Christian socialism explained

Christian socialism is a religious and political philosophy that blends Christianity and socialism, endorsing socialist economics on the basis of the Bible and the teachings of Jesus.[1] Many Christian socialists believe capitalism to be idolatrous and rooted in the sin of greed.[2] Christian socialists identify the cause of social inequality to be the greed that they associate with capitalism. Christian socialism became a major movement in the United Kingdom beginning in the 19th century. The Christian Socialist Movement, known as Christians on the Left since 2013, is one formal group,[3] as well as a faction of the Labour Party.[4] [5]

According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, socialism is a "social and economic doctrine that calls for public rather than private ownership or control of property and natural resources. According to the socialist view, individuals do not live or work isolated, but live in cooperation with one another. Furthermore, everything that people produce is in some sense a social product, and everyone who contributes to the production of a good is entitled to a share in it. Society as a whole, therefore, should own or at least control property for the benefit of all its members. ... Early Christian communities also practised the sharing of goods and labour, a simple form of socialism subsequently followed in certain forms of monasticism. Several monastic orders continue these practices today."[6]

The Hutterites believe in strict adherence to biblical principles and church discipline, and practices common ownership of nearly all property, resembling a form of communism to secular observers. In the words of historians Max Stanton and Rod Janzen, the Hutterites "established in their communities a rigorous system of Ordnungen, which were codes of rules and regulations that governed all aspects of life and ensured a unified perspective. As an economic system, Christian communism was attractive to many of the peasants who supported social revolution in sixteenth century central Europe", such as the German Peasants' War, and Friedrich Engels came to view Anabaptists as proto-communists.[7]

Other earlier figures viewed as Christian socialists include the 19th-century writers F. D. Maurice (The Kingdom of Christ, 1838),[3] John Malcolm Forbes Ludlow (The Christian Socialist, 1850), Adin Ballou (Practical Christian Socialism, 1854),[8] Thomas Hughes (Tom Brown's School Days, 1857),[9] John Ruskin (Unto This Last, 1862),[10] Charles Kingsley (The Water-Babies, A Fairy Tale for a Land Baby, 1863),[3] Frederick James Furnivall (co-creator of the Oxford English Dictionary),[11] and Francis Bellamy (a Baptist minister and the author of the Pledge of Allegiance in the United States).[12]

History

Biblical age

Elements that would form the basis of Christian socialism are found in the Old Testament, as well as the New Testaments. They include 15:1-5 , 18:7 , 58:2-7 , 2:14, 5:1-6, 31:16-25, 28, 11:10-11, 25: 35-38 , 4:18 , 6:24 , 19:23-24 , 25:40-46 , 28:3-28 , and 31:9 .[13]

Old Testament

The Old Testament had divided perspectives on the issue of poverty. One part of the Biblical tradition held that poverty was judgment of God upon the wicked while viewing prosperity as a reward for the good, stating in the 13:25 that "[t]he righteous have enough to satisfy their appetite, but the belly of the wicked is empty." There are other sections that instruct generosity to the have-nots of society. Mosaic Law instructs followers to treat neighbours equally and to be generous to have-nots.

Some of the Psalms include many references to social justice for the poor.

Amos emphasizes the need for justice and righteousness that is described as conduct that emphasizes love for those who are poor and to oppose oppression and injustice towards the poor. The prophet Isaiah, to whom is attributed the first thirty-nine chapters of the Book of Isaiah known as Proto-Isaiah, followed upon Amos' themes of justice and righteousness involving the poor as necessary for followers of God, denouncing those who do not do these things.

The Book of Sirach, one of the deuterocanonical or biblical apocrypha books of the Old Testament, denounces the pursuit of wealth.

New Testament

The teachings of Jesus are frequently described as socialist, especially by Christian socialists, such as Terry Eagleton.[14] 4:32 records that in the early church in Jerusalem "[n]o one claimed that any of their possessions was their own"; this pattern, which helped Christians survive after the siege of Jerusalem, was taken seriously for several centuries, and was an important factor in the rise of feudalism. While it would later disappear from church history except within monasticism, it experienced a revival since the 19th century.[15] Christian socialism was one of the founding threads of the Labour Party in the United Kingdom and is said to begin with the uprising of Wat Tyler and John Ball in the 14th century.[16]

In the New Testament, Jesus identifies himself with the hungry, the poor, the sick, and the prisoners. is a major component of Christianity and is considered the cornerstone of Christian socialism. Another key statement in the New Testament that is an important component of Christian socialism is Luke 10:25–37 that follows the statement "You shall love your neighbour as yourself" with the question "And who is my neighbour?" In the Parable of the Good Samaritan. Jesus gives the response that the neighbour includes anyone in need, even people we might be expected to shun. The Samaritans and Jews claim descension from different Tribes of Israel, which had faced a schism prior to the events described in the New Testament. This schism led to interethnic and interreligious conflict between the two groups.

Luke 6:20–21 shows Jesus narrating the Sermon on the Plain. It reads: "Blessed are you poor, for yours is the kingdom of God. Blessed are you that hunger now, for you shall be satisfied." Christian socialists cite James the Just, the brother of Jesus, who criticizes the rich intensely and in strong language in the Epistle of James.

During the New Testament period and beyond, there is evidence that many Christian communities practised forms of sharing, redistribution, and communism. Some of the Bible verses that inspired the communal economic arrangements of the Hutterites are found in the book of the Acts.

Church Fathers age

Basil of Caesarea, the Church Father of the Eastern monks who became Bishop of Caesarea, established a complex around the church and monastery that included hostels, almshouses, and hospitals for infectious diseases. During the great famine of 368, Basil denounced against profiteers and the indifferent rich. Basil wrote a sermon on the Parable of the Rich Fool in which he states:

John Chrysostom declared his reasons for his attitude towards the rich and position of attitude towards wealth. He said:

Early modern period

During the English Civil War and the period of the Commonwealth of England (1642–1660), the Diggers espoused a political and economic theory rooted in Christianity that bears a strong resemblance to modern socialism,[17] [18] particularly its anarchist and communist strains.[19] [20] [21] Some scholars believe the Munster Rebellion may have formed an early socialist state.[22]

19th century to present

In "Religion and the Rise of Socialism", historian Eric Hobsbawn argued that the "modern working-class socialist movement has developed an overwhelmingly secular, indeed often militantly anti-religious ideology." At the same time, he and other historians cited examples where this was not the case, particularly Britain in the 19th and 20th centuries, where E. P. Thompson and Stephen Yo said a form of ethical socialism dominated the labour movement. A prominent example of Christian socialism, or socialist Christianity, was Keir Hardie, a founder of the Labour Party in Britain, who said he learnt his "Socialism in the New Testament", where he said he found what he described as his "chief inspiration". Those socialists argued that socialism was the embodiment of the teachings of Jesus, and that it would also rescue the church from Mammon, which they said caused it to have lost its way and become corrupt by siding with the rich and powerful against the poor. According to this view, socialism was not anti-religion but was opposed to those who would use it to support capitalism and the status quo.[23] James Connolly is credited with setting the groundwork for Christian socialism in Ireland.[24] Connolly, who wrote a story for the Christian socialist journal Labour Prophet,[25] [26] said: "It is not Socialism but Capitalism that is opposed to religion ... when the organised Socialist working class tramples upon the Capitalist Class it will not be trampling on a pillar of God's Church but upon a blasphemous defiler of the Sanctuary, it will be rescuing the faith from the impious vermin who make it noisome to the really religious men and women."[23]

In France, Philippe Buchez began to characterize his philosophy as Christian socialism in the 1820s and 1830s. A variety of socialist perspectives emerged in 19th-century Britain, beginning with John Ruskin. Edward R. Norman identifies what he describes as the three "immediate intellectual sources" for mid-century Christian socialism: Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Thomas Carlyle, and Thomas Arnold.[27] The United States also has a Christian socialist tradition.[28] [29] In Utah, it developed and flourished in the first part of the 20th century, playing an important part in the development and expression of radicalism. Part of a larger, nationwide movement in many American Protestant churches, Christian socialism in Utah was particularly strong, and dedicated Christian socialist ministers, such as Episcopal Church bishop Franklin Spencer Spalding of Utah and Congregational minister Myron W. Reed in the American West, were fierce advocates for the miners laboring in the Mountain states.[30] [31]

John Ruskin

The influential Victorian era art critic John Ruskin expounded theories about social justice in Unto This Last (1860). In it, he stated four goals that might be called socialist even though Ruskin did not use the term.

  1. "[T]raining schools for youth, established at government cost."
  2. In connection with these schools, the government should establish "manufactories and workshops, for the production and sale of every necessary of life."
  3. All unemployed people should be "set to work" or trained for work if needed or forced to work if necessary.
  4. "[F]or the old and destitute, comfort and home should be provided."

Although Norman says Ruskin was not "an authentic Socialist in any of its various nineteenth-century meanings", as his only real contact with the Christian socialists came through the Working Men's College, he influenced later socialist thinking, especially the artist William Morris.

Artists

The painters of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood were influenced and sponsored by Ruskin.[32] Morris was a leader of the Socialist League founded in December 1884.[33]

Fabian Society

The Fabian Society was founded in 1884, with Beatrice Webb and Sydney Webb being among its leading members. The Fabians influenced members of the Bloomsbury Group and were important in the early history of the Labour Party in the United Kingdom.[34]

Episcopal Church Socialist League and Church League for Industrial Democracy

Founded by Vida Dutton Scudder in 1911,[35] herself influenced by the Fabian Society, the Episcopal Church Socialist League and its successor, the Church League for Industrial Democracy, sought to ally Christian doctrine with the plight of the working class as a part of the larger social gospel movement that was taking hold of many urban churches across the United States in the early 20th century.[36] [37]

In the November 1914 issue of The Christian Socialist, Spalding stated:

Christian anarchism

Although anarchists have traditionally been skeptical of or vehemently opposed to organized religion,[38] some anarchists have provided religious interpretations and approaches to anarchism, including the idea that glorification of the state is a form of sinful idolatry.[39] Christian anarchists say anarchism is inherent in Christianity and the Gospels,[40] [41] that it is grounded in the belief that there is only one source of authority to which Christians are ultimately answerable—the authority of God as embodied in the teachings of Jesus. It therefore rejects the idea that human governments have ultimate authority over human societies. Christian anarchists denounce the state, believing it is violent, deceitful, and idolatrous when glorified.[42]

The foundation of Christian anarchism is a rejection of violence, with Leo Tolstoy's The Kingdom of God Is Within You regarded as a key text. Tolstoy sought to separate Russian Orthodox Christianity—which was merged with the state—from what he believed was the true message of Jesus as contained in the Gospels, specifically in the Sermon on the Mount. Tolstoy takes the Christian pacifist viewpoint that all governments who wage war, and churches who in turn support those governments, are an affront to the Christian principles of nonviolence and nonresistance. Although Tolstoy never used Christian anarchism in The Kingdom of God Is Within You, reviews of this book following its publication in 1894 appear to have coined the term.[43] [44]

Christian anarchists hold that the Reign of God is the proper expression of the relationship between God and humanity. Under the Reign of God, human relationships would be characterized by divided authority, servant leadership, and universal compassion—not by the hierarchical, authoritarian structures that are normally attributed to religious social order.[45] Most Christian anarchists are pacifists who reject war and the use of violence.[46] More than any other Bible source, the Sermon on the Mount is used as the basis for Christian anarchism.[47] Tolstoy's The Kingdom of God Is Within You is often regarded as a key text for modern Christian anarchism.[48]

Critics of Christian anarchism include both Christians and anarchists. Christians often cite Romans 13 as evidence that the state should be obeyed,[49] while secular anarchists do not believe in any authority including God as per the slogan "no gods, no masters".[50] Christian anarchists often believe Romans 13 is taken out of context,[51] emphasizing that Revelation 13 and Isaiah 13, among other passages, are needed to fully understand Romans 13 text.[52]

Christian communism

Christian communism is a form of religious communism based on Christianity and the view that the teachings of Jesus compel Christians to support communism as the ideal social system. While there is no universal agreement on the exact date when Christian communism was founded, Christian communists say that evidence from the Bible suggests that the first Christians, including the Apostles in the New Testament as described in the Acts, established their own communist society in the years following Jesus' death and resurrection.[53]

Advocates of Christian communism, including other communists, such as Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, and Karl Kautsky, argue that it was taught by Jesus and practised by the apostles themselves.[54] This is generally agreed by historians.[55] The link was highlighted in one of Marx's early writings, which stated that "[a]s Christ is the intermediary unto whom man unburdens all his divinity, all his religious bonds, so the state is the mediator unto which he transfers all his Godlessness, all his human liberty."[56]

Christian democracy

The political movement of Christian democracy espouses some values of Christian socialism in the form of economic justice and social welfare. It opposes an individualist worldview and approves state intervention in the economy in defence of human dignity. Because of its close association with Catholicism, Christian democracy differs from Christian socialism by its emphasis on traditional church and family values, its defence of private property, and by its opposition to excessive state intervention.[57]

Salvatore Talamo, a neo-Thomistic sociologist and Catholic social theorist, when distinguishing between the conservative and Christian democratic views on labour issues, used Christian Socialists for the latter; most Christian democrats avoid using socialism, which is occasionally mainly used by conservatives who attempt to discredit their Christian democratic opponents by using a word with Marxist connotations.[58] Christian democratic parties under various names were formed in Europe and Latin America after World War II. Some, such as in Germany and Italy, became a major political force.[57]

Liberation theology

Liberation theology is a synthesis of Christian theology and socio-economic analyses that emphasizes "social concern for the poor and political liberation for oppressed peoples",[59] as well as "the oppressed and maimed and blind and lame", and bring the "good news to the poor".[60] Beginning in the 1960s after the Second Vatican Council,[61] it became the political praxis of Latin American liberation theologians, such as Gustavo Gutiérrez, Leonardo Boff, and Jesuits like Juan Luis Segundo and Jon Sobrino, who popularized the phrase "preferential option for the poor". This expression was used first by Jesuit Father General Pedro Arrupe in 1968, and the World Synod of Catholic Bishops in 1971 chose as its theme "Justice in the World" for the Second Ordinary General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops.[62] [63]

The Latin American context produced evangelical advocates of liberation theology, such as Rubem Alves,[64] [65] [66] José Míguez Bonino,[67] and C. René Padilla,[68] who called for integral mission in the 1970s, emphasizing evangelism and social responsibility.[69] Theologies of liberation have developed in other parts of the world, such as black theology in the United States and South Africa,[70] [71] Palestinian liberation theology,[72] [73] Dalit theology in India,[74] and Minjung theology in South Korea.[75] [76] [77]

In Catholicism

Communism and socialism have been condemned by Pope Pius IX, Pope Leo XIII, Pope Pius X, Pope Benedict XV, Pope Pius XI, Pope Pius XII, Pope John XXIII, Pope Paul VI, and Pope John Paul II. Many of these popes, Leo XIII and Pius XI in particular, have also condemned unregulated capitalism. Pope Benedict XVI condemned both ideologies, while distinguishing them from democratic socialism, which he praised. The views of Pope Francis on the issue have also been called into question, with some arguing he holds socialist or communist views, while others argue he does not.[78] [79] Pope Francis has denied accusations of him being a communist, including by The Economist,[80] calling them a "misinterpretation" of his views. In 2016, Francis criticized Marxist ideology as wrong but praised communists for "[thinking] like Christians".[81] [82]

19th century

Pope Pius IX criticized socialism in his works Nostis et nobiscum and Quanta cura. In his 1849 work Nostis et nobiscum, he referred to communism and socialism as "wicked theories" that confuse people with what he called "perverted teachings".[83] In his 1864 work Quanta cura, he referred to communism and socialism as a "fatal error".[84] Communism was later further criticized in the 1878 papal encyclical Quod apostolici muneris, by Pope Leo XIII, as he believed that it led to state domination over the freedom of the individual and quelled proper religious worship, inherently turning the top hierarchical power over to the state instead of God. Leo said in this work that socialists steal "the very Gospel itself with a view to deceive more easily the unwary ... [and] distort it so as to suit their own purposes."[85] In the words of academic Catherine Ruth Pakaluk, who refers to the reigns of Pope Pius IX to Pope Pius XII (1850–1950) as the Leonine era, "socialism and communism appear so often in the papal texts of the Leonine era, and with such importance, that they might be described as central foils over and against which the Church is defined and refined over time."[86]

In his 1891 encyclical Rerum novarum, Pope Leo XIII said that socialism acts against natural injustice and destroys the home. He wrote that materialist socialism "must be utterly rejected" by Catholics.[87] [88] Leo XIII strongly criticized capitalism. According to historian Eamon Duffy, it was revolutionary in that, as recounted by theologian Paul Misner, up until that point, the Vatican was allied with reactionary institutions and monarchies, and it was the first major statement of the old institutions to discuss the realities of 19th-century society and endorse the working class's grievances. In the words of Duffy, "For the successor of Pio Nono to say these things ... was truly revolutionary. Leo's attack on unrestriced capitalism, his insistence on the duty of state intervention on behalf of the worker, his assertion of the right to a living wage and the rights of organised labour, changed the terms of all future Catholic discussions on social questions, and gave weight and authority to more adventurous advocates of Social Catholicism."[89]

Many Catholics and non-Catholics used the Christian socialists label for those who wanted to put Rerum novarum into practice. The Knights of Saint Columbanus can trace its origins back to Rerum novarum. The labour movement in Ireland and the United States traces its origins back to Roman Catholicism and the 1891 encyclical Rerum novarum and the various subsequent encyclicals it spawned.[90] [91] The Starry Plough, a symbol associated with socialism in Ireland, was designed with an explicit reference to Catholicism in mind.[92] The right to association, such as the creation of and involvement in trade unions and co-operatives,[93] [94] [95] are regarded as a core part of Roman Catholic social teaching.[96] [97]

20th century

In 1901, Leo XIII in his encyclical Graves de communi re referred to socialism as a "harvest of misery".[98] In 1910, Pope Pius X criticized socialism in his Apostolic letter Notre charge apostolique, predicting that the rise of socialism will be "a tumultuous agitation".[99] In 1914, Pope Benedict XV wrote his encyclical, Ad beatissimi Apostolorum, which reaffirmed the anti-socialist stance of the Catholic Church, calling on Catholics to remember "the errors of Socialism and of similar doctrines", as taught by his predecessors.[100]

In 1931, Pope Pius XI wrote his work Quadragesimo anno, wherein Pius described the major dangers for human freedom and dignity arising from unrestrained capitalism and totalitarian communism.[101] Pius XI called upon true socialism to distance itself from totalitarian communism as a matter of clarity and also as a matter of principle. Communists were accused of attempting to overthrow all existing civil society. It was argued that Christian socialism, if allied to communism, was deemed to be an oxymoron because of this.[102] At the time, Pius XI famously wrote: "Religious socialism, Christian socialism, are contradictory terms; no one can be at the same time a good Catholic and a true socialist."[103]

Some prominent Catholic socialists existed during Pope Pius XI's era, including the American anarchist Dorothy Day who advocated for distributism and the Irish priest Michael O'Flanagan who was suspended for his political beliefs.[104] [105] In 1931, it was clarified that a Catholic was free to vote for the Labour Party, the British affiliate of the Socialist International.[106] Later in 1937, Pius XI rejected atheistic communism in an encyclical entitled Divini Redemptoris as "a system full of errors and sophisms", with a "pseudo-ideal of justice, equality, and fraternity" and "a certain false mysticism",[107] and contrasted it with a humane society (civitas humana).[108]

In 1949, Pope Pius XII issued the Decree against Communism, which declared Catholics who professed communist doctrine to be excommunicated as apostates from the Christian faith.[109] In 1952, when referring to socialism, Pius XII stated: "The Church will fight this battle to the end, for it is a question of supreme values: the dignity of man and the salvation of souls."[110] In 1959, on the question of whether Catholics could "associate themselves with the communists and support them with their course of action", a response from the Holy Office under Pope John XXIII replied: "No."[111] [112] On 15 May 1961, John XXIII promulgated the encyclical Mater et magistra, which reaffirmed the Church's anti-socialist stances. John XXIII wrote:

Nonetheless, Pope John XXIII helped the Christian Democracy party to cooperate with the Italian Socialist Party, as part of the Catholic open up to the left.[113]

In Chile, many Catholics supported the democratic president Salvador Allende, and a group of Catholic priests and faithful founded the group Christians for Socialism, which supported the president and argued that socialism is closer to Catholic values than capitalism. In a meeting organized by the group in April 1972 attended by over 400 Catholic priests and nuns, the participants issued a declaration calling for official Catholic support for socialism, argued that Christians are obliged to involve themselves in the revolutionary process, and called for class struggle.[114] The group also cited the words of Chilean papal prelate Raúl Silva Henríquez, who stated: "There are more of the Gospel's values in socialism than there are in capitalism."[115] In May 1971, Chilean bishops released a pastoral letter "The Gospel, Politics, and Socialisms" (Spanish; Castilian: Evangelio, politica, y socialismos), which stated that while the Catholic Church could not endorse a specific political ideology, socialism is not incompatible with Catholic teaching and might be seen as a direct application of Catholic principles. At the same time, Chilean bishops warned that Catholics must reject variants of socialism that are based on atheism or a materialistic view of history, as these were elements incompatible with the teaching of the Church.[116]

In 1971, Pope Paul VI wrote the Apostolic Letter, Octogesima adveniens. About Christians and socialism, he wrote: "Too often Christians attracted by socialism tend to idealize it in terms which, apart from anything else, are very general: a will for justice, solidarity and equality. They refuse to recognize the limitations of the historical socialist movements, which remain conditioned by the ideologies from which they originated."[117] Pope John Paul II criticized socialism in his 1991 encyclical Centesimus annus. He wrote:

The 1992 Catechism of the Catholic Church, also promulgated by Pope John Paul II, condemns socialism as an atheistic ideology. Paragraph 2425 states:

21st century

In 2004, Joseph Ratzinger, the future Pope Benedict XVI, addressed the Italian Senate, declaring that "[i]n many respects democratic socialism was and is close to Catholic social doctrine; in any case, it contributed toward the formation of a social consciousness."[118] In 2005, Benedict XVI in his encyclical Deus caritas est stated: "We do not need a State which regulates and controls everything, but a State which, in accordance with the principle of subsidiarity, generously acknowledges and supports initiatives arising from the different social forces and combines spontaneity with closeness to those in need. The Church is one of those living forces. ... In the end, the claim that just social structures would make works of charity superfluous masks a materialist conception of man ... a conviction that demeans man and ultimately disregards all that is specifically human."[119] In 2007, Benedict XVI criticized Karl Marx in his encyclical Spe salvi, stating that "[w]ith the victory of the revolution, though, Marx's fundamental error also became evident. He showed precisely how to overthrow the existing order, but he did not say how matters should proceed thereafter. ... He forgot that freedom always remains also freedom for evil. He thought that once the economy had been put right, everything would automatically be put right. His real error is materialism: man, in fact, is not merely the product of economic conditions, and it is not possible to redeem him purely from the outside by creating a favourable economic environment."[120]

Pope Francis has been viewed as having some sympathy to socialist causes, with his frequent criticism of capitalism and of neoliberalism. In 2016, Francis said that the world economy is "[f]undamental terrorism, against all of Humanity",[121] and that "[i]f anything, it is the communists who think like Christians. Christ spoke of a society where the poor, the weak and the marginalized have the right to decide."[82] When later questioned on whether or not he is a communist, Francis responded: "As for whether or not I'm a communist: I am sure that I have not said anything more than what the Church's social doctrine teaches ... maybe the impression of being a little more 'of the left' has been given, but that would be a misinterpretation."[81] In 2013, he said: "The ideology of Marxism is wrong. But I have met many Marxists in my life who are good people, so I don't feel offended."[122]

Movements like liberation theology argue for the compatibility of socialism and Catholicism; they have been rejected by Pope John Paul II and Pope Benedict XVI.[123] [124] António Guterres, a practicing Catholic and Secretary-General of the United Nations since 2017, is the immediate past president of the Socialist International.[125]

In Calvinism

Australia

In Australia, the academic Roland Boer has attempted to synthesize Calvinism and Marxism.[126] In a 2010 interview, he stated that "it became clear to me that within Christianity there is a strong tradition of political and theological radicalism, which I continued to explore personally. Reformed or Calvinist theology did not seem to sit easily with that interest, so I spent many a long year rejecting that tradition, only to realise later that Calvin himself was torn between the radical potential of elements in the Bible and his own conservative preferences."[127]

France

In France, the birthplace of Calvinism, the Christianisme Social (Social Christianity) movement emerged in the 1870s from the preaching of Tommy Fallot.[128] Early on, the movement focused on such issues as illiteracy and alcoholism amongst the poor.[129] After the First World War, Social Christianity moved in two directions — towards pacifism and towards ecumenism. Within the movement emerged conscientious objectors, such as Jacques Martin, Philo Vernier, and Henri Roser, economists pursuing policies that reflected cooperation and solidarity, such as Bernard Lavergne and Georges Lasserre, and theologians like Paul Ricoeur. One of the pastors in the movement, Jacques Kaltenbach, was also to have a formative influence on André Trocmé.

Under the Vichy regime, which had seen the emergence of other forms of witness, particularly the support of internees in the camps and aiding Jews to escape, the movement was reborn to tackle the problems of a changing world. It expressed a Christian socialism, more or less in line with the beginning of a new political left. Political activism was very broad and included the denunciation of torture, East–West debate on European integration and taking a stance on the process of decolonization. It facilitated meetings between employers, managers, and trade unionists to discern a new economic order. After the events of May 68, Calvinism in France became much more left-wing in its orientation.[130]

One doctrinal text produced in the 1960s, Church and Authorities, was described as Marxist in its orientation. Churches now seized for themselves the political and social issues to tackle, such as nuclear power and justice for the Third World. In the early 2000s, the Social Christianity movement temporarily discontinued and its journal Other Times ceased to be published. The movement was relaunched on 10 June 2010 with a petition signed by over 240 people, and now maintains an active presence with its own website.[131] Economically, most Calvinists have supported capitalism and have been in the vanguard of promoting free-market capitalism, and have produced many of France's leading entrepreneurs.[132] With regard to politics and social issues, they are socialists. Three of France's post-war prime ministers have been Calvinists, despite Protestants only making up two percent of the population. Two of these prime ministers have been socialists.

Wales

In Wales, Calvinistic Methodism is the largest non-conformist religion. Its beginnings may be traced to Griffith Jones (1684–1761), of Llanddowror, Carmarthenshire, whose sympathy for the poor led him to set on foot a system of circulating charity schools for the education of children. Until the 19th century, the prevailing thought amongst Welsh non-conformists was that "it would be wiser if the churches limited their activities to those of the altar and not to meddle at all with the state and social questions." This stemmed partly from the traditional nonconformist belief in the separation of church and state.

In his influential sermon Y Ddwy Alwedigaeth (The Two Vocations), Emrys ap Iwan challenged this passive pietism. He wrote: "We must not think, like the old Methodists, Puritans and some Catholics, that we can only seek Godliness outside our earthly vocation." He condemned those Christians who limited godliness to directly religious matters such as Sabbath observance and personal devotion. He declared that all earthly things, including language and culture, have some kind of divine origin. Many of the founders of the Welsh nationalist social-democratic party, Plaid Cymru, were also Calvinists, including John Edward Daniel. Daniel was the theologian credited for bringing neo-orthodoxy to Wales. Daniel argued that God did not create man as an isolated individual but as a social being. The second generation of Plaid Cymru leaders included R. Tudur Jones. His political stance, combined with Calvinist doctrine, created an integrated vision that was significant to the religious life of Christian Wales in the later half of the 20th century. Jones argued that the "state should be a servant, to preserve order and to allow men to live the good life."

In the 21st century, many Calvinist socialists in Wales support same-sex marriage on the grounds that it delivers marriage equality in the eyes of the state, while still allowing churches to follow their own conscience and upholding the traditional Protestant belief in separation of church and state. The Calvinist tradition in Plaid Cymru also influenced its non-violent approach. According to Rhys Llwyd, "[t]he ideal is no fist violence, no verbal violence, and no heart violence. ... Christians ... point to the New Testament example of Jesus Christ clearing the temple. Here there is no suggestion of violence against people; rather the tables are turned as a symbolic act. The life and teaching of Jesus Christ were seen as the foundations of nonviolent direct action [for Plaid Cymru members] ... loving their enemies on the one hand, but not compromising on what they saw as an issue of moral rightness." Plaid Cymru continues to see itself as very much part of the Christian pacifist tradition.

Notable Christian socialist people and groups

See main article: category and Christian socialists. Notable followers of Christian socialism include:

Notable Christian socialist groups and parties include:

Reception

In Britain, Christian socialism is viewed positively by many different backgrounds, ranging from Nonconformists to Roman Catholic, particularly Anglo-Catholic Ritualism.[160] It is viewed critically by some socialists,[161] [162] who reject it as utopian socialism and for its methodology, and by some religious figures and popes,[163] who rejected socialism's compatibility with Christianity due to its perceived atheism and materialism. Continental Reformed Protestant pastor Henri Nick defended it, saying: "It is not socialism that I would criticise, but atheism falsely called social."[164]

Anglo-Catholic Christian socialism was part of Catholic polemic against perceived Protestant individualism and puritanism, which led many anti-Ritualist Protestants to associate Catholicism and socialism.[165] Charles Haddon Spurgeon, an English Particular Baptist preacher, was critical of socialist doctrines, and warned that those who seek socialism "may soon have too much of it". Specifically, he regarded collectivist Christianity as inferior to faith on an individual level. He said: "I would not have you exchange the gold of individual Christianity for the base metal of Christian Socialism."[166] Tommy Fallot, a French Lutheran pastor, argued: "Socialism has drawn a good deal of its program from the Gospel. It seeks to build a society on the pillars of justice, something the Gospel seeks to do as well. In that regard, a condemnation of socialism would represent a condemnation of the Gospel and the prophets."[167]

Views of Christian socialism generally depend on the left–right political spectrum. While Christian leftists argue that Jesus would prioritize the poor and migrant's rights over opposition to abortion, Christian rightists argue he would be against wealth redistribution, illegal immigrants, abortion, and same-sex marriage.[168] The conservative view is reflected by Lawrence Reed, president emeritus of the American libertarian-leaning Foundation for Economic Education, American conservative and evangelical Christian Johnnie Moore Jr.,[169] and Bryan Fischer, an American traditionalist conservative, of the American Family Association, a Christian fundamentalist organization.[170] Opposing this view on the right is Quentin Letts, who said, "Jesus preached fairness — you could almost call him a Lefty".[171]

See also

Bibliography

Further reading

Notes and References

  1. Web site: Williams . Anthony Alan John . March 2016 . Christian Socialism as a Political Ideology . 16 January 2023 . University of Liverpool Repository . University of Liverpool . 5 . Firstly, Christian Socialists based their socialism mainly on the Bible, church teaching and the sacraments, to a far greater extent than any other sources. Secondly, Christian Socialists called for a revolution but were committed to democratic methods, suggesting a synthesis between revolutionary and democratic socialism. In practice this can be sketched out as a three-stage process: first, persuading people of the deficiencies of capitalism and the need for socialism; second, the election of a Labour government / the persuasion of other politicians to adopt socialism; third, the establishment of socialism, brought about by a socialist government and population. Thirdly, Christian Socialists sought to create a society of co-operation and collectivism, equality, democracy and peace ... the concept at the core of Christian Socialism is brotherhood, based on the idea of the universal Fatherhood of God, and that other key concepts – co-operation, equality and democracy – are derived from this. In seeking co-operation, equality and democracy Christian Socialism is not necessarily distinct from other forms of socialism, but it is distinct in drawing upon Christian theology as a basis for these concepts as well as the language to describe a future socialist society. .
  2. Book: McIlhenny . Ryan C. . 16 July 2015. Render unto God: Christianity and Capitalism in Crisis. hardbook. Cambridge. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. 978-1-4438-7705-3.
  3. Encyclopedia: Schmidt . Alvin J. . Christian Socialism . 2012 . 2011 . The Encyclopedia of Christian Civilization . . . 10.1002/9780470670606.wbecc0289 . 9781405157629 . Although Frederick Denison Maurice's father was a Unitarian clergyman, Maurice later joined the Church of England, and in 1834 he became one of its ordained clergy. He was appalled by the widespread poverty, the misery of child labor, and the economic plight of the poor and working class in the 1830s and 1840s. Similar to his acquaintance, John Malcolm Ludlow, he believed that socialism would ameliorate England's socio-economic problems of the economically oppressed. But neither Maurice nor Ludlow wanted socialism, divorced from Christian principles. Socialism, in their opinion, needed the guidance of Christian values. Thus, Maurice coined the term 'Christian socialism' in 1848, as he launched the Christian Socialist Movement. He had another close associate in Charles Kingsley, also an avid proponent of Christian socialism. In 1850, a periodical, The Christian Socialist, was created with Ludlow as editor..
  4. Archived from the original on 1 July 2018.
  5. Encyclopedia: Kurian. Thomas. 2011. Christian socialism. The Encyclopedia of Political Science. Washington, D.C.. CQ Press. 1555. 978-1-933116-44-0.
  6. Web site: Ball. Terence. Dagger. Richard. 30 April 2020. Socialism. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 15 September 2020.
  7. Book: Janzen. Rod. Stanton. Max. 2010. The Hutterites in North America. illustrated. Baltimore. Johns Hopkins University Press. 17. 978-0-8018-9925-6.
  8. Sartwell. Crispin. 1 January 2018. Anarchism and Nineteenth-Century American Political Thought. Brill's Companion to Anarchism and Philosophy. 454–483. 10.1163/9789004356894_018. 978-9-0043-5688-7.
  9. Book: Norman, Edward. 2002. 1987. The Victorian Christian Socialists. paperback. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. 91. 978-0-5215-3051-4.
  10. Book: MacCarthy, Fiona. 1994. William Morris: A Life for Our Time. Faber and Faber. 69–70, 87.
  11. 33298. Furnivall, Frederick James. 2004. 2007. Peterson. William S..
  12. Dorn. Charles. 8 September 2017. How a Socialist Ended Up Writing the Pledge of Allegiance . 16 January 2023 . Fortune.
  13. Web site: Cavanaugh. Clayton. May 29, 2021. No Good Christians are Capitalists . Cavanaugh. January 11, 2023.
  14. Book: Eagleton, Terry . The Gospels: Jesus Christ . 17 October 2007 . Verso Books . 978-1-84467-176-2 . paperback . London.
  15. Book: Flinn, Frank K. . Encyclopedia of Catholicism . 2007 . . 978-0-8160-7565-2 . 173–174.
  16. News: Labour revives faith in Christian Socialism. The Independent. 21 May 1994. 13 January 2023.
  17. Book: Winstanley, Gerrard. Jones. Sandra. 2002. 1649. The True Levellers Standard Advanced: Or, the State of Community Opened, and Presented to the Sons of Men. R. S. Bear. Renascence. 11 January 2023. Digital Repository Unimib. That we may work in righteousness, and lay the Foundation of making the Earth a Common Treasury for All, both Rich and Poor, That every one that is born in the Land, may be fed by the Earth his Mother that brought him forth, according to the Reason that rules in the Creation. Not Inclosing any part into any particular hand, but all as one man, working together, and feeding together as Sons of one Father, members of one Family; not one Lording over another, but all looking upon each other, as equals in the Creation; ... ..
  18. . A common treasury for all: Gerrard Winstanley's vision of utopia . 154 . 5 April 2017 . Martin . Empson . 12 September 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211007013718/https://isj.org.uk/a-common-treasury-for-all/ . 7 October 2021 . live.
  19. Book: Stearns . Peter . Peter Stearns . Fairchilds . Cissie . Lindenmeyr . Adele . Maynes . Mary Jo . Porter . Roy . Roy Porter . Radcliff . Pamela . Pamela Radcliff . Ruggiero . Guido . Guido Ruggiero . 2001 . Encyclopedia of European Social History: From 1350 to 2000 . 3 . . 0-684-80577-4 . 290.
  20. Book: Campbell . Heather M. . 2009 . The Britannica Guide to Political Science and Social Movements That Changed the Modern World . . 978-1-61530-062-4 . 127 - 129.
  21. Johnson . Daniel . Winstanley's Ecology: The English Diggers Today . . 1 December 2013 . 12 September 2021.
  22. Book: Twentieth Century . v. 17 . 1896 . 2023-03-02 . 35-PA4.
  23. Knox . W. W. . October 1988 . Religion and the Scottish Labour Movement c. 1900–39 . Journal of Contemporary History . 23 . 4 . 609–630 . 10.1177/002200948802300406 . 260837. 159655098 . 0022-0094.
  24. Book: Lubienski, Christopher Andrew. James Connolly's Integration of Socialism, Nationalism, and Christianity in the Context of Irish History. 1992. Michigan State University. Department of History.
  25. News: 15 January 2019. Short story in 1894 journal may be lost James Connolly play. 18 January 2023. The Guardian. 7 November 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201107235748/https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2019/jan/15/short-story-in-1894-journal-may-be-lost-james-connolly-play. live.
  26. 1 March 2019. Long-Lost James Connolly Play May Be Found. 18 January 2023. Irish America. 4 December 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201204142031/https://irishamerica.com/2019/03/long-lost-james-connolly-play-may-be-found/. live.
  27. Book: Norman, Edward. 2002. 1987. The Victorian Christian Socialists. paperback. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. 10. 978-0-5215-3051-4.
  28. Spargo. John. John Spargo. 1909. Christian Socialism in America. American Journal of Sociology. 15. 1. 16–20. 10.1086/211752. 0002-9602. 2762617. 145687046. . 18 January 2023.
  29. Book: Brown, William Thurston. 1910. Socialism and Primitive Christianity. Chicago. Charles H. Kerr & Company. 18 January 2023.
  30. McCormick. John S.. Sillito. John R.. 1989. Socialists in Power: The Eureka, Utah Experience, 1907–1925. Weber Studies. 6. 1. 55–67. https://web.archive.org/web/20100706231947/http://weberstudies.weber.edu/archive/archive%20A%20%20Vol.%201-10.3/Vol.%206.1/6.1McCormickSilito.htm. 6 July 2010. 18 January 2023.
  31. Book: McCormick. John S.. Sillito. John R.. 2011. A History of Utah Radicalism Startling, Socialistic, and Decidedly Revolutionary. Logan, Utah. Utah State University Press. 978-0-87421-848-0.
  32. Web site: Pre-Raphaelites: An Introduction . Landow . George P. . 2015 . 1989. The Victorian Web . 4 June 2016.
  33. Web site: Morris's Socialism. Cody . David . 2002 . 1987 . The Victorian Web . 4 June 2016.
  34. Web site: The Fabian Story . Fabian Society . 23 December 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20151225174734/http://www.fabians.org.uk/about/the-fabian-story/ . 25 December 2015 . dead.
  35. Web site: Scudder, Vida Dutton . 22 May 2012 . Episcopal Church . 24 October 2018.
  36. Rossinow. Doug. 2005. The Radicalization of the Social Gospel: Harry F. Ward and the Search for a New Social Order, 1898–1936. Religion and American Culture: A Journal of Interpretation. 15. 1. 63–106. 10.1525/rac.2005.15.1.63. 1533-8568. 10.1525/rac.2005.15.1.63. 144701279 .
  37. Web site: Christian Socialism . 22 May 2012 . Episcopal Church . 24 October 2018.
  38. Web site: Walter. Nicholas. 1991. Anarchism and Religion . Tao.ca. The Anarchist Library. 13 January 2023.
  39. Book: Christoyannopoulos, Alexandre . Alexandre Christoyannopoulos . 2010 . Christian Anarchism: A Political Commentary on the Gospel . Exeter . Imprint Academic . 254 . The state as idolatry.
  40. Book: Christoyannopoulos, Alexandre . Christian Anarchism: A Political Commentary on the Gospel . Alexandre Christoyannopoulos . 2010 . Imprint Academic . Exeter . 2–4 . Locating Christian anarchism ... In political theology ... In political thought ... ..
  41. Book: Christoyannopoulos . Alexandre . Nathan J. . Jun . Shane . Wahl . New Perspectives on Anarchism . 2010 . . 978-0739132401 . 149 . Christian anarchism 'is not an attempt to synthesise two systems of thought' that are hopelessly incompatible; rather, it is 'a realisation that the premise of anarchism is inherent in Christianity and the message of the Gospels'..
  42. Book: Christoyannopoulos, Alexandre . Christian Anarchism: A Political Commentary on the Gospel . Alexandre Christoyannopoulos . 2010 . Imprint Academic . Exeter . 254 . The state as idolatry Christian anarchists accuse other 'Christians' of idolatry not only in their worship of money, but also in their worship of the state ... ..
  43. Christian anarchism. Review of Reviews. 9. 306. 1894. Stead. William Thomas.
  44. Christian anarchism. The Speaker. 9. 254. 1894. Mather & Crowther.
  45. Book: Van Steenwyk, Mark . The UNkingdom of God . 2013 . IVP Books . Downers Grove, Illinois . 978-0830836550.
  46. Web site: Alexandre . Christoyannopoulos . A Christian Anarchist Critique of Violence: From Turning the Other Cheek to a Rejection of the State . March 2010 . Political Studies Association . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110812071723/http://www.psa.ac.uk/journals/pdf/5/2010/1338_1226.pdf . 12 August 2011. 16 January 2023.
  47. Book: Christoyannopoulos, Alexandre . Christian Anarchism: A Political Commentary on the Gospel . Alexandre Christoyannopoulos . 2010 . Imprint Academic . Exeter . 43–80.
  48. Book: Christoyannopoulos, Alexandre . Christian Anarchism: A Political Commentary on the Gospel . Alexandre Christoyannopoulos . 2010 . Imprint Academic . Exeter . 19, 208.
  49. Web site: Christoyannopoulos . Alexandre . Was Jesus an anarchist? . . 17 May 2011. 16 January 2023. The two passages that are most frequently brought up as 'clear evidence' ... to respect civil authorities and to honour secular governments as those whom God has placed in authority ... are Romans 13 and 'render unto Caesar'..
  50. Alexis-Baker . Nekeisha . Embracing God and Rejecting Masters: On Christianity, Anarchism and the State . The Utopian . October 2006 . 5 . The anarchist position on God can be summed up in the popular slogan, 'No God and no masters'. ... If God is indeed a tyrant as Bakunin asserts then the abolition of God and religion are necessary parts of what it means to be anarchist..
  51. Web site: Craig . Kevin . 2010. Romans 13: The Most Disastrously Misinterpreted Scripture in the History of the Human Race . Romans13. 13 January 2023.
  52. Web site: 2007. 'Unlucky 13': Romans 13, Revelation 13, and Isaiah 13... and why the State does not want you to read them together . VFT Online. 13 January 2023.
  53. Acts 2:44, 4:32–37; 5:1–12. Other verses are Matthew 5:1–12, 6:24, Luke 3:11, 16:11, 2 Corinthians 8:13–15 and James 5:3.
  54. Book: Kautsky, Karl . Karl Kautsky . Foundations of Christianity . 1953 . 1908 . Russell and Russell . IV.II. The Christian Idea of the Messiah. Jesus as a Rebel. . http://www.marxists.org/archive/kautsky/1908/christ/ch10.htm#s3. Christianity was the expression of class conflict in Antiquity..
  55. See also Book: Bang, Gustav . Arnold . Petersen . Crises in European History . 24 . . March 2001. Book: Lansford, Tom . Tom Lansford . Communism. Political Systems of the World . 16 May 2011 . 2007 . . 9780761426288 . 24–25 . History of Communism . https://books.google.com/books?id=MjjTt-TITcUC&q=apostles+communist&pg=PA24. Book: von Mises, Ludwig . Ludwig von Mises . Socialism . 16 May 2011 . 1981 . 1951 . . New Heaven . 424 . Christianity and Socialism . 9780913966624 . https://books.google.com/books?id=3GXi4MQQs3IC&q=apostles+communist+acts&pg=PA424. Book: The London Quarterly and Holborn Review, Volume 26 . 10 May 2011 . 1866 . April and July . London . 502 . Rénan's Les Apôtres. Community life . https://books.google.com/books?id=zhoaAQAAIAAJ&q=ananias+punished+death+communism&pg=PA502 . Google Books. Book: Unterbrink, Daniel T. . Judas the Galilean . 10 May 2011 . 2004 . iUniverse . Lincoln . 0-595-77000-2 . 92 . The Dead Sea Scrolls . https://books.google.com/books?id=AhBFPH864P4C&q=ananias+punished+death+communism&pg=PA92 . Google Books. Book: Guthrie, Donald . Donald Guthrie (theologian) . 1975 . 1992 . . 978-0-310-25421-8 . The Apostles . 46 . Grand Rapids, Michigan . 3. Early Problems. 15. Early Christian Communism . https://books.google.com/books?id=uts4VTUm1iEC&q=apostles+communist+acts&pg=PA46 . Google Books. Book: Renan, Ernest . 152 . Origins of Christianity . Carleton . New York . 1869 . VIII. First Persecution. Death of Stephen. Destruction of the First Church of Jerusalem . II. The Apostles . https://books.google.com/books?id=knYRAAAAYAAJ&q=apostles+communist&pg=PA152 . Google Books. Book: Ehrhardt, Arnold . The Acts of the Apostles . 1969. 978-0719003820 . . Manchester . St Peter and the Twelve . 20 . https://books.google.com/books?id=kAbZAAAAIAAJ&q=apostles+communist+calvin&pg=PA20 . Google Books. Book: Boer, Roland . 120 . Political Grace. The Revolutionary Theology of John Calvin . Conclusion: What If? Calvin and the Spirit of Revolution. Bible . 2009 . 978-0-664-23393-8 . Louisville, Kentucky . . https://books.google.com/books?id=HIeLYNEq6zsC&q=apostles+communist+calvin&pg=PA120 . Google Books. Book: Halteman Finger, Reta . 2007 . 39 . Of Widows and Meals. Communal Meals in the Book of Acts . Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. . Cambridge . Reactions to Style and Redaction Criticism . 978-0-8028-3053-1 . https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2RVoa4_qX8C&q=apostles+communist+acts&pg=PA39 . Google Books. Book: Charles John. Ellicott . Edward Hayes . Plumptre . III. The Church in Jerusalem. I. Christian Communism . The Acts of the Apostles . 1910 . London . Cassell . https://books.google.com/books?id=Htk8AAAAIAAJ&q=apostles+communist+acts&pg=PA11 . Google Books.
  56. Book: Jesus in History, Legend, Scripture, and Tradition: A World Encyclopedia . Houlden . Leslie . Leslie Houlden . Minard . Antone . ABC-CLIO . 2015 . 978-1-61069804-7 . Santa Barbara, California . 357.
  57. Web site: Christian Democracy . 2015 . Britannica Academic . Encyclopædia Britannica . 25 December 2015.
  58. Book: Agócs, Sándor . 1 December 2017. also https://digital.library.wayne.edu/item/wayne:WayneStateUniversityPress4253 and https://books.google.com/books?id=waU7DwAAQBAJ--> The Troubled Origins of the Italian Catholic Labor Movement, 1878–1914 . Wayne State University Press . Introduction. 978-0-8143-4331-9 .
  59. Book: Cook, Chris. 1998. Dictionary of Historical Terms. 2nd. Gramercy. 203. 978-0-517188712.
  60. Book: Alves, Rubem . 1988 . Towards a Theology of Liberation . paperback. Princeton Theological Seminary. 978-0-8834-4542-6.
  61. Web site: Liberation theology is still alive and well. Altmann. Walter. 18 November 2009. Ekklesia . 23 January 2010.
  62. Dault . Lira . January 2015 . What is the preferential option for the poor? . . 80 . 46.
  63. Web site: 17 October 2016 . In 1971, the bishops sounded a call for justice . 10 July 2020 . National Catholic Reporter.
  64. Book: McGrath, Alister E . The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Modern Christian thought . Wiley-Blackwell. 1995. 331. 0-631-19896-2. See also "Christian socialism".
  65. Linhares . Bruno J . Princeton Theological Seminary and the Birth of Liberation Theology . Koinonia . 19 . 85–105 . Princeton Theological Seminary . Princeton . 2007 . 1047-1057 .
  66. Web site: Rubem Alves – Liberation Theology Pioneer . Critical Therapy Center . New York . 19 July 2014 . 21 May 2020.
  67. Book: McKim, Donald K. . The Bible in Theology and Preaching . 5 May 1999 . Wipf and Stock Publishers . 170. 978-1-57910-244-9 .
  68. Book: Carter, Jason A. . Hutchinson . Mark P. . The Oxford History of Protestant Dissenting Traditions. V: The Twentieth Century: Themes and Variations in a Global Context . 2018 . Oxford University Press . Oxford . 978-0-19-870225-2 . 214 . https://books.google.com/books?id=yrNwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA214 . Preaching in the Global South.
  69. News: Kirkpatrick . David C. . Died: C. René Padilla, Father of Integral Mission . 27 April 2021 . Christianity Today . 27 April 2021.
  70. Book: Bongmba, Elias . The Oxford encyclopedia of African thought . 2010 . . Abiola Irele, Biodun Jeyifo . 978-0-19-533473-9 . 1 . New York . 46–53 . African Theology . 428033171 . Liberation, contextual, and black theologies are prophetic theologies that emerged in South African in response to the long domination under apartheid ... the Black Consciousness Movement and Black Theology in the United States provided inspiration to the development of black theology in South Africa. . 14 January 2023.
  71. Book: Howard, C. . Black Theology as Mass Movement . 2014-04-16 . Springer . 978-1-137-36875-1 . 95.
  72. Book: Wessels, Antonie . Arab and Christian? Christians in the Middle East . Kok Pharos Publishing House . 1995 . 978-90-390-0071-7 . Kampen, Netherlands . 203–227.
  73. Web site: Ateek . Naim . Naim Ateek . 24 March 2014 . Land and Liberation: An Interview with Reverend Naim Ateek . 29 October 2016 . Shalom Rav . Rosen . Brant . Brant Rosen.
  74. Book: Rao, Anand . Soteriologies of India and Their Role in the Perception of Disability: A Comparative Transdisciplinary Overview with Reference to Hinduism and Christianity in India . LIT Verlag . 2004 . 3-8258-7205-X . Berlin-Hamburg-Münster . 232 . 54973643.
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  76. Book: Suh, David Kwang-sun . The Korean Minjung in Christ . 15 August 2000 . Wipf and Stock Publishers . 978-1-57910-509-9 . 17.
  77. Web site: Dabashi . Hamid . Hamid Dabashi . 6 January 2020 . Decolonising Jesus Christ: The Figure of Jesus Christ Goes Way Beyond the Image of Him Which Hegemonic European Christianity Imposed on the World . 24 March 2021 . Al Jazeera . Al Jazeera Media Network.
  78. News: Hale . Christopher . Bernie Sanders is wrong: Pope Francis is no socialist . . 25 February 2016. 14 January 2023.
  79. News: Barnidge . Robert P. Jr. . Against The Catholic Grain: Pope Francis Trumpets Socialism Over Capitalism . . 11 March 2016. 14 January 2023.
  80. Web site: Pullella . Philip . 29 June 2014. Pope Francis: Communists 'stole' the flag of Christianity. https://web.archive.org/web/20140707010649/http://blogs.reuters.com/faithworld/2014/06/29/pope-francis-says-communists-are-closet-christians-whove-stolen-our-flag/. dead. 7 July 2014. Reuters Edition International. 27 December 2020.
  81. Web site: Johnson . Garrett . Criticised for Being Communist or to the Left, Here's Pope Francis' Response . Catholic Link . 20 May 2016. 14 January 2023.
  82. Web site: Pope: 'It is the Communists Who Think Like Christians' . Skojec . Steve . OnePeterFive . 11 November 2016 . 8 September 2018 .
  83. Pope Pius IX (1849). Nostis et nobiscum. No. 6.
  84. Pope Pius IX (1864). Quanta cura. No. 4.
  85. Pope Leo XII (1878). Quod apostolici muneris. No. 5.
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  87. Pope Leo XIII (1891). Rerum novarum. No. 4–5, 14–15.
  88. Web site: Tanis . Bethany . 2009 . The 'Great Church Crisis,' Public Life, and National Identity in late-Victorian and Edwardian Britain . 16 January 2023 . eScholarship@BC . Boston College University Libraries . 50 . The turning point in Roman Catholic social thought occurred in 1891 with the publication of Pope Leo XIII's encyclical Rerum Novarum, in which attacked unrestricted capitalism and supported the rights of workers to organize, although warning against materialist socialism and labor strikes..
  89. Book: Beckett, Paul . Labour Rights and the Catholic Church: The International Labour Organisation, the Holy See and Catholic Social Teaching . 13 April 2021 . Routledge . 978-1-000-37784-2 . 1 . London . 63–64.
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  92. Web site: The Starry Plough Flag. Irish Studies. 2018. 5 August 2020.
  93. Web site: Kerr. David. Pope Benedict: cooperatives help humanize the economy. 10 December 2011. 5 August 2020. Catholic News Agency.
  94. Web site: 20 March 2015. Pope Francis calls for co-operatives to build a more honest economy . 5 August 2020. International Cooperative Alliance.
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  97. Web site: 13 May 2016. Catholic social teachings call to the dignity of creation. 5 August 2020. National Catholic Reporter.
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  99. Pope Pius X (1910). Notre charge apostolique.
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  104. Book: McKay. Iain. 1 April 2008. An Anarchist FAQ. 1. Oakland, California. AK Press. 75. 978-1902593906.
  105. Book: Moran, James . 21 November 2013. The Theatre of Sean O'Casey . paperback. London. A&C Black . 130. 978-1-4081-7535-4. See also "Fr. Michael O'Flanagan, letters, 1915–1920". Letter from Bishop Bernard Coyne to Father Michael O'Flanagan.
  106. News: 18 June 1931 . Says Pope Puts No Bar on Joining Laborites; Cardinal Bourne Says Britons Are Free to Enter Party and Be Guided by Conscience . 7 . The New York Times . 14 January 2023 . 0362-4331.
  107. Encyclopedia: La condanna dei comunisti del 1949. Traccani. Cristiani d'Italia. Ruggieri. Giuseppe. 2011. it. August 28, 2016.
  108. Book: Scholsser, Stephen. Reproach vs. Rapprochement. 50 Years On: Probing the Riches of Vatican II. xlviii. David Schultenover. Liturgical Press. 2015. 9780814683019. 27 August 2016.
  109. News: 14 July 1949. Papal Decree Against Communism. The New York Times. 17 May 2021. 0362-4331.
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  117. Web site: Pope Paul VI. 14 May 1971. Octogesima Adveniens. 17 May 2021. The Holy See.
  118. Web site: Pera. Marcello. Ratzinger. Joseph. 13 May 2004. Without Roots: The West, Relativism, Christianity, Islam. Catholic Education. 15 September 2020.
  119. Web site: Pope Benedict XVI . Deus caritas est . 25 December 2005 . The Holy See . 14 January 2023.
  120. Web site: Pope Benedict XVI. 30 November 2007. Spe salvi. The Holy See. 14 January 2023.
  121. Web site: Pope Francis: Capitalism is 'Terrorism Against All of Humanity' . Knight . Nika . Common Dreams . 2 August 2016 . 8 September 2018 .
  122. News: Pope says he is not a Marxist, but defends criticism of capitalism . Lizzy . Davies . 15 December 2013 . . 28 May 2015.
  123. News: The Case Against Liberation Theology. The New York Times. 21 October 1984. 11 January 2023.
  124. News: Benedict XVI: Liberation Theology was mere 'millenarism' that would have no justification today. . . 9 May 2007. 11 January 2023.
  125. News: Borger. Julian . Chrisafis. Angelique . 1 January 2017 . Will António Guterres be the UN's best ever secretary general? . 18 January 2023 . The Guardian.
  126. Web site: Professor Roland Boer. dead. University of Newcastle. 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20180925115921/https://www.newcastle.edu.au/profile/roland-boer. 25 September 2018. 21 January 2023. 'There is a tradition within Marxism of engagement with religion that is usually characterised as atheistic and disinterested, but I argue there is a continuous stream of major Marxist figures who have written on questions of religion and engaged specifically with the Bible or with theological debate,' Boer said. 'Some people contend that Marxism borrowed its main ideas from Christianity and Judaism and reconstructed them as secular ideology, but I think that is extremely simplistic – the relationship is much more complex.'. See also Web site: 13 December 2013 . Left of his field . 28 November 2022 . Newcastle.edu.au . Newcastle University . 31 March 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220331231902/https://www.newcastle.edu.au/highlights/our-researchers/education-arts/humanities-social-science/left-of-his-field . dead .
  127. Web site: An Interview with Roland Boer (On Marxism and Theology) . Oudshoorn . Dan . 24 December 2010 . On Journeying with those in Exile . 4 June 2016.
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  161. Web site: Tanis . Bethany . 2009 . The 'Great Church Crisis,' Public Life, and National Identity in late-Victorian and Edwardian Britain . 16 January 2023 . eScholarship@BC . Boston College University Libraries . 41. The chapter also briefly examines the impact of Christian Socialism on the Labour Movement and the hostility of some of the Independent Labour Party's founders, including Keir Hardie and J. Bruce Glasier to both Ritualism and Roman Catholicism, which they associated with the upper-class..
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  163. Web site: Williams . Anthony Alan John . March 2016 . Christian Socialism as a Political Ideology . 16 January 2023 . University of Liverpool Repository . University of Liverpool . 66 . This rejection of socialism was the Vatican’s consistent position: Pope Pius IX had rejected socialism and communism in his Syllabus Errorum (the Syllabus of Errors) in 1864, as did Pius XI in Quadragessimo anno, or In the Fortieth Year, so called because the encyclical was written in 1931, forty years after the publication of Rerum novarum (and also a year after the death of Wheatley). Indeed Pius XI was specific in his condemnation: 'Whether socialism be considered as a doctrine, or as a historical fact, or as a 'movement', if it really remains socialism, it cannot be brought into harmony with the dogmas of the Catholic Church ... 'Religious socialism', 'Christian socialism' are expressions implying a contradiction in terms. No one can be at the same time a sincere Catholic and a true socialist'..
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