Ottomans capture Euboea^[127] after the Siege of Negroponte.^[128]
20 August. Stephen the Great defeats the Volga Tatars at the Battle of Lipnic.^[129]

1471

14 July. Muscovy defeats the Novgorods at the Battle of Shelon.^[130]
9 August. Sixtus IV elected pope.^[131]
24 August. Portugal defeats Kingdom of Fez resulting in the Conquest of Asilah.
29 August. Portugal occupies Tangier.
(Date unknown). Guillaume Fichet publishes Bessarion's Orations against the Turks, one of the first pieces of mass-propaganda used in Europe.^[132] ^[133]

1472

(Date unknown). Wattasid dynasty under Abu Abd Allah al-Sheikh Muhammad is founded in Fez following the chaos left by the Moroccan revolution.

1473

11 August. Mehmed II defeats the Aq Qoyunlu led by Uzun Hasan at the Battle of Otlukbeli.^[134]

1474

11 December. Isabella I of Castile becomes queen after the death of her father Henry IV.
12 December. Henry IV's death triggers a civil war between Isabella I and her niece Joanna la Beltraneja.

1475

10 January. Stephen the Great defeats the Ottomans under Hadım Suleiman Pasha at the Battle of Vaslui.
June. Vlad the Impaler begins his third term as Voivode of Wallachia.
(Date unknown). Ottoman forces of Janissaries exceeds 4000 and Sipahi at 40,000.^[135]
(Date unknown). War of the Castilian Succession begins with the Siege of Burgos.
(Date unknown). Principality of Theodoro^[136] falls to the Ottoman Empire, arguably taking with it the final territorial remnant of the Roman Kingdom.

1476

1 March. The Catholic Monarchs defeat Afonso V of Portugal and John II of Portugal at the Battle of Toro.^[137]
26 July. Mehmed II defeats Stephen the Great at the Battle of Valea Albă.

1478

May. The Ottomans defeat the Venetians at the Siege of Shkodra.
Spring. The Ottomans are successful in the fourth Siege of Krujë.
1 November. The Spanish Inquisition begins.^[138]

1479

20 January. Ferdinand II of Aragon becomes king and rules together with his wife Isabella I of Castile over Iberia.^[139]
25 January. Venice and the Ottomans sign the Treaty of Constantinople ceding Shkodra to Mehmed II, bringing all of Albania under Ottoman control.^[140]
4 September. War of the Castilian Succession ends with the signing of the Treaty of Alcáçovas.^[141]
13 October. The Hungarians defeat the Ottomans at the Battle of Breadfield.^[142]

1480

23 May – 17 August. Hospitallers under Pierre d'Aubusson^[143] defeat the Ottomans under Mesih Pasha^[144] at the second Siege of Rhodes.
28 July. An Ottoman army lands near Otranto causing Sixtus IV to call for a crusade.
12 August. The Siege of Otranto by the Ottomans under Gedik Ahmed Pasha begins. Ottoman troops behead 800 Christians known as the Martyrs of Otranto for refusing to convert to Islam.
(Date unknown). Gulielmus Caoursin writes Obsidionis Rhodiæ urbis descriptio, an account of the Siege of Rhodes.

1481

8 April. Sixtus IV issues the bull Cogimur iubente altissimo beginning the Otranto Crusade.
3 May. Mehmed II dies and is succeeded by Bayezid II on 22 May. His succession is contested by his half-brother Cem Sultan.^[145]
22 May. The 1481 Rhodes earthquake of magnitude 7.1 strikes, causing an estimated 30,000 casualties.^[146]
21 June. Sixtus IV issues the bull Aeterni regis confirming the Treaty of Alcáçovas.^[147]
28 August. John II of Portugal becomes king.^[148]
10 September. Otranto Crusade ends with the withdrawal of Ottoman forces.
15 September. Andreas Palaiologos plans a crusade against the Ottomans.^[149]
(Date unknown). John Caius the Elder translates Caoursin's Obsidionis Rhodiæ urbis descriptio into English.^[150]

1482

28 February. Alhama de Granada is taken by Christian forces, starting the Granada War.
29 July. The imprisonment of Cem Sultan begins at Rhodes. He would remain under Christian control until his death in 1495.^[151]

1483

April. Castile defeats Granada at the Battle of Lucena. Christian forces take Muhammad XII of Granada as prisoner.^[152]
15 August. The Sistine Chapel, built with ransom paid by Bayezid II for Cem Sultan, celebrates its first mass.
30 August. Charles VIII of France becomes king, under the regency Anne of France and Peter II of Bourbon, upon the death of his father Louis XI. The regency will last until Charles' 21st birthday on 30 June 1491.^[153]
October. Matthias Corvinus signs a five-year truce with Bayezid II applying to all of Moldavia except the ports.^[154]
29 October. The Kingdom of Croatia defeats the Ottomans at the Battle of Una. A seven-year truce is signed between the parties.^[155]

1484

6–15 July. The Ottomans take the Moldavan fortress after the Siege of Chilia.^[156]
29 August. Innocent VIII elected pope.^[157]
November. The Hungarians defeat Frederick III at the Battle of Leitzersdorf.^[158]
5 December. Innocent VIII issues the bull Summis desiderantes affectibus giving the inquisition a mission to hunt heretics and witches.^[159]

1485

1 June. Matthias Corvinus is successful in the Siege of Vienna, establishing the captured city as his capital.
22 August. Henry VII of England becomes king.^[160]
(Date unknown). The Ottoman-Mamluk War begins in Anatolia and Syria.

1486

16 February. Maximilian I of Habsburg is elected King of the Romans.

1487

Early. Muhammad XII of Granada, the last Nasrid ruler of the Emirate of Granada, is released in exchange for placing Granada as a tributary to the Catholic monarchy.
27 April. Innocent VIII issues the bull Id Nostri Cordis calling for the Waldensian Crusade to exterminate the Vaudois.^[161]
7 May – 18 August. Spain conquers the city after the 103-day Siege of Málaga following earlier attacks on Ronda and Vélez-Málaga.
August. Portugal pillages the Anfa region (Casablanca)^[162] of Morocco in the Chaouia Expedition.^[163]

1488

(Date unknown). The Mamluks defeat the Ottomans at the Battle of Aga-Cayiri.

1489

14 February. Catherine Cornaro leaves Cyprus completing the Venetian conquest of Cyprus.^[164]
(Date unknown). Al-Zadal (Muhammad XIII of Granada) surrenders the city to Spain after the six-month Siege of Baza and is captured.

1490

(Date unknown). Portugal ravages Moroccan pirate havens in the Sack of Targa and Comice.^[165]

1491

24 January. Poland and Lithuania defeat the Crimean Khanate under Meñli I Giray at the Battle of Zasław.
23 April. Spain begins the Siege of Granada, the final battle of the Reconquisa.
7 November. Maximilian I and Vladislaus II sign the Peace of Pressburg, ending the Austrian–Hungarian War.
25 November. Treaty of Granada signed, granting the Nasrids two months to withdraw from the city.^[166]
September. The Ottomans are defeated by Croatia at the Battle of Vrpile.^[167]
(Date unknown). The Ottoman-Mamluk War ends with Status quo ante bellum.

1492

2 January. Muhammad XII, the last emir of Granada, surrenders his city to the army of the Catholic Monarchs after a lengthy siege, ending the ten-year Granada War and the centuries-long Reconquista, and bringing an end to 780 years of Muslim control in Al-Andalus.^[168]
6 January. Ferdinand and Isabella enter Granada.^[169]
31 March. Ferdinand and Isabella sign the Alhambra Decree, expelling all Jews from Spain unless they convert to Christianity.^[170]
2 August. Bayezid II dispatches the Ottoman Navy to bring expelled Spanish Jews safely to Ottoman lands.^[171]
6 August. After the death of Innocent VIII on 25 July, the 1492 Papal Conclave is convened, the first held in the Sistine Chapel.^[172]
11 August. Alexander VI elected pope.^[173]
12 October. Christopher Columbus' expedition makes landfall in the Caribbean, believing he has reached the East Indies.^[174]
26 October. Stephan the Great defeats John I of Poland at the Battle of the Cosmin Forest.^[175]

1493

4 May. Alexander VI issues the bull Inter caetera granting newly discoved lands to Spain. Dudum siquidem clarifies this on 26 September.^[176]
19 August. Maximilian I succeeds his father Frederick III as Holy Roman Emperor.
September. The Ottomans defeat Croatia in the Battle of Krbava Field.
September. Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War begins.^[177]

1494

25 January. First Italian War begins, pitting Charles VIII of France and the League of Venice.
(Date unknown). Charles VIII purchases the right to the Byzantine Empire from exiled pretender, Andreas Palaiologos.

1495

25 February. Cem Sultan dies on an expedition of Charles VIII to conquer Naples.^[178]

1496

7 August. An-Nasir Muhammad becomes Mamluk sultan after the death of his father Qaitbay.

1497

17 September. The Conquest of Melilla was done by a fleet sent by the Juan Alonso Pérez de Guzmán which attacked the North African city of Melilla.^[179]
(Date unknown). Moldavian Campaign was an unsuccessful attack by John Albert of Poland on Moldavia, supported by the Ottomans, with the objective of deposing Stephen the Great. This would last two years.

1498

7 April. Louis XII of France becomes king.^[180]
31 October. Qansuh becomes Mamluk sultan after an-Nasir Muhammad is killed by his subjects.

1499

28 July. The Turkish navy defeats the Venetians at the Battle of Zonchio.^[181]
18 December. Spanish Muslims begin the first Rebellion of the Alpujarras.

16th century

1500

1 June. Alexander VI issues Quamvis ad amplianda calling for a crusade against the Ottomans following their invasions of Venetian territory in Greece.^[182]
30 June. Abu Sa'id Qansuh is overthrown and sent into exile. Janbalat becomes the new Mamluk sultan, but reigns for less than six months. He was succeeded by Tuman Bay I on 25 January 1501.
24 July. The Ottoman fleet under Admiral Kemal Reis^[183] defeats the Venetians in the Battle of Modon.^[184]

1501

11 April. Rebellion of the Alpujarras is squashed.
20 April. Qansuh al-Ghuri becomes the second-to-last Mamluk sultan after Tuman Bay I is overthrown after three months.
(Date unknown). Safavid Empire of Persia founded by Ismail I.^[185]

1502

17 September. Forced conversion of Muslims begins in the Crown of Castile by edict of Isabella I.

1503

24 June. The Aq Qoyunlu under Sultan-Murad are critically defeated at the Safavids under Ismail I at the Battle of Hamadan.^[186]
20 August. The treaty between Vladislaus II of Hungary and Bayezid II suppressing warfare along the Hungarian-Ottoman border goes into effect.^[187]
3 September. The first 1503 Papal Conclave is convened after the death of Alexander VI. Pius III is elected pope and dies a month later.^[188]
31 October. The second 1503 Papal Conclave elects Julius II as pope.^[189]
(Date unknown). Alexander Jagiellon signs a five-year treaty with Bayezid II, the first of the Polish-Ottoman alliances.

1504

2 July. Bogdan III the One-Eyed becomes the new Voivode of Moldavia upon the death of his father Stephen the Great.^[190]

1505

16 March. The Mamluk-Portuguese conflicts begin with Qansuh al-Ghuri ordering a naval expedition against the Portuguese.

1506

6 August. Lithuania defeats the Crimean Khanate at the Battle of Kletsk.^[191]

1507

(Date unknown). Henry VII of England exchanges letters with Julius II to organise an expedition against the Ottomans.
(Date unknown). Timurid Dynasty ends when Muhammad Shaybani captures their capital Herat. The last Timurid emir Badi' al-Zaman Mirza flees.^[192]

1508

4 February. Maximillian I of Germany becomes Holy Roman Emperor.^[193]
February. War of the League of Cambrai begins.
March. A Mamluk fleet defeats the Portuguese at the Battle of Chaul.

1509

3 February. The Portuguese fleet defeats the Mamluks at the Battle of Diu.
21 April. Henry VIII of England becomes king on the death of his father Henry VII.^[194]
14 May. France defeats Venice at the Battle of Agnadello.
14 September. Ottoman capital devastated by the 1509 Constantinople earthquake.^[195]
(Date unknown). Ottoman Civil War between the sons of Bayezid II, Selim I and Şehzade Ahmed, begins.

1510

July. The League of Cambrai disbands, leaving only France and Ferrara at war with Venice and the Pope.

1511

2–19 January. Papal forces defeat Ferrara at the Siege of Mirandola.
2 July. The Şahkulu rebellion in Anatolia against Ottoman rule is suppressed after three months. Şehzade Ahmed, son of Bayezid II, was tasked with the suppression but instead tried to turn his troops against his father and brother.^[196]

1512

11 April. French and Ferrarese forces defeat the Papal forces at the Battle of Ravenna.
24 April. Selim I becomes sultan of the Ottoman Empire upon the abdication of Bayezid II, who dies on 26 May.^[197]

1513

9 March. Son of Lorenzo de' Medici elected pope, taking the name Leo X.^[198]
24 April. Şehzade Ahmed, brother of Selim I, is defeated at Yenişehir and executed.^[199]
6 June. Milanese and Swiss defeat France at the Battle of Novara.
16 August. Croatians under Petar Berislavić defeat the Ottomans at the Battle of Dubica.

1514

23 August. Selim I defeats the Safavids at the Battle of Chaldiran, placing East Anatolia under Ottoman control for the first time.^[200]
8 September. Lithuania defeats the Principality of Moscow at the Battle of Orsha.^[201]

1515

1 January. Francis I of France becomes king, succeeding Louis XII who died without a legitimate son.^[202]
13 June. Selim I defeats Bozkurt of Dulkadir at the Battle of Turnadag. After taking the Ramadanids, all of the Turkish beyliks are under Ottoman control.^[203]

1516

24 August. Selim I defeats the Mamluks at the Battle of Marj Dabiq, beginning the second Ottoman-Mamluk War.^[204]
August. Damascus Eyalet established as an administrative division of the Ottoman Empire.^[205]
September/October. Hayreddin Barbarossa and his brother enable the Capture of Algiers.^[206]
17 October. Tuman Bay II becomes the last Mamluk sultan.
28 October. Ottoman forces under Hadım Sinan Pasha defeat the Mamluks at the Battle of Yaunis Khan.
(Date unknown). Piri Reis joins the Ottoman navy as a captain.

1517

22 January. Selim I defeats Tuman Bay II at the Battle of Ridaniya.
30 January. Cairo is captured by the Ottomans after a three day battle bringin the Fall of the Mamluks.
30 January. The Abbasid Caliphate of Cairo under al-Mutawakkil III falls to the Ottomans. He was the last of the Cairo caliphs and was succeeded by Selim I as the founder of the Ottoman Caliphate.^[207] ^[208]
After February. The first world map, the Piri Reis map, is presented to Selim I.^[209]
15 March. The Fifth Council of the Lateran ends.^[210]
12 April. The Ottomans annex the city after their successful Siege of Jeddah.^[211]
(Date unknown). Leo X plans a crusade against the Ottomans.

1518

October. Treaty of London, led by Thomas Wolsey, unites the kingdoms of western Europe in the wake of the Ottoman threat.^[212]
January–May. Ottoman admiral Oruç Barbarossa engineers the Fall of Tlemcen.

1519

28 June. Charles V of Spain elected as Holy Roman Emperor.^[213]
November. Regency of Algiers asks to join the Ottoman Empire.^[214]
(Date unknown). The first of Celali rebellions in Anatolia begins.^[215]

1520

30 September. The reign of Suleiman I (the Magnificent) begins.^[216]

1521

27 January. Suleiman I suppresses a revolt by Janbirdi al-Ghazali, the first governor of Ottoman Damascus.^[217]
18 May. The campaigns of Suleiman I begin.
29 August. After a two-month assault, Suleiman I defeats the Hungarians at the Siege of Belgrade.^[218]

1522

9 January. Adrian VI elected pope. The only Dutch pope, he will be the last non-Italian elected for more than 450 years.^[219]
26 June. The second Siege of Rhodes by the Ottomans begins.
22 December. Hospitaller Rhodes falls to Suleiman I.

1523

1 January. Hospitallers withdraw from Rhodes.^[220]
27 June. Pargali Ibrahim Pasha is appointed as Grand Vizier by Suleiman I.^[221]
19 November. Clement VII is elected pope.^[222]

1526

29 August. Suleiman I defeats Louis II of Hungary at the Battle of Mohács. Louis II dies as he retreats.^[223]

1527

6 May. Mutinous troops of the Holy Roman Empire cause the Sack of Rome.^[224]
8 June. The Kalender Çelebi rebellion is crushed by Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha.
27 September. Ferdinand I of Austria defeats John Zápolya and takes over most of Hungary at the Battle of Tarcal. John appeals to the Ottomans for help.^[225]

1528

(Date unknown) Genoese admiral Andrea Doria enters the service of Charles V.^[226]

1529

27 September – 15 October. Suleiman I conducts the unsuccessful Siege of Vienna.
29 May. Hayreddin Barbarossa enables the Capture of Peñón of Algiers.

1530

(Date unknown). Malta granted to the Knights of Rhodes by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. After resettlement, they becoming the Knights of Malta, with their capital Birgu within what was then known as Hospitaller Malta.^[227]

1531

16 February. The Portuguese fail to take the city in the first Siege of Diu.

1532

5–30 August. The Hungarians stop the Ottoman advance at the Siege of Güns (Közseg).
(Date unknown). Ottoman–Safavid War of 1532–1555 begins.

1533

22 July. Treaty of Constantinople signed between the Ottomans and Austria, a fief of the Holy Roman Empire, concerning the fate of Hungary. János Zápolya becomes king under the suzerainty of Suleiman I.
(Date unknown). Suleiman I marries Roxelana, a Ruthenian harem girl.^[228] She is the first Haseki Sultan and the marriage marks beginning the Sultanate of Women.

1534

May. Jean de La Forêt becomes the first French ambassador to the Ottoman Empire.^[229]
16 August. Barbarossa is successful in the Conquest of Tunis, taking the city from Hafsid ruler Muley Hasan.
13 October. Paul III elected pope.^[230]
December. As part of the Campaign of the Two Iraqs, Suleiman I succeeds in the Capture of Baghdad.^[231]

1535

1 June. Charles V leads the Reconquest of Tunis, taking the city from the Ottomans. As a result, Barbarossa's fleet is destroyed and nearly 30,000 inhabitants are massacred.^[232]
(Date unknown). Suleiman I begins the rebuilding of the walls around Jerusalem.^[233]

1536

18 February. Franco-Ottoman alliance established and exempts French merchants from Ottoman law. This was one of the first of the Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire.^[234]
5 March. Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha executed on Suleiman's orders after a fallout with Roxelana.

1537

August–September. Suleiman I fails to capture the island at the Siege of Corfu. He does later conquer the islands of Paros and Ios.

1538

24 February. The Treaty of Nagyvárad is declared between Ferdinand I of Austria, future Holy Roman Emperor, and the Ottoman Empire.
18 July. The Truce of Nice establishes peace between Charles V and Francis I.^[235]
6 November. The Ottomans fail in the second Siege of Diu.

1540

September. Gibraltar is sacked by Barbary pirates in the service of the Ottomans. This leads to construction of the defensive Charles V Wall.^[236]
1 October. A Spanish fleet under the command of Bernardino de Mendoza destroys an Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Alborán.

1541

26 April. The Portuguese fail to defeat the Ottomans at the Battle of Suez.^[237]
4 May – 21 August. Beginning the Little War in Hungary, the Ottomans capture the city after the Siege of Buda and establish rule over much of Hungary.^[238]
October–November. The Holy Roman Empire and Spain fail in their Algiers Expedition.^[239]
(Date unknown). Suleiman I seals off Jerusalem's Golden Gate, likely because of a prophecy that the Messiah would return through this gate to Jerusalem.^[240]
(Dates unknown). The Portuguese engage the Ottomans in numerous conflicts including the Battle of Suakin, the Attack on Jeddah and the Battle of El Tor.

1542

8 March. Antoine Escalin des Aimars gains promises of Ottoman aid in a French war against the Holy Roman Empire.^[241]
(Date unknown). The Ottomans repel the Hapsburgs led by at the Siege of Pest.^[242] The siege was led by Joachim of Brandenburg.^[243]

1543

25 July – 10 August. Suleiman I defeats the Hungarians at the Siege of Esztergom.^[244]
6–22 August. The Ottomans under Barbarossa and French forces take the city after the Siege of Nice
3 September. Suleiman I captures the Hungarian coronation city of Székesfehérvár.

1545

(Date unknown). Francis I of France orders the Waldensians punished for heresy resulting in the Mérindol Massacre.^[245]
(Date unknown). Rüstem Pasha defeats Bagrat III of Imereti at the Battle of Sokhoista, the last attempt of the Georgians to stop the Ottoman advance.^[246]

1546

10 November. The third Siege of Diu fails to wrest the city from the Portuguese.

1547

31 March. Henry II of France becomes king after the death of his father Francis I.^[247]
(Date unknown). The Truce of Adrianople signed between Charles V and Suleiman I the Magnificent in which Ferdinand I of Austria and Charles V recognize total Ottoman control of Hungary.
(Date unknown). Piri Reis becomes Admiral (Reis) of the Ottoman navy.

1548

26 February. The Ottomans achieve the Capture of Aden from the Portuguese.^[248]
(Date unknown). Suleiman I and Rüstem Pasha attack Persian in the second campaign of the Ottoman–Safavid War of 1532–1555 and succeed with the Siege of Van.^[249]

1549

29 November. Papal Conclave of 1549 convened after the death of Paul III on 10 November.^[250]

1550

7 February. Julius III elected pope.^[251]
June–September. Spain under Andrea Doria implement the Capture of Mahdia from the Ottomans.^[252]

1551

18 July. The Ottomans and Barbay pirates fail in their attempt to take Malta, but succeed in their Invasion of Gozo.^[253]
Late July. The Portuguese overcome the Ottomans at the Siege of Qatif.
15 August. The Ottomans and Barbary pirates defeat the Knights of Malta and capture the Red Castle of Tripoli after a six-day Siege of Tripoli.^[254]
18 October. The Ottomans under Sokollu Mehmed Pasha begin an unsuccessful siege of the Hungarian Timișoara Fortress.^[255]

1552

9 July. In Hungary, Drégely Castle is attacked by the Ottoman Empire under Hadim Ali Pasha. Castle captain György Szondy and 140 soldiers die defending the castle against 8,000 Turks.^[256]
27 July. At the Siege of Temesvar, the Ottomans under Kara Ahmed Pasha capture the Timișoara Fortress.^[257]
August. The Ottomans are successful in the Capture of Muscat from the Portuguese, beginning the Ottoman campaign against Hormuz.^[258]
September. The Ottomans led by Kara Ahmed Pasha are unsuccessful in capturing Eger Castle in the Siege of Eger.

1553

6 October. Şehzade Mustafa is executed on the orders of his father Suleiman I.^[259]
24 August. The island is temporarily occupied by the Ottomans after a successful Invasion of Corsica.
August. The Ottomans are forced to retreat at the Battle of the Strait of Hormuz.^[260]
(Date unknown) Mahdia is abandoned by Spain and reoccupied by the Ottomans.

1554

7 January. Fez becomes and Ottoman vassal after the Capture of Fez.^[261]
25 July. Maximilian II of Austria elected as Holy Roman Emperor.^[262]
10–25 August. The Ottomans are defeated by the Portuguese at the Battle of the Gulf of Oman.

1555

23 May. Paul IV is elected pope. He succeeded Marcellus II who served for three weeks after the death of Julius III on 23 March.^[263]
29 May. The Peace of Amasya ends the Ottoman–Safavid War.^[264]

1559

10 July. Francis II of France becomes king after the accidental death of his father Henry II.^[265]
November. The Portuguese defeat the Ottomans after the five-month Siege of Bahrain.^[266]
25 December. Pius IV elected pope.^[267]

1560

11 May. The Ottomans under admiral Piyale Pasha defeat a Christian fleet at the Battle of Djerba.^[268]
5 December. Charles IX of France becomes king upon the death of his brother Francis II.^[269]
(Date unknown). A Portuguese fleet is defeated at the Battle of Kamaran by an Ottoman fleet under Sefer Reis.^[270]

1561

25 October. While under the protection of Tahmasp I,^[271] Ottoman prince Şehzade Bayezid is executed by orders of his father.^[272]

1565

18 May – 11 September. The Ottomans fail to take the island in the Great Siege of Malta.
December. The Mariovo and Prilep rebellion in Rumelia is suppressed by the Ottomans.^[273]

1566

7 January. Pius V elected pope.^[274]
April. Chios was captured from the Genoese after their surrender to Ottoman admiral Piyale Pasha.^[275]
6 September. Suleiman I dies at Turbék, en route to the fortress at Szigetvár.
8 September. The Ottomans capture the city and fortress in the Siege of Szigetvár, joining it to the Budin Eyalet.
7 September. Selim II becomes Ottoman sultan. His seven brothers had died at this point, either by natural causes or on the orders of their father.
(Date unknown). Pius V expels prostitutes from Rome and the Papal States.^[276]

1568

Early. Marcantonio Barbaro appointed Venetian bailo of Constantinople (ambassador to the Ottoman Empire).^[277]
21 February. Treaty of Adrianople concluded between Maximilian II and Selim II.
24 December. The second Rebellion of the Alpujarras begins.
27 September (estimated). The Great Fire of Constantinople devastates the city, as reported by Marcantonio Barbaro.^[278]

1569

(Date unknown). The Capitulation of 1536 is renewed, exempting French merchants from Ottoman law and allowing them to travel, buy and sell throughout the sultanate and to pay low customs duties on French imports and exports.^[279]

1570

27 June. Ottomans set sail for Cyprus, beginning the Ottoman–Venetian War of 1570–1573.
1 July. Ottoman Cyprus established.
9 September. Piali Pasha besieges the city, resulting in the Massacre in Nicosia.
17 September. The Ottomans begin the Siege of Famagusta, the last Christian stronghold in Cyprus.

1571

March. Suppression of the second Rebellion of the Alpujarras results in the expulsion of most Muslims from Spain.
24 May. Ottomans and Crimeans under Devlet I Giray raid the city of Moscow resulting in the Fire of Moscow.^[280]
25 May. The Holy League of 1571 formed to defeat the Ottomans.^[281]
5 August. Siege of Famagusta ends, bringing Cyprus completely under Ottoman control.
7 October. Spanish, Venetian, and Papal naval forces under Don John of Austria, defeat the Ottoman fleet of Müezzinzade Ali Pasha at the Battle of Lepanto.^[282]

1572

9 June. Henry III of Navarre becomes king and later, in 1589, becomes king of France (as Henry IV).^[283]

1573

7 March. The Ottoman–Venetian War is ended by a peace treaty, confirming the transfer of control of Cyprus from the Republic of Venice to the Ottoman Empire.

1574

30 May. Henry III of France becomes king upon the death of his brother Charles IX. He was also King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1573 to 1575. He was the last king of the Capetian house of Valois.^[284]
12 July – 13 September. The Ottomans are successful in their Conquest of Tunis.
15 December. Selim II dies.
27 December. Murad III accends to the Ottoman throne after strangling his four younger brother five days earlier.^[285]

1577

3 October. Ottoman forces led by Ferhad Pasha Sokolović begin the Siege of Gvozdansko against Croatia.^[286]

1578

13 January. The Croatian fort of Gvozdansko falls to the Ottomans.
March. The Ottomans and Algerians place Abd al-Malik on the Moroccan throne with their Capture of Fez.^[287]
9 August. Lala Mustafa Pasha launches his Caucasian Campaign with the Battle of Çıldır.^[288] This is the beginning of the Ottoman–Safavid War of 1578–1590.

1580

9–11 May 1583. The Ottomans defeat the Safavids in the Battle of Torches.
24 April 1585. Sixtus V elected pope, with ambitions of the annihilation of the Turks, the conquest of Egypt, the transport of the Holy Sepulchre to Italy.^[289]
2 August 1589. Henry III of France is assassinated and succeeded by Henry IV of France, then king of Aragon. He was the first of the House of Bourbon.

1590

21 March. The Treaty of Constantinople ends the Ottoman–Safavid War.

1592

30 January. Clement VIII elected pope.^[290]
10–19 June. The Ottomans are successful in their Siege of Bihać.^[291]
11 September. Elizabeth I of England establishes diplomatic relations with the Ottoman Empire with the chartering of the Levant Company.^[292]

1593

22 June. Croatia defeats the Ottomans at the Battle of Sisak.^[293]
29 July. The Long Turkish War begins.

1594

November. Clement VIII creates the Holy League of 1594 to counter the Turks.

1595

16 January. Mehmet III accession to throne.^[294]

1596

23–26 October. The Ottomans defeat a combined Habsburg-Transylvanian force at the Battle of Keresztes.

17th century

1603

26 September. The Ottoman–Safavid War begins, to last fifteen years.^[295]
22 December. Ahmed I becomes Ottoman sultan.

1648

8 August. Mehmed IV becomes Ottoman sultan.

1683

14 July – 12 September. Western forces defeat the Ottomans at the Battle of Vienna, the turning point for Ottoman expansion into Europe.^[296]

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Notes and References

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https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191737640.timeline.0001 Timeline: Ottoman Empire, c. 1285 – 1923
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