Chile Explained

Conventional Long Name:	Republic of Chile
Common Name:	Chile
Coa Size:	115
National Motto:	Spanish; Castilian: Por la razón o la fuerza ("By reason or by force")
National Anthem:	Spanish; Castilian: [[National Anthem of Chile|Himno Nacional de Chile]] ("National Anthem of Chile")
Map Width:	260px
Capital:	Santiago^a
Largest City:	capital
Languages Type:	National language
Languages:	Spanish
Languages2 Type:	Other spoken languages
Religion Ref:	^[1]
Religion Year:	2021
Government Type:	Unitary presidential republic
Leader Title1:	President
Leader Title2:	President of the Senate
Leader Title3:	President of the Chamber of Deputies
Leader Title4:	President of Supreme Court
Upper House:	Senate
Sovereignty Type:	Independence
Sovereignty Note:	from Spain
Established Event1:	Government Junta
Established Date1:	18 September 1810
Established Event2:	Declared
Established Date2:	12 February 1818
Established Event3:	Recognized
Established Date3:	25 April 1844
Established Date4:	11 March 1981
Area Rank:	37th
Area Km2:	756,101.96^[2] ^[3]
Area Sq Mi:	291,930.4
Area Footnote:	^b
Percent Water:	2.1 (as of 2015)^[4]
Population Estimate:	19,629,588^[5]
Population Estimate Year:	2023
Population Estimate Rank:	63rd
Population Density Km2:	24
Population Density Sq Mi:	61
Population Density Rank:	198th
Gdp Ppp:	$597.520 billion^[6]
Gdp Ppp Rank:	45th
Gdp Ppp Year:	2023
Gdp Ppp Per Capita:	$29,934
Gdp Ppp Per Capita Rank:	64th
Gdp Nominal:	$344.400 billion
Gdp Nominal Rank:	45th
Gdp Nominal Year:	2023
Gdp Nominal Per Capita:	$17,253
Gdp Nominal Per Capita Rank:	62nd
Gini Year:	2021
Gini Change:	increase
Gini:	46
Gini Ref:	^[7]
Hdi Year:	2022
Hdi Change:	increase
Hdi:	0.860
Hdi Ref:	^[8]
Hdi Rank:	44th
Currency:	Chilean peso
Currency Code:	CLP
Utc Offset:	−4 and −6
Utc Offset Dst:	-3 and −5
Dst Note:	April to September
Drives On:	Right
Calling Code:	+56
Cctld:	.cl
Footnote A:	Legislature is based in Valparaíso.
Footnote B:	Includes Easter Island and Isla Salas y Gómez; does not include of territory claimed in Antarctica.

Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in western South America. It is the southernmost country in the world and the closest to Antarctica, stretching along a narrow strip of land between the Andes Mountains and the Pacific Ocean. Chile had a population of 17.5 million as of the latest census in 2017 and has a territorial area of 756102km2,^{[9] [3]} sharing borders with Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage to the south. The country also controls several Pacific islands, including Juan Fernández, Isla Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island, and claims about 1250000km2 of Antarctica as the Chilean Antarctic Territory. The capital and largest city of Chile is Santiago, and the national language is Spanish.

Spain conquered and colonized the region in the mid-16th century, replacing Inca rule, but failed to conquer the independent Mapuche people who inhabited what is now south-central Chile. Chile emerged as a relatively stable authoritarian republic in the 1830s after their 1818 declaration of independence from Spain. During the 19th century, Chile experienced significant economic and territorial growth, putting an end to Mapuche resistance in the 1880s and gaining its current northern territory in the War of the Pacific (1879–83) by defeating Peru and Bolivia. In the 20th century, up until the 1970s, Chile underwent a process of democratization^{[10] [11]} and experienced rapid population growth and urbanization,^[12] while relying increasingly on exports from copper mining to support its economy.^{[13] [14]} During the 1960s and 1970s, the country was marked by severe left-right political polarization and turmoil, which culminated in the 1973 Chilean coup d'état that overthrew Salvador Allende's democratically elected left-wing government. This was followed by a 16-year right-wing military dictatorship under Augusto Pinochet, which resulted in more than 3,000 deaths or disappearances. The regime ended in 1990, following a referendum in 1988, and was succeeded by a center-left coalition, which ruled until 2010.

Chile has a high-income economy and is one of the most economically and socially stable nations in South America, leading Latin America in competitiveness, per capita income, globalization, peace, and economic freedom.^[15] Chile also performs well in the region in terms of sustainability of the state and democratic development,^[16] and boasts the second lowest homicide rate in the Americas, following only Canada. Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC), and the Pacific Alliance, and joined the OECD in 2010.

Etymology

There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile. According to 17th-century Spanish chronicler Diego de Rosales,^[17] the Incas called the valley of the Aconcagua Chili by corruption of the name of a Picunche tribal chief (Spanish; Castilian: [[cacique]]) called Tili, who ruled the area at the time of the Incan conquest in the 15th century.^{[18] [19]} Another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili.^[19]

Other theories say Chile may derive its name from a Native American word meaning either 'ends of the earth' or 'sea gulls';^[20] from the Mapuche word Mapudungun; Mapuche: chilli, which may mean 'where the land ends'"^[21] or from the Quechua chiri,^[22] 'cold', or Quechua: tchili, meaning either 'snow'^[23] or "the deepest point of the Earth".^[24] Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic Mapudungun; Mapuche: cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a bird locally known as trile.^{[21] [25]}

The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, and the few survivors of Diego de Almagro's first Spanish expedition south from Peru in 1535–36 called themselves the "men of Chilli".^[21] Ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such.^[19] The older spelling "Chili" was in use in English until the early 20th century before switching to "Chile".^[26]

History

See main article: History of Chile.

Early history

See also: Prehispanic history of Chile and Origin of the Mapuche.

Stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Indigenous peoples settled in fertile valleys and coastal areas of what is present-day Chile. Settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodón and the Pali-Aike Crater's lava tube.^[27]

The Incas briefly extended their empire into what is now northern Chile, but the Mapuche (or Araucanians as they were known by the Spaniards) successfully resisted many attempts by the Inca Empire to subjugate them, despite their lack of state organization.^[28] They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army. The result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river.

Spanish colonization

See main article: Conquest of Chile and Colonial Chile.

In 1520, while attempting to circumnavigate the globe, Ferdinand Magellan discovered the southern passage now named after him (the Strait of Magellan) thus becoming the first European to set foot on what is now Chile. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, who came from Peru in 1535 seeking gold. The Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting.

The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarro's lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the extensive gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chile's central valley, and Chile became part of the Spanish Empire.

Conquest took place gradually, and the Europeans suffered repeated setbacks. A massive Mapuche insurrection that began in 1553 resulted in Valdivia's death and the destruction of many of the colony's principal settlements. Subsequent major insurrections took place in 1598 and in 1655. Each time the Mapuche and other native groups revolted, the southern border of the colony was driven northward. The abolition of slavery by the Spanish crown in 1683 was done in recognition that enslaving the Mapuche intensified resistance rather than cowing them into submission. Despite royal prohibitions, relations remained strained from continual colonialist interference.^[29]

Cut off to the north by desert, to the south by the Mapuche, to the east by the Andes Mountains, and to the west by the ocean, Chile became one of the most centralized, homogeneous territories in Spanish America. Serving as a sort of frontier garrison, the colony found itself with the mission of forestalling encroachment by both the Mapuche and Spain's European enemies, especially the English and the Dutch. Buccaneers and pirates menaced the colony in addition to the Mapuche, as was shown by Sir Francis Drake's 1578 raid on Valparaíso, the colony's principal port. Chile hosted one of the largest standing armies in the Americas, making it one of the most militarized of the Spanish possessions, as well as a drain on the treasury of the Viceroyalty of Peru.^[21]

The first general census was conducted by the government of Agustín de Jáuregui between 1777 and 1778; it indicated that the population consisted of 259,646 inhabitants: 73.5% of European descent, 7.9% mestizos, 8.6% indigenous peoples and 9.8% blacks. Francisco Hurtado, Governor of the province of Chiloé, conducted a census in 1784 and found the population consisted of 26,703 inhabitants, 64.4% of whom were whites and 33.5% of whom were natives. The Diocese of Concepción conducted a census in areas south of the Maule river in 1812, but did not include the indigenous population or the inhabitants of the province of Chiloé. The population is estimated at 210,567, 86.1% of whom were Spanish or of European descent, 10% of whom were indigenous and 3.7% of whom were mestizos, blacks and mulattos.^[30]

A 2021 study by Baten and Llorca-Jaña shows that regions with a relatively high share of North European migrants developed faster in terms of numeracy, even if the overall number of migrants was small. This effect might be related to externalities: the surrounding population adopted a similar behavior as the small non-European immigrant group, and new schools were created. Ironically, there might have been positive spillover effects from the educational investment made by migrants, at the same time numeracy might have been reduced by the greater inequality in these regions. However, the positive effects of immigration were apparently stronger.^[31]

Independence and nation building

See also: Chilean War of Independence, War of the Pacific and Argentine–Chilean naval arms race.

In 1808, Napoleon's enthronement of his brother Joseph as the Spanish King precipitated the drive by Chile for independence from Spain. A national junta in the name of Ferdinand – heir to the deposed king – was formed on 18 September 1810. The Government Junta of Chile proclaimed an autonomous government for Chile within the Spanish monarchy (in memory of this day, Chile celebrates its National Day on 18 September each year).

After these events, a movement for total independence, under the command of José Miguel Carrera (one of the most renowned patriots) and his two brothers Juan José and Luis Carrera, soon gained a wider following. Spanish attempts to re-impose arbitrary rule during what was called the Reconquista led to a prolonged struggle, including infighting from Bernardo O'Higgins, who challenged Carrera's leadership.

Intermittent warfare continued until 1817. With Carrera in prison in Argentina, O'Higgins and anti-Carrera cohort José de San Martín, hero of the Argentine War of Independence, led an army that crossed the Andes into Chile and defeated the royalists. On 12 February 1818, Chile was proclaimed an independent republic. The political revolt brought little social change, however, and 19th-century Chilean society preserved the essence of the stratified colonial social structure, which was greatly influenced by family politics and the Roman Catholic Church. A strong presidency eventually emerged, but wealthy landowners remained powerful. Bernardo O'Higgins once planned to expand Chile by liberating the Philippines from Spain and incorporating the islands. In this regard he tasked the Scottish naval officer, Lord Thomas Cochrane, in a letter dated 12 November 1821, expressing his plan to conquer Guayaquil, the Galapagos Islands, and the Philippines. There were preparations, but the plan did not push through because O' Higgins was exiled.^[32]

Chile slowly started to expand its influence and to establish its borders. By the Tantauco Treaty, the archipelago of Chiloé was incorporated in 1826. The economy began to boom due to the discovery of silver ore in Chañarcillo, and the growing trade of the port of Valparaíso, which led to conflict over maritime supremacy in the Pacific with Peru. At the same time, attempts were made to strengthen sovereignty in southern Chile intensifying penetration into Araucanía and colonizing Llanquihue with German immigrants in 1848. Through the founding of Fort Bulnes by the Schooner Ancud under the command of John Williams Wilson, the Magallanes Region started to be controlled by country in 1843, while the Antofagasta Region, at the time in dispute with Bolivia, began to fill with people.

After the Chilean Civil War of 1829–1830 in which the conservatives won, under the Joaquín Prieto Administration, the Chilean Constitution of 1833 was written and put into effect with high influence from the triple minister Diego Portales.

Two other civil wars happen in Chile in the 1850s, one in 1851 and the other one in 1859.

Toward the end of the 19th century, the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by the Occupation of Araucanía. The Boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina confirmed Chilean sovereignty over the Strait of Magellan but also made the country to renounce to its claims in the rest of East Patagonia after a dispute that started in 1842.^[33] As a result of the War of the Pacific with Peru and Bolivia (1879–83), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third, eliminating Bolivia's access to the Pacific, and acquired valuable nitrate deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence. Chile had joined the stand as one of the high-income countries in South America by 1870.^[34]

On 9 September 1888, Chile took possession of Easter Island by the signing of a mutual will agreement with the local king, thanks to the efforts of the Bishop of Tahiti, Monsignor José María Verdier since the island was constantly attacked by slave merchants. The naval officer Policarpo Toro represented the Chilean Government and Atamu Tekena was the head of the Council of Rapanui. The Rapa Nui elders ceded sovereignty, without renouncing their titles as chiefs, the ownership of their lands, the validity of their culture and traditions and on equal terms. The Rapa Nui sold nothing, they were integrated in equal conditions to Chile.^[35]

The 1891 Chilean Civil War brought about a redistribution of power between the President and Congress, and Chile established a parliamentary style democracy. However, the Civil War had also been a contest between those who favored the development of local industries and powerful Chilean banking interests, particularly the House of Edwards which had strong ties to foreign investors. Soon after, the country engaged in a vastly expensive naval arms race with Argentina that nearly led to war, as well because of the Puna de Atacama dispute.

After the War of the Pacific, Chile became a Naval Power in the Americas, even sending a ship in protests in the Panama crisis of 1885 against the United States intervention in the then Colombian territory. The United States and Chile had the Baltimore crisis which almost became a war as Chile was a potential threat to the intentions of hegemony from the United States in the Western Hemisphere.^[36]

20th century

See also: Parliamentary Era in Chile, 1960 Valdivia earthquake and South American dreadnought race.

In 1902 Chile and Argentina received the result from the arbitral award of the Andes resolved by the British Crown.

In 1903 the Puna de Atacama dispute was solved.

In 1904 Chile and Bolivia sign a Treaty of Peace and Friendship which clarified the border between both countries.

The Chilean economy partially degenerated into a system protecting the interests of a ruling oligarchy. By the 1920s, the emerging middle and working classes were powerful enough to elect a reformist president, Arturo Alessandri, whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress. In the 1920s, Marxist groups with strong popular support arose.

A military coup led by General Luis Altamirano in 1924 set off a period of political instability that lasted until 1932. Of the ten governments that held power in that period, the longest lasting was that of General Carlos Ibáñez del Campo, who briefly held power in 1925 and then again between 1927 and 1931 in what was a de facto dictatorship (although not really comparable in harshness or corruption to the type of military dictatorship that have often bedeviled the rest of Latin America).^{[37] [38]}

By relinquishing power to a democratically elected successor, Ibáñez del Campo retained the respect of a large enough segment of the population to remain a viable politician for more than thirty years, in spite of the vague and shifting nature of his ideology. When constitutional rule was restored in 1932, a strong middle-class party, the Radicals, emerged. It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years. During the period of Radical Party dominance (1932–52), the state increased its role in the economy. In 1952, voters returned Ibáñez del Campo to office for another six years. Jorge Alessandri succeeded Ibáñez del Campo in 1958, bringing Chilean conservatism back into power democratically for another term.

The 1964 presidential election of Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Montalva by an absolute majority initiated a period of major reform. Under the slogan "Revolution in Liberty", the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, and agrarian reform, including rural unionization of agricultural workers. By 1967, however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive. At the end of his term, Frei had not fully achieved his party's ambitious goals.^[39]

In the 1970 election, Senator Salvador Allende of the Socialist Party of Chile (then part of the "Popular Unity" coalition which included the Communists, Radicals, Social-Democrats, dissident Christian Democrats, the Popular Unitary Action Movement, and the Independent Popular Action),^[39] achieved a partial majority in a plurality of votes in a three-way contest, followed by candidates Radomiro Tomic for the Christian Democrat Party and Jorge Alessandri for the Conservative Party. Allende was not elected with an absolute majority, receiving fewer than 35% of the votes.

The Chilean Congress conducted a runoff vote between the leading candidates, Allende and former president Jorge Alessandri, and, keeping with tradition, chose Allende by a vote of 153 to 35. Frei refused to form an alliance with Alessandri to oppose Allende, on the grounds that the Christian Democrats were a workers' party and could not make common cause with the right wing.^{[40] [41]}

An economic depression that began in 1972 was exacerbated by capital flight, plummeting private investment, and withdrawal of bank deposits in response to Allende's socialist program. Production fell and unemployment rose. Allende adopted measures including price freezes, wage increases, and tax reforms, to increase consumer spending and redistribute income downward.^[42] Joint public-private public works projects helped reduce unemployment.^[43] Much of the banking sector was nationalized. Many enterprises within the copper, coal, iron, nitrate, and steel industries were expropriated, nationalized, or subjected to state intervention. Industrial output increased sharply and unemployment fell during the Allende administration's first year.^[43]

Allende's program included advancement of workers' interests,^{[43] [44]} replacing the judicial system with "socialist legality",^[45] nationalization of banks and forcing others to bankruptcy,^[45] and strengthening "popular militias" known as MIR.^[45] Started under former President Frei, the Popular Unity platform also called for nationalization of Chile's major copper mines in the form of a constitutional amendment. The measure was passed unanimously by Congress. As a result,^[46] the Richard Nixon administration organized and inserted secret operatives in Chile, in order to swiftly destabilize Allende's government.^[47] In addition, US financial pressure restricted international economic credit to Chile.^[48]

The economic problems were also exacerbated by Allende's public spending, financed mostly through printing money, and by poor credit ratings given by commercial banks.^[49] Simultaneously, opposition media, politicians, business guilds and other organizations helped to accelerate a campaign of domestic political and economical destabilization, some of which was backed by the United States.^{[48] [50]} By early 1973, inflation was out of control. On 26 May 1973, Chile's Supreme Court, which was opposed to Allende's government, unanimously denounced Allende's disruption of the legality of the nation. Although illegal under the Chilean constitution, the court supported and strengthened Pinochet's soon-to-be seizure of power.^{[45] [51]}

Pinochet era (1973–1990)

See main article: Military government of Chile (1973–90), Miracle of Chile and Beagle conflict. A military coup overthrew Allende on 11 September 1973. As the armed forces bombarded the presidential palace, Allende apparently committed suicide.^{[52] [53]} After the coup, Henry Kissinger told U.S. president Richard Nixon that the United States had "helped" the coup.^[54] In 1970, when Allende was first elected, Henry Kissinger had stated "I don't see why we need to stand by and watch a country go Communist due to the irresponsibility of its own people".^[55]

A military junta, led by General Augusto Pinochet, took control of the country. The years of the regime were marked by human rights violations. Chile actively participated in Operation Condor.^[56] In October 1973, at least 72 people were murdered by the Caravan of Death.^[57] According to the Rettig Report and Valech Commission, at least 2,115 were killed,^[58] and at least 27,265^[59] were tortured (including 88 children younger than 12 years old).^[59] In 2011, Chile recognized an additional 9,800 victims, bringing the total number of killed, tortured or imprisoned for political reasons to 40,018.^[60] At the national stadium, filled with detainees, one of those tortured and killed was internationally known poet-singer Víctor Jara (see "Music and Dance", below).

A new Constitution was approved by a controversial plebiscite on 11 September 1980, and General Pinochet became president of the republic for an eight-year term. After Pinochet obtained rule of the country, several hundred committed Chilean revolutionaries joined the Sandinista army in Nicaragua, guerrilla forces in Argentina or training camps in Cuba, Eastern Europe and Northern Africa.^[61]

In the late 1980s, largely as a result of events such as the 1982 economic collapse^[62] and mass civil resistance in 1983–88, the government gradually permitted greater freedom of assembly, speech, and association, to include trade union and political activity.^[63] The government launched market-oriented reforms with Hernán Büchi as Minister of Finance. Chile moved toward a free market economy that saw an increase in domestic and foreign private investment, although the copper industry and other important mineral resources were not opened to competition. In a plebiscite on 5 October 1988, Pinochet was denied a second eight-year term as president (56% against 44%). Chileans elected a new president and the majority of members of a bicameral congress on 14 December 1989. Christian Democrat Patricio Aylwin, the candidate of a coalition of 17 political parties called the Concertación, received an absolute majority of votes (55%).^[64] President Aylwin served from 1990 to 1994, in what was considered a transition period.

21st century

See also: 2010 Chile earthquake and 2019–20 Chilean protests.

In December 1993, Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle, the son of previous president Eduardo Frei Montalva, led the Concertación coalition to victory with an absolute majority of votes (58%).^[65] Frei Ruiz-Tagle was succeeded in 2000 by Socialist Ricardo Lagos, who won the presidency in an unprecedented runoff election against Joaquín Lavín of the rightist Alliance for Chile.^[66] In January 2006, Chileans elected their first female president, Michelle Bachelet Jeria, of the Socialist Party, defeating Sebastián Piñera, of the National Renewal party, extending the Concertación governance for another four years.^{[67] [68]} In January 2010, Chileans elected Sebastián Piñera as the first rightist President in 20 years, defeating former President Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle of the Concertación, for a four-year term succeeding Bachelet. Due to term limits, Sebastián Piñera did not stand for re-election in 2013, and his term expired in March 2014 resulting in Michelle Bachelet returning to office.^[69] Sebastián Piñera succeeded Bachelet again in 2018 as the President of Chile after winning the December 2017 presidential election.^{[70] [71]}

On 27 February 2010, Chile was struck by an 8.8 earthquake, the fifth largest ever recorded at the time. More than 500 people died (most from the ensuing tsunami) and over a million people lost their homes. The earthquake was also followed by multiple aftershocks.^[72] Initial damage estimates were in the range of US$15–30 billion, around 10% to 15% of Chile's real gross domestic product.^[73]

Chile achieved global recognition for the successful rescue of 33 trapped miners in 2010. On 5 August 2010, the access tunnel collapsed at the San José copper and gold mine in the Atacama Desert near Copiapó in northern Chile, trapping 33 men 700m (2,300feet) below ground. A rescue effort organized by the Chilean government located the miners 17 days later. All 33 men were brought to the surface two months later on 13 October 2010 over a period of almost 24 hours, an effort that was carried on live television around the world.^[74]

2019–20 Chilean protests are a series of country-wide protests in response to a rise in the Santiago Metro's subway fare, the increased cost of living, privatization and inequality prevalent in the country.^[75] On 15 November, most of the political parties represented in the National Congress signed an agreement to call a national referendum in April 2020 regarding the creation of a new Constitution, later postponed to October due to the COVID-19 pandemic.^[76] On 25 October 2020, Chileans voted 78.28 per cent in favor of a new constitution, while 21.72 per cent rejected the change. Voter turnout was 51 percent. An election for the members of the Constitutional Convention was held in Chile between 15 and 16 May 2021.^[77]

On 19 December 2021, a leftist candidate, the 35-year-old former student protest leader Gabriel Boric, won Chile's presidential election to become the country's youngest ever leader.^[78] On 11 March 2022, Boric was sworn in as president to succeed outgoing President Sebastian Piñera.^[79] Out of 24 members of Gabriel Boric's female-majority Cabinet, 14 are women.^[80]

On 4 September 2022, voters rejected the new constitution proposal in the constitutional referendum, which was put forward by the left-leaning Constitutional Convention.^[81] On 17 December 2023, voters rejected a second new constitution proposal in a new constitutional referendum, written by the conservative-led Constitutional Council.^{[82] [83] [84]}

Geography

See main article: Geography of Chile.

See also: Natural regions of Chile and Environmental issues in Chile. A long and narrow coastal Southern Cone country on the west side of the Andes Mountains, Chile stretches over 4300km (2,700miles) north to south, but only 350km (220miles) at its widest point east to west^[85] and 64km (40miles) at its narrowest point east to west, with an average width of 175km (109miles). This encompasses a remarkable variety of climates and landscapes. It contains 756950km2 of land area. It is situated within the Pacific Ring of Fire. Excluding its Pacific islands and Antarctic claim, Chile lies between latitudes 17° and 56°S, and longitudes 66° and 75°W.

Chile is among the longest north–south countries in the world. If one considers only mainland territory, Chile is unique within this group in its narrowness from east to west, with the other long north–south countries (including Brazil, Russia, Canada, and the United States, among others) all being wider from east to west by a factor of more than 10. Chile also claims 1250000km2 of Antarctica as part of its territory (Chilean Antarctic Territory). However, this latter claim is suspended under the terms of the Antarctic Treaty, of which Chile is a signatory.^[86] It is the world's southernmost country that is geographically on the mainland.^[87]

Chile controls Easter Island and Sala y Gómez Island, the easternmost islands of Polynesia, which it incorporated to its territory in 1888, and the Juan Fernández Islands, more than 600km (400miles) from the mainland. Also controlled but only temporarily inhabited (by some local fishermen) are the small islands of San Ambrosio and San Felix. These islands are notable because they extend Chile's claim to territorial waters out from its coast into the Pacific Ocean.^[88]

The northern Atacama Desert contains great mineral wealth, primarily copper and nitrates. The relatively small Central Valley, which includes Santiago, dominates the country in terms of population and agricultural resources. This area is also the historical center from which Chile expanded in the late 19th century when it integrated the northern and southern regions. Southern Chile is rich in forests, grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes. The southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. The Andes Mountains are located on the eastern border.

Topography

Chile is located along a highly seismic and volcanic zone, part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, due to the subduction of the Nazca and Antarctic plates in the South American plate. In the late Paleozoic, 251 million years ago, Chile belonged to the continental block called Gondwana. It was just a depression that accumulated marine sediments began to rise at the end of the Mesozoic, 66 million years ago, due to the collision between the Nazca and South American plates, resulting in the Andes. The territory would be shaped over millions of years by the folding of the rocks, forming the current relief.

The Chilean relief consists of the central depression, which crosses the country longitudinally, flanked by two mountain ranges that make up about 80% of the territory: the Andes mountains to the east-natural border with Bolivia and Argentina in the region of Atacama and the Coastal Range west-minor height from the Andes. Chile's highest peak is the Nevado Ojos del Salado, at 6891.3 m, which is also the highest volcano in the world. The highest point of the Coastal Range is Vicuña Mackenna, at 3114 meters, located in the Sierra Vicuña Mackenna, the south of Antofagasta. Among the coastal mountains and the Pacific is a series of coastal plains, of variable length, which allow the settlement of coastal towns and big ports. Some areas of the plains territories encompass territory east of the Andes, and the Patagonian steppes and Magellan, or are high plateaus surrounded by high mountain ranges, such as the Altiplano or Puna de Atacama.

The Far North is the area between the northern boundary of the country and the parallel 26° S, covering the first three regions. It is characterized by the presence of the Atacama desert, the most arid in the world. The desert is fragmented by streams that originate in the area known as the pampas Tamarugal. The Andes, split in two and whose eastern arm runs through Bolivia, has a high altitude and volcanic activity, which has allowed the formation of the Andean altiplano and salt structures as the Salar de Atacama, due to the gradual accumulation of sediments over time.

To the south is the Norte Chico, extending to the Aconcagua river. Los Andes begin to decrease its altitude to the south and closer to the coast, reaching 90 km away at the height of Illapel, the narrowest part of the Chilean territory. The two mountain ranges intersect, virtually eliminating the intermediate depression. The existence of rivers flowing through the territory allows the formation of transverse valleys, where agriculture has developed strongly in recent times, while the coastal plains begin to expand.

The Central area is the most populated region of the country. The coastal plains are wide and allow the establishment of cities and ports along the Pacific. The Andes maintain altitudes above 6000m but descend slowly in height to 4000 meters on average. The intermediate depression reappears becoming a fertile valley that allows agricultural development and human settlement, due to sediment accumulation. To the south, the Cordillera de la Costa reappears in the range of Nahuelbuta while glacial sediments create a series of lakes in the area of La Frontera.

Patagonia extends from within Reloncavi, at the height of parallel 41°S, to the south. During the last glaciation, this area was covered by ice that strongly eroded Chilean relief structures. As a result, the intermediate depression sinks in the sea, while the coastal mountains rise to a series of archipelagos, such as Chiloé and the Chonos, disappearing in Taitao peninsula, in the parallel 47°S. The Andes mountain range loses height and erosion caused by the action of glaciers has caused fjords. East of the Andes, on the continent, or north of it, on the island of Tierra del Fuego are located relatively flat plains, which in the Strait of Magellan cover large areas. The Andes, as he had done previously Cordillera de la Costa, begins to break in the ocean causing a myriad of islands and islets and disappear into it, sinking and reappearing in the Southern Antilles arc and then the Antarctic Peninsula, where it is called Antartandes, in the Chilean Antarctic Territory, lying between the meridians 53°W and 90°W.

In the middle of the Pacific, the country has sovereignty over several islands of volcanic origin, collectively known as Insular Chile. The archipelago of Juan Fernandez and Easter Island is located in the fracture zone between the Nazca plate and the Pacific plate known as East Pacific Rise.

Climate and hydrography

See main article: Climate of Chile.

The diverse climate of Chile ranges from the world's driest desert in the north—the Atacama Desert—through a Mediterranean climate in the center, tropical in Easter Island,^[89] to an oceanic climate, including alpine tundra and glaciers in the east and south.^[90] According to the Köppen system, Chile within its borders hosts at least eighteen major climatic subtypes.^[91] There are four seasons in most of the country: summer (December to February), autumn (March to May), winter (June to August), and spring (September to November).

Due to the characteristics of the territory, Chile is crossed by numerous rivers generally short in length and with low flow rates. They commonly extend from the Andes to the Pacific Ocean, flowing from East to West. Because of the Atacama desert, in the Norte Grande there are only short endorheic character streams, except for the Loa River, the longest in the country 440 km.^[92] In the high valleys, wetland areas generate Chungará Lake, located at 4500 meters above sea level. It and the Lauca River are shared with Bolivia, as well as the Lluta River. In the center-north of the country, the number of rivers that form valleys of agricultural importance increases. Noteworthy are the Elqui with 75 km^[92] long, 142 km Aconcagua, Maipo with 250 km^[92] and its tributary, the Mapocho with 110 km, and Maule with 240 km. Their waters mainly flow from Andean snowmelt in the summer and winter rains. The major lakes in this area are the artificial lake Rapel, the Colbun Maule lagoon and the lagoon of La Laja.

Biodiversity

See main article: Wildlife of Chile.

The flora and fauna of Chile are characterized by a high degree of endemism, due to its particular geography. In continental Chile, the Atacama Desert in the north and the Andes mountains to the east are barriers that have led to the isolation of flora and fauna. Add to that the enormous length of Chile (over 4300km (2,700miles)) and this results in a wide range of climates and environments that can be divided into three general zones: the desert provinces of the north, central Chile, and the humid regions of the south.

The native flora of Chile consists of relatively fewer species compared to the flora of other South American countries. The northernmost coastal and central region is largely barren of vegetation, approaching the most absolute desert in the world.^[93] On the slopes of the Andes, in addition to the scattered tola desert brush, grasses are found. The central valley is characterized by several species of cacti, the hardy espinos, the Chilean pine, the southern beeches and the copihue, a red bell-shaped flower that is Chile's national flower.^[93]

In southern Chile, south of the Biobío River, heavy precipitation has produced dense forests of laurels, magnolias, and various species of conifers and beeches, which become smaller and more stunted to the south.^[94] The cold temperatures and winds of the extreme south preclude heavy forestation. Grassland is found in East Magallanes Province and northern Tierra del Fuego (in Patagonia). Much of the Chilean flora is distinct from that of neighboring Argentina, indicating that the Andean barrier existed during its formation.^[94]

Some of Chile's flora has an Antarctic origin due to land bridges which formed during the Cretaceous ice ages, allowing plants to migrate from Antarctica to South America.^[95] Chile had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.37/10, ranking it 43rd globally out of 172 countries.^[96]

Just over 3,000 species of fungi are recorded in Chile,^{[97] [98]} but this number is far from complete. The true total number of fungal species occurring in Chile is likely to be far higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7 percent of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered.^[99] Although the amount of available information is still very small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to Chile, and 1995 species have been tentatively identified as possible endemics of the country.^[100]

Chile's geographical isolation has restricted the immigration of faunal life so that only a few of the many distinctive South American animals are found. Among the larger mammals are the puma or cougar, the llama-like guanaco and the fox-like chilla. In the forest region, several types of marsupials and a small deer known as the pudu are found.^[93]

There are many species of small birds, but most of the larger common Latin American types are absent. Few freshwater fish are native, but North American trout have been successfully introduced into the Andean lakes.^[93] Owing to the vicinity of the Humboldt Current, ocean waters abound with fish and other forms of marine life, which in turn support a rich variety of waterfowl, including several penguins. Whales are abundant, and some six species of seals are found in the area.^[93]

Government and politics

See main article: Politics of Chile and Law of Chile.

See also: List of cities in Chile.

The current Constitution of Chile was drafted by Jaime Guzmán in 1980^[101] and subsequently approved via a national plebiscite—regarded as "highly irregular" by some observers^[21] —in September of that year, under the military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet. It entered into force in March 1981. After Pinochet's defeat in the 1988 plebiscite, the constitution was amended to ease provisions for future amendments to the Constitution. In September 2005, President Ricardo Lagos signed into law several constitutional amendments passed by Congress. These include eliminating the positions of appointed senators and senators for life, granting the President authority to remove the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces, and reducing the presidential term from six to four years.^[102]

Chile's judiciary is independent and includes a court of appeal, a system of military courts, a constitutional tribunal, and the Supreme Court of Chile. In June 2005, Chile completed a nationwide overhaul of its criminal justice system.^[103] The reform has replaced inquisitorial proceedings with an adversarial system with greater similarity to that of common law jurisdictions such as the United States.

For parliamentary elections, between 1989 and 2013 the binominal system was used, which promoted the establishment of two majority political blocs -Concertación and Alliance- at the expense of the exclusion of non-majority political groups. The opponents of this system approved in 2015 a moderate proportional electoral system that has been in force since the 2017 parliamentary elections, allowing the entry of new parties and coalitions. The Congress of Chile has a 50-seat Senate and a 155-member Chamber of Deputies. Senators serve for eight years with staggered terms, while deputies are elected every 4 years. The last congressional elections were held on 21 November 2021, concurrently with the presidential election. The Congress is located in the port city of Valparaíso, about 140abbr=off-1abbr=off west of the capital, Santiago.

The main existing political coalitions in Chile are:

Government:

• Apruebo Dignidad (Approve Dignity) is a left-wing coalition that has its origin in the 2021 Chilean Constitutional Convention election. After the success in that election, it held presidential primaries, in which Gabriel Boric (CS, FA) was the winner. It is formed by the coalition Frente Amplio (Broad Front) and the coalition Chile Digno (Worthy Chile) formed by the Communist Party of Chile and other left-wing parties.
• Democratic Socialism is a center-left coalition, successor of the Constituent Unity coalition, itself a successor of the Concertation coalition which supported the "NO" option in the 1988 plebiscite and subsequently governed the country from 1990 to 2010. This pact is formed by the Socialist, for Democracy, Radical, and Liberal parties.

Opposition:

• Chile Vamos (Let's go Chile) is a center-right coalition with roots of liberal conservatism, formed by the parties Renovación Nacional (National Renewal), Unión Demócrata Independiente (Independent Democratic Union) and Evópoli. It has its origins in the Alliance coalition, formed by the main parties that supported the "YES" option in the 1988 plebiscite, although it has used different names since then. It was the ruling coalition during the first and second government of Sebastián Piñera, (2010–2014) and (2018–2022).

In the National Congress, Chile Vamos has 52 deputies and 24 senators, while the parliamentary group of Apruebo Dignidad is formed by 37 deputies and 6 senators. Democratic Socialism is the third political force with 30 deputies and 13 senators. The other groups with parliamentary representation are the Republican Party (15 deputies and 1 senator), the Christian Democratic Party (8 deputies and 5 senators), the Party of the People (8 deputies) and the independents outside of a coalition (5 deputies and 1 senator).

Foreign relations

See main article: Foreign relations of Chile.

Since the early decades after independence, Chile has always had an active involvement in foreign affairs. In 1837, the country aggressively challenged the dominance of Peru's port of Callao for preeminence in the Pacific trade routes, defeating the short-lived alliance between Peru and Bolivia, the Peru–Bolivian Confederation (1836–39) in the War of the Confederation. The war dissolved the confederation while distributing power in the Pacific. A second international war, the War of the Pacific (1879–83), further increased Chile's regional role, while adding considerably to its territory.^[21]

During the 19th century, Chile's commercial ties were primarily with Britain, a nation that had a major influence on the formation of the Chilean navy. The French, influenced Chile's legal and educational systems and had a decisive impact on Chile, through the architecture of the capital in the boom years at the turn of the 20th century. German influence came from the organization and training of the army by Prussians.^[21]

On 26 June 1945, Chile participated as a founding member of the United Nations being among 50 countries that signed the United Nations Charter in San Francisco, California.^{[104] [105]} With the military coup of 1973, Chile became isolated politically as a result of widespread human rights abuses.^[21]

Since its return to democracy in 1990, Chile has been an active participant in the international political arena. Chile completed a two-year non-permanent position on the UN Security Council in January 2005. Jose Miguel Insulza, a Chilean national, was elected Secretary General of the Organization of American States in May 2005 and confirmed in his position, being re-elected in 2009. Chile is currently serving on the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Board of Governors, and the 2007–2008 chair of the board is Chile's ambassador to the IAEA, Milenko E. Skoknic. The country is an active member of the UN family of agencies and participates in UN peacekeeping activities. It was re-elected as a member of the UN Human Rights Council in 2011 for a three-year term.^[106] It was also elected to one of five non-permanent seats on the UN Security Council in 2013.^[107] Chile hosted the Defense Ministerial of the Americas in 2002 and the APEC summit and related meetings in 2004. It also hosted the Community of Democracies ministerial in April 2005 and the Ibero-American Summit in November 2007. An associate member of Mercosur and a full member of APEC, Chile has been a major player in international economic issues and hemispheric free trade.^[39]

Military

See main article: Military of Chile.

The Armed Forces of Chile are subject to civilian control exercised by the president through the Minister of Defense. The president has the authority to remove the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces.^[39]

The commander-in-chief of the Chilean Army is Army General Ricardo Martínez Menanteau. The Chilean Army is 45,000 strong and is organized with an Army headquarters in Santiago, six divisions throughout its territory, an Air Brigade in Rancagua, and a Special Forces Command in Colina. The Chilean Army is one of the most professional and technologically advanced armies in Latin America.^[39]

Admiral Julio Leiva Molina directs the around 25,000-person Chilean Navy,^[108] including 2,500 Marines. Of the fleet of 29 surface vessels, only eight are operational major combatants (frigates). Those ships are based in Valparaíso.^[109] The Navy operates its own aircraft for transport and patrol; there are no Navy fighter or bomber aircraft. The Navy also operates four submarines based in Talcahuano.^{[39] [110]}

Air Force General (four-star) Jorge Rojas Ávila heads the 12,500-strong Chilean Air Force. Air assets are distributed among five air brigades headquartered in Iquique, Antofagasta, Santiago, Puerto Montt, and Punta Arenas. The Air Force also operates an airbase on King George Island, Antarctica. The Air Force took delivery of the final two of ten F-16s, all purchased from the U.S., in March 2007 after several decades of U.S. debate and previous refusal to sell. Chile also took delivery in 2007 of a number of reconditioned Block 15 F-16s from the Netherlands, bringing to 18 the total of F-16s purchased from the Dutch.^[39]

After the military coup in September 1973, the Chilean national police (Carabineros) were incorporated into the Defense Ministry. With the return of democratic government, the police were placed under the operational control of the Interior Ministry but remained under the nominal control of the Defense Ministry. Gen. Gustavo González Jure is the head of the national police force of 40,964^[111] men and women who are responsible for law enforcement, traffic management, narcotics suppression, border control, and counter-terrorism throughout Chile.^[39]

In 2017, Chile signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.^[112]

Chile is the 64th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 Global Peace Index.^[113]

Administrative divisions

See main article: Administrative divisions of Chile. In 1978 Chile was administratively divided into regions,^[114] and in 1979 subdivided into provinces and these into communes.^{[115] [116]} In total the country has 16 regions,^{[117] [118]} 56 provinces and 348 communes.^[119]

Each region was designated by a name and a Roman numeral assigned from north to south, except for the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which did not have a number. The creation of two new regions in 2007, Arica and Parinacota (XV) and Los Ríos (XIV), and a third region in 2018, Ñuble (XVI) made this numbering lose its original order meaning.

Administrative divisions of Chile
Region	Population	Area (km^2)	Density	Capital
	224 548	16 873,3	13,40
	324 930	42 225,8	7,83	Iquique
	599 335	126 049,1	4,82	Antofagasta
	285 363	75 176,2	3,81	Copiapó
	742 178	40 579,9	18,67	La Serena
	1 790 219	16 396,1	110,75	Valparaíso
	7 036 792	15 403,2	461,77	Santiago
	908 545	16 387	54,96	Rancagua
	1 033 197	30 296,1	34,49	Talca
	480 609	13 178.5	36.47	Chillán
	1 556 805	23 890,2	112,08	Concepción
	938 626	31 842,3	30,06	Temuco
	380 181	18 429,5	20,88	Valdivia
	823 204	48 583,6	17,06	Puerto Montt
	102 317	108 494,4	0,95	Coyhaique
	165 593	132 297,2^(1)	1,26	Punta Arenas
Chile	17 373 831	756 102,4^(2)	23,24 !	Santiago
^(1) Including the Chilean Antarctic Territory, its surface reaches 1 382 554,8 km^2 ^(2) Including the Chilean Antarctic Territory, its surface reaches 2 006 360 km^2

National symbols

The national flower is the copihue (Lapageria rosea, Chilean bellflower), which grows in the woods of southern Chile.

The coat of arms depicts the two national animals: the condor (Vultur gryphus, a very large bird that lives in the mountains) and the huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus, an endangered white tail deer). It also has the legend Por la razón o la fuerza (By reason or by force).

The flag of Chile consists of two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red; there is a blue square the same height as the white band at the hoist-side end of the white band; the square bears a white five-pointed star in the center representing a guide to progress and honor; blue symbolizes the sky, white is for the snow-covered Andes, and red stands for the blood spilled to achieve independence. The flag of Chile is similar to the Flag of Texas, although the Chilean flag is 21 years older. However, like the Texan flag, the flag of Chile is modeled after the Flag of the United States.^[120]

Economy

See main article: Economy of Chile. The Central Bank of Chile in Santiago serves as the central bank for the country. The Chilean currency is the Chilean peso (CLP). Chile is one of South America's most stable and prosperous nations,^[90] leading Latin American nations in human development, competitiveness, globalization, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption.^[15] Since July 2013, Chile is considered by the World Bank as a "high-income economy".^{[121] [122] [123]}

The think tank The Heritage Foundation states that Chile has the highest degree of economic freedom in South America (ranking 22nd worldwide), owing to its independent and efficient judicial system and prudent public finance management.^[124] In May 2010 Chile became the first South American country to join the OECD.^[125] In 2006, Chile became the country with the highest nominal GDP per capita in Latin America.^[126] As of 2020, Chile ranks third in Latin America (behind Uruguay and Panama) in nominal GDP per capita.

Copper mining makes up 20% of Chilean GDP and 60% of exports.^[127] Escondida is the largest copper mine in the world, producing over 5% of global supplies.^[127] Overall, Chile produces a third of the world's copper.^[127] Codelco, the state mining firm, competes with private copper mining companies.^[127]

Sound economic policies, maintained consistently since the 1980s, have contributed to steady economic growth in Chile and have more than halved poverty rates.^{[128] [39]} Chile began to experience a moderate economic downturn in 1999. The economy remained sluggish until 2003, when it began to show clear signs of recovery, achieving 4.0% GDP growth.^[129] The Chilean economy finished 2004 with growth of 6%. Real GDP growth reached 5.7% in 2005 before falling back to 4% in 2006. GDP expanded by 5% in 2007.^[39] Faced with the financial crisis of 2007–2008 the government announced an economic stimulus plan to spur employment and growth, and despite the Great Recession, aimed for an expansion of between 2% and 3% of GDP for 2009. Nonetheless, economic analysts disagreed with government estimates and predicted economic growth at a median of 1.5%.^[130] Real GDP growth in 2012 was 5.5%. Growth slowed to 4.1% in the first quarter of 2013.^[131]

The unemployment rate was 7.8% in 2022, according to The World Bank.^[132] There are reported labor shortages in agriculture, mining, and construction.^[131] The percentage of Chileans with per capita household incomes below the poverty line—defined as twice the cost of satisfying a person's minimal nutritional needs—fell from 45.1% in 1987 to 11.5% in 2009, according to government surveys.^{[133] [134]} Critics in Chile, however, argue that true poverty figures are considerably higher than those officially published.^[135] Using the relative yardstick favoured in many European countries, 27% of Chileans would be poor, according to Juan Carlos Feres of the ECLAC.^[136]

, about 11.1 million people (64% of the population) benefit from government welfare programs,^[137] via the "Social Protection Card", which includes the population living in poverty and those at a risk of falling into poverty.^[138] The privatized national pension system (AFP) has encouraged domestic investment and contributed to an estimated total domestic savings rate of approximately 21% of GDP.^[139] Under the compulsory private pension system, most formal sector employees pay 10% of their salaries into privately managed funds.^[39]

Chile has signed free trade agreements (FTAs) with a whole network of countries, including an FTA with the United States that was signed in 2003 and implemented in January 2004.^[140] Internal Government of Chile figures show that even when factoring out inflation and the recent high price of copper, bilateral trade between the U.S. and Chile has grown over 60% since then.^[39] Chile's total trade with China reached US$8.8 billion in 2006, representing nearly 66% of the value of its trade relationship with Asia.^[39] Exports to Asia increased from US$15.2 billion in 2005 to US$19.7 billion in 2006, a 29.9% increase.^[39] Year-on-year growth of imports was especially strong from a number of countries: Ecuador (123.9%), Thailand (72.1%), South Korea (52.6%), and China (36.9%).^[39]

Chile's approach to foreign direct investment is codified in the country's Foreign Investment Law. Registration is reported to be simple and transparent, and foreign investors are guaranteed access to the official foreign exchange market to repatriate their profits and capital.^[39] The Chilean Government has formed a Council on Innovation and Competition, hoping to bring in additional FDI to new parts of the economy.^[39]

Standard & Poor's gives Chile a credit rating of A.^[141] The Government of Chile continues to pay down its foreign debt, with public debt only 3.9% of GDP at the end of 2006.^[39] The Chilean central government is a net creditor with a net asset position of 7% of GDP at end 2012.^[131] The current account deficit was 4% in the first quarter of 2013, financed mostly by foreign direct investment.^[131] 14% of central government revenue came directly from copper in 2012.^[131] Chile was ranked 52nd in the Global Innovation Index in 2023^[142]

Mineral resources

Chile is rich in mineral resources, especially copper and lithium. It is thought that due to the importance of lithium for batteries for electric vehicles and stabilization of electric grids with large proportions of intermittent renewables in the electricity mix, Chile could be strengthened geopolitically. However, this perspective has also been criticized for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production in other parts of the world.^[143]

The country was, in 2019, the world's largest producer of copper,^[144] iodine^[145] and rhenium,^[146] the second largest producer of lithium^[147] and molybdenum,^[148] the sixth largest producer of silver,^[149] the seventh largest producer of salt,^[150] the eighth largest producer of potash,^[151] the thirteenth producer of sulfur^[152] and the thirteenth producer of iron ore^[153] in the world. The country also has considerable gold production: between 2006 and 2017, the country produced annual amounts ranging from 35.9 tonnes in 2017 to 51.3 tonnes in 2013.^[154]

Agriculture

See main article: Agriculture in Chile.

Agriculture in Chile encompasses a wide range of different activities due to its particular geography, climate and geology and human factors. Historically agriculture is one of the bases of Chile's economy. Now agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing account for only 4.9% of the GDP and employ 13.6% of the country's labor force. Chile is one of the 5 largest world producers of cherry and blueberry, and one of the 10 largest world producers of grape, apple, kiwi, peach, plum and hazelnut, focusing on exporting high-value fruits.^[155] Some other major agriculture products of Chile include pears, onions, wheat, maize, oats, garlic, asparagus, beans, beef, poultry, wool, fish, timber and hemp. Due to its geographical isolation and strict customs policies Chile is free from diseases and pests such as mad cow disease, fruit fly and Phylloxera. This, its location in the Southern Hemisphere, which has quite different harvesting times from the Northern Hemisphere, and its wide range of agriculture conditions are considered Chile's main comparative advantages. However, Chile's mountainous landscape limits the extent and intensity of agriculture so that arable land corresponds only to 2.62% of the total territory. Chile currently utilizes 14,015 Hectares of agricultural land.^[156]

Chile is the world's second largest producer of salmon, after Norway. In 2019, it was responsible for 26% of the global supply.^[157] In wine, Chile is usually among the 10 largest producers in the world. In 2018 it was in 6th place.^[158]

Tourism

See main article: Tourism in Chile.

Tourism in Chile has experienced sustained growth over the last few decades. In 2005, tourism grew by 13.6%, generating more than 4.5 billion dollars of which 1.5 billion was attributed to foreign tourists. According to the National Service of Tourism (Sernatur), 2 million people a year visit the country. Most of these visitors come from other countries in the American continent, mainly Argentina; followed by a growing number from the United States, Europe, and Brazil with a growing number of Asians from South Korea and China.^[159]

The main attractions for tourists are places of natural beauty situated in the extreme zones of the country: San Pedro de Atacama, in the north, is very popular with foreign tourists who arrive to admire the Incaic architecture, the altiplano lakes, and the Valley of the Moon. In Putre, also in the north, there is the Chungará Lake, as well as the Parinacota and the Pomerape volcanoes, with altitudes of 6,348 m and 6,282 m, respectively. Throughout the central Andes there are many ski resorts of international repute, including Portillo, Valle Nevado and Termas de Chillán.

The main tourist sites in the south are national parks (the most popular is Conguillío National Park in the Araucanía)^[160] and the coastal area around Tirúa and Cañete with the Isla Mocha and the Nahuelbuta National Park, Chiloé Archipelago and Patagonia, which includes Laguna San Rafael National Park, with its many glaciers, and the Torres del Paine National Park. The central port city of Valparaíso, which is World Heritage with its unique architecture, is also popular.^[161] Finally, Easter Island in the Pacific Ocean is one of the main Chilean tourist destinations.

For locals, tourism is concentrated mostly in the summer (December to March), and mainly in the coastal beach towns. Arica, Iquique, Antofagasta, La Serena and Coquimbo are the main summer centers in the north, and Pucón on the shores of Lake Villarrica is the main center in the south. Because of its proximity to Santiago, the coast of the Valparaíso Region, with its many beach resorts, receives the largest number of tourists. Viña del Mar, Valparaíso's more affluent northern neighbor, is popular because of its beaches, casino, and its annual song festival, the most important musical event in Latin America. Pichilemu in the O'Higgins Region is widely known as South America's "best surfing spot" according to Fodor's.

In November 2005 the government launched a campaign under the brand "Chile: All Ways Surprising" intended to promote the country internationally for both business and tourism.^[162] Museums in Chile such as the Chilean National Museum of Fine Arts built in 1880, feature works by Chilean artists.

Chile is home to the world-renowned Patagonian Trail that resides on the border between Argentina and Chile. Chile recently launched a massive scenic route for tourism in hopes of encouraging development based on conservation. The Route of Parks covers and was designed by Tompkin Conservation (founders Douglas Tompkins and wife Kristine).^[163]

Transport

See main article: Transport in Chile.

Due to Chile's topography a functioning transport network is vital to its economy. In 2020, Chile had 85984km (53,428miles) of highways, with 21289km (13,228miles) paved.^[164] In the same year, the country had 3347km (2,080miles) of duplicated highways, the second largest network in South America, after Brazil.^[165] Since the mid-1990s, there has been a significant improvement in the country's roads, through bidding processes that allowed the construction of an efficient road network, with emphasis on the duplication of continuous 1950km (1,210miles) of the Panamerican Highway (Chile Route 5) between Puerto Montt and Caldera (in addition to the planned duplication in the Atacama Desert area),^[166] the excerpts in between Santiago, Valparaiso and the Central Coast, and the northern access to Concepción and the large project of the Santiago urban highways network, opened between 2004 and 2006.^[167] Buses are now the main means of long-distance transportation in Chile, following the decline of its railway network.^[168] The bus system covers the entire country, from Arica to Santiago (a 30-hour journey) and from Santiago to Punta Arenas (about 40 hours, with a change at Osorno).

Chile has a total of 372 runways (62 paved and 310 unpaved). Important airports in Chile include Chacalluta International Airport (Arica), Diego Aracena International Airport (Iquique), Andrés Sabella Gálvez International Airport(Antofagasta), Carriel Sur International Airport (Concepción), El Tepual International Airport (Puerto Montt), Presidente Carlos Ibáñez del Campo International Airport (Punta Arenas), La Araucanía International Airport (Temuco), Mataveri International Airport (Easter Island), the most remote airport in the world, as defined by distance to another airport, and the Arturo Merino Benítez International Airport (Santiago) with a traffic of 12,105,524 passengers in 2011. Santiago is headquarters of Latin America's largest airline holding company and Chilean flag carrier LATAM Airlines.

Internet and telecommunications

Chile has a telecommunication system which covers much of the country, including Chilean insular and Antarctic bases. Privatization of the telephone system began in 1988; Chile has one of the most advanced telecommunications infrastructure in South America with a modern system based on extensive microwave radio relay facilities and a domestic satellite system with 3 earth stations. In 2012, there were 3.276 million main lines in use and 24.13 million mobile cellular telephone subscribers.

According to a 2012 database of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), 61.42% of the Chilean population uses the internet, making Chile the country with the highest internet penetration in South America.^[169]

The Chilean internet country code is ".cl".^[170] In 2017 the government of Chile launched its first cyber security strategy, which receives technical support from the Organization of American States (OAS) Cyber Security Program of the Inter-American Committee against Terrorism (CICTE).^[171]

Energy

See main article: Energy in Chile.

Chile's total energy supply (TES) was 23.0GJ per capita in 2020.^[172] Energy in Chile is dominated by fossil fuels, with coal, oil and gas accounting for 73.4% of the total primary energy. Biofuels and waste account for another 20.5% of primary energy supply, with the rest sourced from hydro and other renewables.

Electricity consumption was 68.90 TWh in 2014. Main sources of electricity in Chile are hydroelectricity, gas, oil and coal. Renewable energy in the forms of wind and solar energy are also coming into use, encouraged by collaboration since 2009 with the United States Department of Energy. The electricity industry is privatized with ENDESA as the largest company in the field.

In 2021, Chile had, in terms of installed renewable electricity, 6,807 MW in hydropower (28th largest in the world), 3,137 MW in wind power (28th largest in the world), 4,468 MW in solar (22nd largest in the world), and 375 MW in biomass.^[173] As the Atacama Desert has the highest solar irradiation in the world, and Chile has always had problems obtaining oil, gas and coal (the country basically does not produce them, so it has to import them), renewable energy is seen as the solution for the country's shortcomings in the energy field.^{[174] [175]}

Demographics

See main article: Demographics of Chile. Chile's 2017 census reported a population of 17,574,003. Its rate of population growth has been decreasing since 1990, due to a declining birth rate.^[176] By 2050 the population is expected to reach approximately 20.2 million people.^[177]

Ancestry and ethnicity

See main article: Indigenous peoples in Chile and Immigration to Chile.

Mexican professor Francisco Lizcano, of the National Autonomous University of Mexico, estimated that 52.7% of Chileans were white, 39.3% were mestizo, and 8% were Amerindian.^[178]

In 1984, a study called Sociogenetic Reference Framework for Public Health Studies in Chile, from the Revista de Pediatría de Chile determined an ancestry of 67.9% European, and 32.1% Native American.^{[179] [180]} In 1994, a biological study determined that the Chilean composition was 64% European and 35% Amerindian.^[181] The recent study in the Candela Project establishes that the genetic composition of Chile is 52% of European origin, with 44% of the genome coming from Native Americans (Amerindians), and 4% coming from Africa, making Chile a primarily mestizo country with traces of African descent present in half of the population.^[182] Another genetic study conducted by the University of Brasília in several South American countries shows a similar genetic composition for Chile, with a European contribution of 51.6%, an Amerindian contribution of 42.1%, and an African contribution of 6.3%.^[183] In 2015 another study established genetic composition in 57% European, 38% Native American, and 2.5% African.^[184]

A public health booklet from the University of Chile states that 35% of the population is of Caucasian origin; "predominantly White" Mestizos are estimated to amount to a total of 65%, while Native Americans (Amerindians) comprise the remaining 5%.^[185]

Despite the genetic considerations, many Chileans, if asked, would self-identify as White. The 2011 Latinobarómetro survey asked respondents in Chile what race they considered themselves to belong to. Most answered "White" (59%), while 25% said "Mestizo" and 8% self-classified as "indigenous".^[186] A 2002 national poll revealed that a majority of Chileans believed they possessed some (43.4%) or much (8.3%) "indigenous blood", while 40.3% responded that they had none.^[187]

Chile is one of 22 countries to have signed and ratified the only binding international law concerning indigenous peoples, the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989.^[188] It was adopted in 1989 as the International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention 169. Chile ratified it in 2008. A Chilean court decision in November 2009, considered to be a landmark ruling on indigenous rights, made use of the convention. The Supreme Court decision on Aymara water rights upheld rulings by both the Pozo Almonte tribunal and the Iquique Court of Appeals and marks the first judicial application of ILO Convention 169 in Chile.^[189]

The earliest European immigrants were Spanish colonizers who arrived in the 16th century.^[190] The Amerindian population of central Chile was absorbed into the Spanish settler population in the beginning of the colonial period to form the large mestizo population that exists in Chile today; mestizos create modern middle and lower classes. In the 18th and 19th centuries, many Basques came to Chile where they integrated into the existing elites of Castilian origin. Postcolonial Chile was never a particularly attractive destination for migrants, owing to its remoteness and distance from Europe.^[191] Europeans preferred to stay in countries closer to their homelands instead of taking the long journey through the Straits of Magellan or crossing the Andes. European migration did not result in a significant change in the ethnic composition of Chile, except in the region of Magellan.^[192] Spaniards were the only major European migrant group to Chile,^[193] and there was never large-scale immigration such as that to Argentina or Brazil.^[191] Between 1851 and 1924, Chile only received 0.5% of European immigration to Latin America, compared to 46% to Argentina, 33% to Brazil, 14% to Cuba, and 4% to Uruguay.^[193] However, it is undeniable that immigrants have played a significant role in Chilean society.^[191]

Immigrants to Chile during the 19th and 20th centuries came from France,^[194] Great Britain,^[195] Germany,^[196] and Croatia,^[197] among others. Descendants of different European ethnic groups often intermarried in Chile. This intermarriage and mixture of cultures and races have helped to shape the present society and culture of the Chilean middle and upper classes.^[198] Also, roughly 500,000 of Chile's population is of full or partial Palestinian origin,^{[199] [200]} and 800,000 Arab descents.^[201] Chile currently has 1.5 million of Latin American immigrants, mainly from Venezuela, Peru, Haiti, Colombia, Bolivia and Argentina; 8% of the total population in 2019, without counting descendants.^{[202] [203]} According to the 2002 national census, Chile's foreign-born population has increased by 75% since 1992.^[204] As of November 2021, numbers of people entering Chile from elsewhere in Latin America have grown swiftly in the last decade, tripling in the last three years to 1.5 million, with arrivals stemming from humanitarian crises in Haiti (ca. 180,000) and Venezuela (ca 460,000).^[205]

Urbanization

About 85% of the country's population lives in urban areas, with 40% living in Greater Santiago. The largest agglomerations according to the 2002 census are Greater Santiago with 5.6 million people, Greater Concepción with 861,000and Greater Valparaíso with 824,000.^[206]

Religion

See main article: Religion in Chile.

, 66.6%^[207] of Chilean population over 15 years of age claimed to adhere to the Roman Catholic church, a decrease from the 70%^[208] reported in the 2002 census. In the same census of 2012, 17% of Chileans reported adherence to an Evangelical church ("Evangelical" in the census referred to all Christian denominations other than the Roman Catholic and Orthodox—Greek, Persian, Serbian, Ukrainian, and Armenian—churches, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Seventh-day Adventists, and Jehovah's Witnesses: essentially, those denominations generally still termed "Protestant" in most English-speaking lands, although Adventism is often considered an Evangelical denomination as well). Approximately 90% of Evangelical Christians are Pentecostal. but Wesleyan, Lutheran, Anglican, Episcopalian, Presbyterian, other Reformed, Baptist, and Methodist churches also are present amongst Chilean Evangelical churches.^[209] Irreligious people, atheists, and agnostics account for around 12% of the population.

By 2015, the major religion in Chile remained Christianity (68%), with an estimated 55% of Chileans belonging to the Roman Catholic church, 13% to various Evangelical churches, and just 7% adhering to any other religion. Agnostics and atheist were estimated at 25% of the population.^[210]

Chile has a Baháʼí religious community, and is home to the Baháʼí mother temple, or continental House of Worship, for Latin America. Completed in 2016, it serves as a space for people of all religions and backgrounds to gather, meditate, reflect, and worship.^[211] It is formed from cast glass and translucent marble and has been described as innovative in its architectural style.^[212]

The Constitution guarantees the right to freedom of religion, and other laws and policies contribute to generally free religious practice. The law at all levels fully protects this right against abuse by either governmental or private actors.^[209] Church and state are officially separate in Chile. A 1999 law on religion prohibits religious discrimination. However, the Roman Catholic church for mostly historical and social reasons enjoys a privileged status and occasionally receives preferential treatment.^[213] Government officials attend Roman Catholic events as well as major Evangelical and Jewish ceremonies.^[209]

The Chilean government treats the religious holidays of Christmas, Good Friday, the Feast of the Virgin of Carmen, the Feast of Saints Peter and Paul, the Feast of the Assumption, All Saints' Day, and the Feast of the Immaculate Conception as national holidays.^[209] Recently, the government declared 31 October, Reformation Day, to be an additional national holiday, in honor of the Evangelical churches of the country.^{[214] [215]}

The patron saints of Chile are Our Lady of Mount Carmel and Saint James the Greater (Santiago).^[216] In 2005, Pope Benedict XVI canonized Alberto Hurtado, who became the country's second native Roman Catholic saint after Teresa de los Andes.^[217]

Languages

See main article: Languages of Chile.

The Spanish spoken in Chile is distinctively accented and quite unlike that of neighboring South American countries because final syllables are often dropped, and some consonants have a soft pronunciation. Accent varies only very slightly from north to south; more noticeable are the differences in accent based on social class or whether one lives in the city or the country. That the Chilean population was largely formed in a small section at the center of the country and then migrated in modest numbers to the north and south helps explain this relative lack of differentiation, which was maintained by the national reach of radio, and now television, which also helps to diffuse and homogenize colloquial expressions.^[39]

There are several indigenous languages spoken in Chile: Mapudungun, Aymara, Rapa Nui, Chilean Sign Language and (barely surviving) Qawasqar and Yaghan, along with non-indigenous German, Italian, English, Greek and Quechua. After the Spanish conquest, Spanish took over as the lingua franca and the indigenous languages have become minority languages, with some now extinct or close to extinction.^[218]

German is still spoken to some extent in southern Chile,^[219] either in small countryside pockets or as a second language among the communities of larger cities.

Through initiatives such as the English Opens Doors Program, the government made English mandatory for students in fifth grade and above in public schools. Most private schools in Chile start teaching English from kindergarten.^[220] Common English words have been absorbed and appropriated into everyday Spanish speech.^[221]

Health

See main article: Healthcare in Chile. The Ministry of Health (Minsal) is the cabinet-level administrative office in charge of planning, directing, coordinating, executing, controlling and informing the public health policies formulated by the President of Chile. The National Health Fund (Fonasa), created in 1979, is the financial entity entrusted to collect, manage and distribute state funds for health in Chile. It is funded by the public. All employees pay 7% of their monthly income to the fund.^[222]

Fonasa is part of the NHSS and has executive power through the Ministry of Health (Chile). Its headquarters are in Santiago and decentralized public service is conducted by various Regional Offices. More than 12 million beneficiaries benefit from Fonasa. Beneficiaries can also opt for more costly private insurance through Isapre.

Education

See main article: Education in Chile and List of universities in Chile. In Chile, education begins with preschool until the age of 5. Primary school is provided for children between ages 6 and 13. Students then attend secondary school until graduation at age 17.

Secondary education is divided into two parts: During the first two years, students receive a general education. Then, they choose a branch: scientific humanistic education, artistic education, or technical and professional education. Secondary school ends two years later on the acquirement of a certificate (licencia de enseñanza media).^[223]

Chilean education is segregated by wealth in a three-tiered system – the quality of the schools reflects socioeconomic backgrounds:

• city schools (colegios municipales) that are mostly free and have the worst education results, mostly attended by poor students;
• subsidized schools that receive some money from the government which can be supplemented by fees paid by the student's family, which are attended by mid-income students and typically get mid-level results; and
• entirely private schools that consistently get the best results. Many private schools charge attendance fees of 0,5 to 1 median household income.^[224]

Upon successful graduation of secondary school, students may continue into higher education. The higher education schools in Chile consist of Chilean Traditional Universities and are divided into public universities or private universities. There are medical schools and both the Universidad de Chile and Universidad Diego Portales offer law schools in a partnership with Yale University.^[225]

Culture

See main article: Culture of Chile, Music of Chile and Chilean cuisine. From the period between early agricultural settlements and up to the late pre-Columbian period, northern Chile was a region of Andean culture that was influenced by altiplano traditions spreading to the coastal valleys of the north, while southern regions were areas of Mapuche cultural activities. Throughout the colonial period following the conquest, and during the early Republican period, the country's culture was dominated by the Spanish. Other European influences, primarily English, French, and German began in the 19th century and have continued to this day. German migrants influenced the Bavarian style rural architecture and cuisine in the south of Chile in cities such as Valdivia, Frutillar, Puerto Varas, Osorno, Temuco, Puerto Octay, Llanquihue, Faja Maisan, Pitrufquén, Victoria, Pucón and Puerto Montt.^{[226] [227] [228] [229]}

Music and dance

Music in Chile ranges from folkloric, popular and classical music. Its large geography generates different musical styles in the north, center and south of the country, including also Easter Island and Mapuche music.^[230] The national dance is the cueca. Another form of traditional Chilean song, though not a dance, is the tonada. Arising from music imported by the Spanish colonists, it is distinguished from the cueca by an intermediate melodic section and a more prominent melody.

From the 1950s to the 1970s, native folk musical forms were revitalized with the movement led by composers such as Violeta Parra, Raúl de Ramón and Pedro Messone, which was also associated with political activists and reformers such as Víctor Jara, Inti-Illimani, and Quilapayún. Also, many Chilean rock bands like Los Jaivas, Los Prisioneros, La Ley, Los Tres and Los Bunkers have reached international success, some incorporating strong folk influences, such as Los Jaivas. In February, annual music and comedy festivals are held in Viña del Mar.^[231]

Literature

Chile is a country of poets.^[232] Gabriela Mistral was the first Latin American to receive a Nobel Prize in Literature (1945). Chile's most famous poet is Pablo Neruda, who received the Nobel Prize for Literature (1971) and is world-renowned for his extensive library of works on romance, nature, and politics. His three highly personalized homes in Isla Negra, Santiago and Valparaíso are popular tourist destinations.

Among the list of other Chilean poets are Carlos Pezoa Véliz, Vicente Huidobro, Gonzalo Rojas, Pablo de Rokha, Nicanor Parra, Ivonne Coñuecar and Raúl Zurita. Isabel Allende is the best-selling Chilean novelist, with 51 million of her novels sold worldwide.^[233] Novelist José Donoso's novel The Obscene Bird of Night is considered by critic Harold Bloom to be one of the canonical works of 20th-century Western literature. Another internationally recognized Chilean novelist and poet is Roberto Bolaño whose translations into English have had an excellent reception from the critics.^{[234] [235] [236]}

Cuisine

Chilean cuisine is a reflection of the country's topographical variety, featuring an assortment of seafood, beef, fruits, and vegetables. Traditional recipes include asado, cazuela, empanadas, humitas, pastel de choclo, pastel de papas, curanto, and sopaipillas.^[237] Crudos is an example of the mixture of culinary contributions from the various ethnic influences in Chile. The raw minced llama, heavy use of shellfish, and rice bread were taken from native Quechua Andean cuisine, (although beef, brought to Chile by Europeans, is also used in place of the llama meat), lemon and onions were brought by the Spanish colonists, and the use of mayonnaise and yogurt was introduced by German immigrants, as was beer.

Folklore

See main article: Chilean mythology. The folklore of Chile, cultural and demographic characteristics of the country, is the result of the mixture of Spanish and Amerindian elements that occurred during the colonial period. Due to cultural and historical reasons, they are classified and distinguished four major areas in the country: northern areas, central, southern and south. Most of the traditions of the culture of Chile have a festive purpose, but some, such as dances and ceremonies, have religious components.^[238]

Chilean mythology is the mythology and beliefs of the Folklore of Chile. This includes Chilote mythology, Rapa Nui mythology and Mapuche mythology.

Sports

See main article: Sport in Chile.

Chile's most popular sport is association football. Chile has appeared in nine FIFA World Cups which includes hosting the 1962 FIFA World Cup where the national football team finished third. Other results achieved by the national football team include two Copa América titles (2015 and 2016), two runners-up positions, one silver and two bronze medals at the Pan American Games, a bronze medal at the 2000 Summer Olympics and two third places finishes in the FIFA under-17 and under-20 youth tournaments. The top league in the Chilean football league system is the Chilean Primera División, which is named by the IFFHS as the ninth strongest national football league in the world.^[239]

The main football clubs are Colo-Colo, Universidad de Chile and Universidad Católica. Colo-Colo is the country's most successful football club, having both the most national and international championships, including the coveted Copa Libertadores South American club tournament. Universidad de Chile was the last international champion (Copa Sudamericana 2011).

Tennis is Chile's most successful sport. Its national team won the World Team Cup clay tournament twice (2003 & 2004), and played the Davis Cup final against Italy in 1976. At the 2004 Summer Olympics the country captured gold and bronze in men's singles and gold in men's doubles (Nicolás Massú obtained two gold medals). Marcelo Ríos became the first Latin American man to reach the number one spot in the ATP singles rankings in 1998. Anita Lizana won the US Open in 1937, becoming the first woman from Latin America to win a Grand Slam tournament. Luis Ayala was twice a runner-up at the French Open and both Ríos and Fernando González reached the Australian Open men's singles finals. González also won a silver medal in singles at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing.

At the Summer Olympic Games Chile boasts a total of two gold medals (tennis), seven silver medals (athletics, equestrian, boxing, shooting and tennis) and four bronze medals (tennis, boxing and football). In 2012, Chile won its first Paralympic Games medal (gold in Athletics).

Rodeo is the country's national sport and is practiced in the more rural areas of the nation. A sport similar to hockey called chueca was played by the Mapuche people during the Spanish conquest. Skiing and snowboarding are practiced at ski centers located in the Central Andes, and in southern ski centers near to cities as Osorno, Puerto Varas, Temuco and Punta Arenas. Surfing is popular at some coastal towns. Polo is professionally practiced within Chile, with the country achieving top prize in the 2008 and 2015 World Polo Championship.

Basketball is a popular sport in which Chile earned a bronze medal in the first men's FIBA World Championship held in 1950 and won a second bronze medal when Chile hosted the 1959 FIBA World Championship. Chile hosted the first FIBA World Championship for Women in 1953 finishing the tournament with the silver medal. San Pedro de Atacama is host to the annual "Atacama Crossing", a six-stage, 250km (160miles) footrace which annually attracts about 150 competitors from 35 countries. The Dakar Rally off-road automobile race has been held in both Chile and Argentina since 2009.

Cultural heritage

The cultural heritage of Chile consists, first, of its intangible heritage, composed of various cultural events and activities, such as visual arts, crafts, dances, holidays, cuisine, games, music and traditions. Secondly, its tangible heritage consists of those buildings, objects and sites of archaeological, architectural, traditional, artistic, ethnographic, folkloric, historical, religious or technological significance scattered through Chilean territory. Among them, some are declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO, in accordance with the provisions of the Convention concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage of 1972, ratified by Chile in 1980. These cultural sites are the Rapa Nui National Park (1995), the Churches of Chiloé (2000), the historical district of the port city of Valparaíso (2003), Humberstone and Santa Laura Saltpeter Works (2005) and the mining city Sewell (2006).

In 1999 Cultural Heritage Day was established as a way to honour and commemorate Chile's cultural heritage. It is an official national event celebrated in May every year.^[240]

See also

• Index of Chile-related articles
• Outline of Chile
• COVID-19 pandemic in Chile

References

Citations

Further reading

• Christian Balteum: The Strip. A Marxist critique of a semicomparador economy, University of Vermont Press, 2018
• Simon Collier and William F. Sater, A History of Chile, 1808–1894, Cambridge University Press, 1996
• Paul W. Drake, and others., Chile: A Country Study, Library of Congress, 1994
• Luis Galdames, A History of Chile, University of North Carolina Press, 1941
• Chile . 6 . Lamoureux . Andrew Jackson . and three others . 142 - 160 . 1.
• Brian Lovemen, Chile: The Legacy of Hispanic Capitalism, 3rd ed., Oxford University Press, 2001
• John L. Rector, The History of Chile, Greenwood Press, 2003

External links

• Official Chile Government website
• ThisIsChile Tourism & Commerce Website
• Chile. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
• Chile from UCB Libraries GovPubs
  • Chile profile from the BBC News
• Road maps of Chile, interactive
• World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Chile
  • • Key Development Forecasts for Chile from International Futures
• Chile Cultural Society

Notes and References

1. Web site: Country Summary . 31 July 2024 .
2. Web site: Compendio estadístico 2006 . https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.ine.cl/canales/publicaciones/compendio_estadistico/pdf/2006/compendio2006.pdf . 9 October 2022 . live . 29 November 2007 . Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas . October 2006 .
3. Web site: Chile country profile . BBC News . 17 October 2023 . 17 October 2023 . 11 April 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230411095040/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-19357497 . live .
4. Web site: Surface water and surface water change. 11 October 2020. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 24 March 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210324133453/https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER. live.
5. Web site: Our World in Data. 11 January 2024. 12 January 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20240112120730/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/population-with-un-projections?tab=table&time=2023. live.
6. Web site: World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Chile) . . 10 October 2023 . 12 October 2023 . 11 November 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231111220407/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c=228,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2028&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 . live .
7. Web site: Inequality – Income inequality . . 25 July 2021 . 1 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220701171540/https://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm . live .
8. Web site: Human Development Report 2023/24. en. United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. 288. 13 March 2024. 13 March 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20240313164319/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf. live.
9. Web site: Resutados Censo 2017. https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.censo2017.cl/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Presentacion_Resultados_Definitivos_Censo2017.pdf . 9 October 2022 . live. National Statistics Institute. 1 January 2018. 18 January 2017.
10. Web site: Elecciones, sufragio y democracia en Chile (1810–2012). 20 June 2021. Memoria Chilena. National Library of Chile. Spanish. 6 June 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210606211346/http://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/602/w3-article-3382.html. live.
11. Web site: Sufragio femenino universal. 20 June 2021. Memoria Chilena. National Library of Chile. Spanish. 27 June 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210627203312/http://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/602/w3-article-96054.html. live.
12. Web site: Desarrollo y dinámica de la población en el siglo XX. 20 June 2021. Memoria Chilena. National Library of Chile. Spanish. 11 July 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210711012135/http://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/602/w3-article-3351.html. live.
13. [Gabriel Salazar|Salazar, Gabriel]
14. [Sergio Villalobos|Villalobos, Sergio]
15. Web site: Human and income poverty: developing countries . UNDP . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20090212140250/http://hdrstats.undp.org/indicators/25.html . 12 February 2009 .
16. Web site: World Development Indicators . World Bank . 17 April 2012 . 12 May 2012 . 26 December 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181226011605/https://databank.worldbank.org/data/home.aspx . live .
17. Web site: La Incógnita Sobre el Origen de la Palabra Chile . Chile.com . 15 June 2000 . 17 December 2009 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20090415204553/http://www.chile.com/tpl/articulo/detalle/ver.tpl?cod_articulo=7225 . 15 April 2009 .
18. Encyclopedia: Picunche (people) . . 17 December 2009 . 22 November 2009 . https://web.archive.org/web/20091122083026/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/459648/Picunche . live .
19. Book: Encina . Francisco A. . Leopoldo Castedo . Resumen de la Historia de Chile . 4th . Santiago . 44 . I . Zig-Zag . 1961 . https://web.archive.org/web/20090205171400/http://img242.imageshack.us/img242/6293/chilenameuo6.jpg . dead . 5 February 2009 .
20. Encyclopedia: Chile . Encyclopedia Americana . Grolier Online . 2005 . 2 March 2005 . The name Chile is of Native American origin, meaning possibly 'ends of the earth' or simply 'sea gulls'. . https://web.archive.org/web/20020721154758/http://ea.grolier.com/ . 21 July 2002 . dead .
21. Web site: Hudson . Rex A. . Chile: A Country Study . GPO for the Library of Congress . 1995 . 27 February 2005 . 25 June 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150625213643/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cltoc.html . dead .
22. Web site: chiri in English - Quechua-English Dictionary . Glosbe.
23. Encyclopedia: Chile (república) . Enciclopedia Microsoft Encarta Online . 2005 . 26 February 2005 . The region was then known to its native population as Tchili, a Native American word meaning 'snow'. . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20080510215421/http://es.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761572974_4/Chile.html . 10 May 2008 .
24. Encyclopedia: Pearson . Neale J. . Chile . Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia . Scholastic Library Publishing . 2004 . 2 March 2005 . Chile's name comes from an Indian word, Tchili, meaning 'the deepest point of the Earth'. . https://web.archive.org/web/19990210101840/http://www.gme.grolier.com/ . 10 February 1999 . dead .
25. Book: Miguel . de Olivares . González . SJ . Historia de la Compañía de Jesús en Chile . Colección de historiadores de Chile y documentos relativos a la historia nacional . 1864 . 1736 . Imprenta del Ferrocarril . Santiago . 4 .
26. Book: Appletons' annual cyclopaedia and register of noteworthy events of the year: 1900 . Appletons . New York . 87 .
27. Web site: People roamed tip of South America 18,500 years ago . Science News . 26 December 2015 . 26 December 2015 . Bower, Bruce . 10 . 10 May 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200510101040/https://www.sciencenews.org/article/people-roamed-tip-south-america-18500-years-ago . live .
28. Book: Insight Guides: Chile. 14 July 2013. 2002. Langenscheidt Publishing Group. 978-981-234-890-6. 27. 21 February 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20240221111313/https://books.google.com/books?id=Nf8SnJ_ZJbkC&pg=PA27#v=onepage&q&f=false. live.
29. Web site: Storia della guerra d'America fra Chilì, il Perù e la Bolivia. Tommaso . Caivano. 1 April 1882. Torino. Ermanno Loescher. Internet Archive. it.
30. Book: Silva Castro, Raúl . Censo de 1813 . 370 . Biblioteca Nacional de Chile . Imprenta Chile . Santiago . 1953 .
31. Baten. Joerg. Llorca-Jaña. Manuel. 2021. Inequality, Low-Intensity Immigration and Human Capital Formation in the Regions of Chile, 1820–1939. Economics and Human Biology. 43. 101030. 10.1016/j.ehb.2021.101030. 34171763. 219382958. https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.cesifo.org/DocDL/cesifo1_wp8177.pdf . 9 October 2022 . live. 1570-677X.
32. https://books.google.com/books?id=Jg5cEAAAQBAJ Intercolonial Intimacies: Relinking Latin/o America to the Philippines. 1898-1964 By Paula C. Park
33. Book: Mateo Martinic Beros. Presencia de Chile en la Patagonia austral 1843 – 1879. 1971. Editorial Andrés Bello. December 8, 2022. es. 31 March 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230331010856/https://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/602/w3-article-10386.html. live.
34. Book: A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present.. Baten . Jörg . Jörg Baten . 2016. Cambridge University Press. 137. 9781107507180.
35. Web site: Historia de la Isla de Pascua: Su Incorporación y Su Conflicto Con La Williamson & Balfour. Daños Patrimoniales, Pretensiones Internacionales e Independentismos . 26 January 2024 . 21 March 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230321015938/http://www.soberaniachile.cl/historia_de_la_incorporacion_y_las_controversias_de_la_isla_de_pascua.html . live .
36. William Sater, Chile and the United States: Empires in Conflict, Athens, GA; University of Georgia Press, p.51
37. Book: Fowler, Will. Authoritarianism in Latin America since independence. 1996. Greenwood Press. University of Virginia. 0-313-29843-2. 30–96.
38. Book: Frazier, Lessie Jo. Salt in the Sand: Memory, Violence, and the Nation-State in Chile, 1890 to the Present. 14 July 2013. 17 July 2007. Duke University Press. 978-0-8223-4003-4. 163–184. 29 November 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20231129020445/https://books.google.com/books?id=gQU-GYGeVSEC&pg=PA163#v=onepage&q&f=false. live.
39. Web site: Development and Breakdown of Democracy, 1830–1973. Country Studies. Library of Congress. 31 March 1994. 21 April 2009. 9 July 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110709014719/http://countrystudies.us/chile/85.htm. live.
40. Book: Mares, David. Francisco Rojas Aravena. The United States and Chile: Coming in from the Cold. 14 July 2013. 2001. Routledge. 978-0-415-93125-0. 145. 29 November 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20231129020509/https://books.google.com/books?id=0Y3EWkKZsYcC&pg=PA145. live.
41. Book: Trento, Joseph J.. The Secret History of the CIA. https://web.archive.org/web/20150319065032/http://books.google.com/books?id=3uPBM7z_62gC&pg=PA560. dead. 19 March 2015. 14 July 2013. 2005. Carroll & Graf Publishers. 978-0-7867-1500-8. 560.
42. Book: Lois Hecht Oppenheim. Politics in Chile: Socialism, Authoritarianism, and Market Democracy. 14 July 2013. 2007. Westview Press. 978-0-7867-3426-9. 52. 29 November 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20231129020433/https://books.google.com/books?id=99ZLX52z_noC&pg=PA52#v=onepage&q&f=false. live.
43. Book: De Vylder, Stefan. Allende's Chile: The Political Economy of the Rise and Fall of the Unidad Popular. 5 March 2009. Cambridge University Press. 978-0-521-10757-0.
44. Web site: Allende wins the elections: first coup attempt . https://web.archive.org/web/20080107150857/http://grace.evergreen.edu/~arunc/texts/chile/torre/Allende.html. 7 January 2008 . Grace.evergreen.edu . 17 December 2009.
45. Book: Friedman, Norman. The Fifty-Year War: Conflict and Strategy in the Cold War. 14 July 2013. 1 March 2007. Naval Institute Press. 978-1-59114-287-4. 367–368. 29 November 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20231129020229/https://books.google.com/books?id=0CIXLdxhQMAC&pg=PA367. live.
46. Book: Qureshi, Lubna Z.. Nixon, Kissinger, and Allende: U.S. Involvement in the 1973 Coup in Chile. 14 July 2013. 2009. Lexington Books. 978-0-7391-2655-4. 86–97. 29 November 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20231129020042/https://books.google.com/books?id=alISgQdNY4kC&pg=PA86#v=onepage&q&f=false. live.
47. Web site: Report on CIA Chilean Task Force activities . Chile and the United States: Declassified Documents relating to the Military Coup, 1970–1976 . The National Security Archive: Electronic Briefing Books (George Washington University) . 11 March 2010 . 11 February 2010 . https://web.archive.org/web/20100211203442/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/ch01-01.htm . live .
48. Web site: Covert Action In Chile 1963–1973, Staff Report Of The Select Committee To Study Governmental Operations With Respect To Intelligence Activities . Federation of American Scientists . 17 December 2009 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20091003144646/http://www.fas.org/irp/ops/policy/church-chile.htm . 3 October 2009.
49. News: Tightening the Belt. https://web.archive.org/web/20101022175928/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,879153,00.html. dead. 22 October 2010. Time. 7 August 1972 .
50. Web site: Equipo Nizkor – CIA Activities in Chile – September 18, 2000 . Derechos.org . 17 December 2009 . 13 May 2008 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080513083911/http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/chile/doc/hinchey.html . live .
51. Web site: Transition to Democracy in Latin America: The Role of the judiciary . Yale University . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20130819213445/http://www.law.yale.edu/documents/pdf/rightdegree_independence%285%29.pdf . 19 August 2013.
52. Book: Soto, Óscar. El último día de Salvador Allende. 1999. Aguilar. 978-956-239-084-2.
53. Book: Ahumada, Eugeno. Chile: La memoria prohibida.
54. Web site: Kissinger and Chile: the Declassified Record . The National Security Archive . 16 September 2013 . 16 September 2013 . 17 September 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130917045957/http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB437/ . live .
55. Web site: Lewis . Anthony . The Kissinger Doctrine . The New York Times . 1975-02-27 . 2024-05-08 . 12 September 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220912084418/https://www.nytimes.com/1975/02/27/archives/the-kissinger-doctrine.html . live .
56. Web site: Dinges . John . Operation Condor . latinamericanstudies.org . Columbia University . 6 July 2018 . 22 July 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180722031734/http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/chile/operation-condor.htm . live .
57. News: Flashback: Caravan of Death. BBC. 25 July 2000. 11 March 2008. 26 February 2008. https://web.archive.org/web/20080226211503/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/850932.stm. live.
58. Web site: Ministerio del Interior . Ministerio del Interior, Programa de Derechos Humanos – ddhh_rettig . Ddhh.gov.cl . 3 August 1999 . 17 December 2009 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20091223174254/http://www.ddhh.gov.cl/ddhh_rettig.html . 23 December 2009.
59. Web site: Sintesis Ok . 17 December 2009 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070727031254/http://www.comisionprisionpoliticaytortura.cl/filesapp/Sintesis.pdf . 27 July 2007 .
60. Eva Vergara (18 August 2015). Chile Recognizes 9,800 More Pinochet Victims . The Associated Press via The Huffington Post. Retrieved 25 August 2015.
61. Book: Pamela Constable . Pamela Constable . Arturo Valenzuela . Arturo Valenzuela . A Nation of Enemies: Chile Under Pinochet. 1993. W W Norton & Company Incorporated. 978-0-393-30985-0. 150.
62. Book: Klein. Naomi. Naomi Klein. The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism. 14 July 2013. 1 April 2010. Henry Holt and Company (2007). 978-1-4299-1948-7. 85. 29 November 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20231129020106/https://books.google.com/books?id=PwHUAq5LPOQC&pg=PA85#v=onepage&q&f=false. live.
63. Book: Huneeus, Carlos. Carlos Huneeus. Adam Roberts. Timothy Garton Ash. Civil Resistance and Power Politics:The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present. https://books.google.com/books?id=zD_S8Y2WbRsC&pg=PT168. 14 July 2013. 3 September 2009. Oxford University Press. 978-0-19-161917-5. 197–212. Political Mass Mobilization against Authoritarian Rule: Pinochet's Chile, 1983–88. 29 November 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20231129020252/https://books.google.com/books?id=zD_S8Y2WbRsC&pg=PT168#v=onepage&q&f=false. live.
64. News: Man in the News: Patricio Aylwin; A Moderate Leads Chile. The New York Times. Shirley. Christian. 16 December 1989. 28 July 2018. 29 July 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180729012944/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/12/16/world/man-in-the-news-patricio-aylwin-a-moderate-leads-chile.html. live.
65. Encyclopedia: Chile elects new leader Late president's son wins big . https://web.archive.org/web/20080526090105/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1P2-8257609.html. 26 May 2008 . Encyclopedia.com . 12 December 1993 . 14 July 2013.
66. News: Moderate socialist Lagos wins Chilean presidential election . CNN. 16 January 2000 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080506162601/http://archives.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/americas/01/17/chile.elex.01/ . 6 May 2008 . dead.
67. Web site: Chile elects first woman president. NBC News. 12 January 2006. 10 November 2019. 9 November 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20131109023348/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/10819903/. live.
68. News: Bachelet Sworn in As Chile's President. The Washington Post. Monte. Reel. 12 March 2006. 22 August 2017. 1 July 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170701225835/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/03/11/AR2006031101381.html. live.
69. Web site: Michelle Bachelet sworn in as Chile's president . BBC News . 11 March 2014 . 12 August 2021 . live. https://web.archive.org/web/20140312035407/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-26528923 . 12 March 2014 .
70. Web site: Chile election: Conservative Piñera elected president . BBC News . 18 December 2017 . 12 August 2021 . live. https://web.archive.org/web/20171218103345/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-42388019 . 18 December 2017 .
71. Web site: Pinera, a conservative billionaire, is sworn in as president of Chile . Yahoo! News . Agence France Presse . 11 March 2018 . 12 August 2021 . live. https://web.archive.org/web/20210801211945/https://www.yahoo.com/news/pinera-conservative-billionaire-sworn-president-chile-183054108.html?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAAC6_pBevRC0GpV00u6W8P1NWhHqxCXKFRdRMnzk5fsa . 1 August 2021 .
72. Web site: US ready to help Chile: Obama. The Australia Times. 3 March 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20110427081917/http://www.australia-times.com.au/world/article.php?id=501. 27 April 2011. dead.
73. http://www.contractmagazine.com/contract/content_display/design/news/e3i128fcc3d3e64156a013dfae605b73a5b More Quakes Shake Chile's Infrastructure
74. Web site: Background Note: Chile. Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs, United States Department of State. 16 December 2011. 19 March 2012. 21 January 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170121153101/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1981.htm. live.
75. Web site: Chile protests: More than one million bring Santiago to a halt. Naomi Larsson. Al Jazeera. 26 October 2019. 19 November 2019. 26 October 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20191026165551/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/chile-protests-million-bring-santiago-halt-191025223542333.html. live.
76. News: One month on: Protests in Chile persist despite gov't concessions . Al Jazeera . 19 November 2019 . Sandra Cuffe . 19 November 2019 . 17 March 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200317120559/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/11/month-protests-chile-persist-gov-concessions-191118231609475.html . live .
77. Web site: Presidente Piñera promulga reforma que posterga elecciones al 15 y 16 de mayo . 6 April 2021 . El Mostrador . es . 7 April 2021 . 5 May 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210505183947/https://www.elmostrador.cl/noticias/pais/2021/04/06/presidente-pinera-promulga-reforma-que-posterga-elecciones-al-15-y-16-de-mayo/ . live .
78. News: Leftist Gabriel Boric to become Chile's youngest ever president . BBC News . 20 December 2021 . 21 December 2021 . 20 December 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211220000309/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-59715941 . live .
79. News: Gabriel Boric, 36, sworn in as president to herald new era for Chile . The Guardian . 11 March 2022 . en . 15 March 2022 . 12 March 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220312233147/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/11/gabriel-boric-chile-president-new-era . live .
80. News: Chile's president-elect names progressive, majority-women cabinet . The Guardian . 21 January 2022 . en . 15 March 2022 . 25 January 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220125135734/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/21/chile-gabriel-boric-cabinet-majority-women . live .
81. News: Chile constitution: Voters overwhelmingly reject radical change . BBC News . 5 September 2022 . 14 September 2022 . 5 September 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220905063525/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-62792025 . live .
82. Web site: Villegas . A. . Chileans reject conservative constitution to replace dictatorship-era text . Reuters . 18 December 2023.
83. Web site: 17 December 2023 . Chilean voters reject conservative constitution, after defeating leftist charter last year . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20231218053713/https://apnews.com/article/chile-new-constitution-referendum-f7be231ff564856f6a5e1b0c0ac12c57 . 18 December 2023 . 18 December 2023 . AP News . en.
84. Web site: Chile rejects second attempt to renew constitution . 19 December 2023 . dw.com . en . 18 December 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231218193156/https://www.dw.com/en/chile-rejects-second-attempt-to-renew-constitution/a-67749225 . live .
85. Encyclopedia: Chile . Encyclopædia Britannica . 7 May 2013 . 16 June 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130616190930/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/111326/Chile . live .
86. Web site: Antarctic Treaty: Information about the Antarctic Treaty and how Antarctica is governed. . Polar Conservation Organisation . 1 February 2008 . 11 March 2010 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20100210224459/http://www.polarconservation.org/education/plonearticle.2005-12-28.3597747204 . 10 February 2010 .
87. Book: Collin. Robert. Trash Talk: An Encyclopedia of Garbage and Recycling around the World. 2015. 121.
88. Book: Blanco, Alejandro Vergara. Derecho de aguas. 14 July 2013. 1998. Editorial Jurídica de Chile. 978-956-10-1241-7. 29 November 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20231129020150/https://books.google.com/books?id=4o3G0FyArtAC. live.
89. Book: K, Ana María Errázuriz . Manual de geografía de Chile . 1998 . Andres Bello . 978-956-13-1523-5 . 74 . es . 21 November 2023 . 21 November 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231121211655/https://books.google.com/books?id=oXGaJKGMaMgC . live .
90. News: Country profile: Chile . BBC News . 16 December 2009 . 31 December 2009 . 14 January 2010 . https://web.archive.org/web/20100114035710/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1222764.stm . live .
91. Santibáñez, F; Uribe, J. 1997. Atlas Agroclimático de Chile. Santiago, Chile. Fondo Nacional de Desarrollo Científico y Tecnológico.
92. Niemeyer, Hans . Cereceda, Pilar . 1983 . Hydrography . Geography of Chile . . 1st . Santiago . 8 .
93. Web site: Flora y Fauna de Chilena . Icarito . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20060410080253/http://www.icarito.cl/icarito/enciclopedia/canal/canal/0%2C0%2C38035857_152308989%2C00.html . 10 April 2006.
94. Smith-Ramírez . Cecilia . Díaz . Iván . Pliscoff . Patricio . Valdovinos . Claudio . Méndez . Marco A. . Larraín . Juan . Samaniego . Horacio . Distribution patterns of flora and fauna in southern Chilean Coastal rain forests: Integrating Natural History and GIS . Biodiversity and Conservation . August 2007 . 16 . 9 . 2627–2648 . 10.1007/s10531-006-9073-2 . 2007BiCon..16.2627S . 6879631 .
95. Web site: Chilean and Antarctic Fossils Reveal the Last "Geologic Minutes" of the Age of Dinosaurs [Slide Show]]. Ángela. Posada-Swafford. Scientific American. 5 April 2017. 6 April 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170406023619/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/chilean-and-antarctic-fossils-reveal-the-last-geologic-minutes-of-the-age-of-dinosaurs-slide-show/. live.
96. Grantham. H. S.. Duncan. A.. Evans. T. D.. Jones. K. R.. Beyer. H. L.. Schuster. R.. Walston. J.. Ray. J. C.. Robinson. J. G.. Callow. M.. Clements. T.. Costa. H. M.. DeGemmis. A.. Elsen. P. R.. Ervin. J.. Franco. P.. Goldman. E.. Goetz. S.. Hansen. A.. Hofsvang. E.. Jantz. P.. Jupiter. S.. Kang. A.. Langhammer. P.. Laurance. W. F.. Lieberman. S.. Linkie. M.. Malhi. Y.. Maxwell. S.. Mendez. M.. Mittermeier. R.. Murray. N. J.. Possingham. H.. Radachowsky. J.. Saatchi. S.. Samper. C.. Silverman. J.. Shapiro. A.. Strassburg. B.. Stevens. T.. Stokes. E.. Taylor. R.. Tear. T.. Tizard. R.. Venter. O.. Visconti. P.. Wang. S.. Watson. J. E. M.. Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material. Nature Communications. 11. 1. 2020. 5978. 2041-1723. 10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3. 33293507. 7723057. 2020NatCo..11.5978G .
97. Oehrens, E.B. "Flora Fungosa Chilena". Universidad de Chile, Santiago de Chile, 1980
98. Web site: Cybertruffle's Robigalia – Observations of fungi and their associated organisms . cybertruffle.org.uk . 9 July 2011 . 29 December 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181229121452/http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/robigalia/eng/index.htm . dead .
99. Kirk, P.M., Cannon, P.F., Minter, D.W. and Stalpers, J. "Dictionary of the Fungi". Edn 10. CABI, 2008
100. Web site: Fungi of Chile – potential endemics . cybertruffle.org.uk . 9 July 2011 . 27 September 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110927172749/http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/chilfung/eng/endelist.htm . live .
101. Web site: Polls open in Chile for historic constitutional plebiscite. Aislinn Laing. Fabian Cambero. Reuters. 25 October 2020. 25 October 2020. 30 October 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201030032454/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-chile-constitution/polls-open-in-chile-for-historic-constitutional-plebiscite-idUSKBN27A0CF. live.
102. News: Chile scraps Pinochet-era system. BBC. 16 August 2005. 31 December 2009. 8 May 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200508224011/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4157908.stm. live.
103. Web site: President Lagos: We can make a greater effort to make yesterday's and today's trials equally just . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20080423171251/http://www.chileangovernment.cl/index.php?id=448&option=com_content&task=view . 23 April 2008 . Chilean Government.
104. Web site: Founding Member States . United Nations . 14 September 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190704121608/https://research.un.org/en/unmembers/founders . 4 July 2019.
105. Web site: Chile . United Nations . 14 September 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190914180256/https://library.un.org/unms?combine=Chile . 14 September 2019.
106. Web site: Election (13 May 2010) Human Rights Council. 64th Session. United Nations General Assembly. 28 June 2017. 30 June 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170630081406/http://www.un.org/en/ga/64/elections/hrc/index.shtml. live.
107. Web site: Chad, Chile, Lithuania, Nigeria and Saudi Arabia were elected to serve on the UN Security Council. 17 October 2013. 17 October 2013. United Nations. 20 October 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20131020020717/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=46277&Cr=security+council&Cr1=. live.
108. Web site: Almirante Julio Leiva Nuevo Comandante en Jefe de la Armada . Ministry of Defence of Chile . 10 January 2018 . 24 September 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170924092317/http://www.defensa.cl/noticias/almirante-julio-leiva-nuevo-comandante-en-jefe-de-la-armada/ . dead .
109. Web site: The National Fleet . https://web.archive.org/web/20070610100514/http://www.armada.cl/p4_ingles/site/artic/20050719/pags/20050719132710.html . 10 June 2007 . Chilean Navy . 30 May 2014.
110. Web site: Submarine Force . 14 July 2013 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070610100430/http://www.armada.cl/p4_ingles/site/artic/20050719/pags/20050719132849.html . 10 June 2007 .
111. Web site: Carabineros de Chile . 24 October 2007 . 13 July 2013 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120312050416/http://www.carabineros.cl/sitioweb/web/verSeccion.do?cod=239&codContenido=429 . 12 March 2012 .
112. Web site: Chapter XXVI: Disarmament – No. 9 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons . United Nations Treaty Collection . 7 July 2017 . 19 August 2019 . 6 August 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190806220546/https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&clang=_en . live .
113. Web site: 2024 Global Peace Index .
114. Web site: Decreto ley 2339 de 1978 . 28 June 2011 . Ministerio del Interior . 10 October 1978 . 29 January 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120129044024/http://www.leychile.cl/Navegar?idNorma=6889&idVersion=1978-10-10 . live .
115. Web site: Decreto ley 2867 de 1979 . 20 March 2011 . Ministerio del Interior . 26 October 1979 . 10 September 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110910085048/http://www.leychile.cl/Navegar?idNorma=7019&idVersion=1979-10-26 . live .
116. Web site: Decreto ley 2868 de 1979 . 20 March 2011 . Ministerio del Interior . 26 October 1979 . 10 September 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110910180343/http://www.leychile.cl/Navegar?idNorma=7020&idVersion=1979-10-26 . live .
117. Web site: Ley 20174 de 2007 . 20 March 2011 . Ministerio del Interior . 5 April 2007 . 10 September 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110910174827/http://www.leychile.cl/Navegar?idNorma=259774&idVersion=2007-04-05 . live .
118. Web site: Ley 20175 de 2007 . 20 March 2011 . Ministerio del Interior . 11 April 2007 . 10 September 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110910124207/http://www.leychile.cl/Navegar?idNorma=259864&idVersion=2007-04-11 . live .
119. Book: División político-administrativa y censal, 2007 . https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.ine.cl/canales/chile_estadistico/territorio/division_politico_administrativa/pdf/DPA_COMPLETA.pdf . 9 October 2022 . live . 27 February 2013 . Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas . 18 March 2008 . 12 . Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas . 978-956-7952-68-7.
120. Web site: Chile flag and description . Worldatlas.com . 1 August 2011 . 18 July 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110718113539/http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/flags/countrys/samerica/chile.htm . live .
121. Web site: How does the World Bank classify countries? . . 8 April 2021 . 22 May 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200522092916/https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/378834-how-does-the-world-bank-classify-countries . live .
122. Web site: Country and Lending Groups . High-income economies ($12,616 or more) . The World Bank . 14 September 2013 . 1 July 2013 . 18 March 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110318125456/http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-classifications/country-and-lending-groups#High_income . live .
123. Web site: GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$) . The World Bank . 14 September 2013 . Washington, D.C. . xls . 1 August 2013 . GNI-WB . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055207/http://api.worldbank.org/datafiles/NY.GNP.PCAP.CD_Indicator_MetaData_en_EXCEL.xls . 21 September 2013.
124. Web site: Chile Economy: Population, GDP, Inflation, Business, Trade, FDI, Corruption . 13 November 2023 . The Heritage Foundation . en . 22 June 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190622094514/https://www.heritage.org/index/country/chile . live .
125. Web site: Chile's accession to the OECD . . 7 May 2010 . 22 July 2016 . 29 August 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120829025817/http://www.oecd.org/chile/chilesaccessiontotheoecd.htm . live .
126. http://www.weforum.org/pdf/GCR09/GCR20092010fullrankings.pdf Table 4: The Global Competitiveness Index 2009–2010 rankings and 2008–2009 comparisons
127. News: Mining in Chile: Copper solution. The Economist. 13 July 2013. 27 April 2013. 15 July 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20130715211952/http://www.economist.com/news/business/21576714-mining-industry-has-enriched-chile-its-future-precarious-copper-solution. live.
128. Chile. 17 February 2014.
129. Web site: Chile GDP – real growth rate . Indexmundi.com . 21 February 2013 . 13 July 2013 . 12 June 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190612084542/https://www.indexmundi.com/chile/gdp_real_growth_rate.html . live .
130. News: Chile finmin says no recession seen in 2009-report . Reuters . 10 January 2009 . 17 December 2009 . 11 January 2009 . https://web.archive.org/web/20090111024811/http://www.reuters.com/article/economicNews/idUSN1027661220090110 . live .
131. Web site: Chile: 2013 Article IV Consultation; IMF Country Report 13/198. 14 June 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20130717155041/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2013/cr13198.pdf . 17 July 2013 . live. IMF. 13 July 2013.
132. Web site: World Bank Open Data . 11 November 2023 . World Bank Open Data . 26 May 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230526025607/https://data.worldbank.org/ . live .
133. Web site: Casen 2006 en profundidad. https://web.archive.org/web/20130113065308/http://www.trabajoyequidad.cl/documentos/temp/TP-825-CASEN%2B2006%2Ben%2Bprofundidad-22-06-2007.pdf. 13 January 2013. Libertad y Desarrollo. 22 October 2007. 22 June 2007. dead.
134. Web site: Panorama social de América Latina . https://web.archive.org/web/20110707005900/http://www.cepal.cl/publicaciones/xml/9/41799/PSE-panoramasocial2010.pdf . dead . 7 July 2011 . ECLAC . 2010 . 13 July 2013 .
135. News: Una muy necesaria corrección: Hay cuatro millones de pobres en Chile. El Mercurio. 14 October 2007. 22 October 2007. 15 August 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210815184809/http://www.economiaynegocios.cl/noticias/noticias.asp?id=35048. live.
136. News: The Economist. Destitute no more. 22 October 2007. 16 August 2007. 16 October 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20071016204538/http://economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_id=9645174. live.
137. Web site: Ficha de Protección Social – Ministerio de Desarrollo Social . Fichaproteccionsocial.gob.cl . 20 November 2012 . 12 March 2013 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20160518190839/http://www.fichaproteccionsocial.gob.cl/estad/est_int.php?id=19 . 18 May 2016 .
138. Web site: Ficha de Protección Social – Ministerio de Desarrollo Social . Fichaproteccionsocial.gob.cl . 9 November 2012 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120915085201/http://www.fichaproteccionsocial.gob.cl/fps/fps2.php . 15 September 2012 .
139. Web site: The Chilean pension system . 13 July 2013 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120512092950/http://www.safp.cl/573/articles-3523_copyright.pdf . 12 May 2012 .
140. Web site: USA-Chile FTA Final Text . Ustr.gov . 13 July 2013 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20160328045456/https://ustr.gov/trade_agreements/bilateral/chile_fta/final_texts/section_index.html . 28 March 2016.
141. News: 2023 . Rating: Chile Credit Rating .
142. Book: Global Innovation Index 2023, 15th Edition . 28 October 2023 . www.wipo.int . 13 December 2023 . World Intellectual Property Organization . 10.34667/tind.46596 . 9789280534320 . en . 22 October 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231022042128/https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2023/index.html . live . Dutta . Soumitra . Lanvin . Bruno . Wunsch-Vincent . Sacha . León . Lorena Rivera . World Intellectual Property Organization .
143. Overland. Indra. 1 March 2019. The geopolitics of renewable energy: Debunking four emerging myths. https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://nupi.brage.unit.no/nupi-xmlui/bitstream/11250/2579292/2/2019%2b-%2bThe%2bgeopolitics%2bof%2brenewable%2benergy%252C%2bdebunking%2bfour%2bemerging%2bmyths.pdf . 9 October 2022 . live. Energy Research & Social Science. 49. 36–40. 10.1016/j.erss.2018.10.018. 2214-6296. free. 2019ERSS...49...36O .
144. Web site: USGS Copper Production Statistics. 11 July 2022. 9 October 2022. https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-copper.pdf. live.
145. Web site: USGS Iodine Production Statistics. 11 July 2022. 25 June 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210625191455/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-iodine.pdf. live.
146. Web site: USGS Rhenium Production Statistics. 11 July 2022. 21 June 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210621074425/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-rhenium.pdf. live.
147. Web site: USGS Lithium Production Statistics. 11 July 2022. 9 October 2022. https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-lithium.pdf. live.
148. Web site: USGS Molybdenum Production Statistics. 11 July 2022. 9 October 2022. https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-molybdenum.pdf. live.
149. Web site: USGS Silver Production Statistics. 11 July 2022. 15 May 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210515082301/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-silver.pdf. live.
150. Web site: USGS Salt Production Statistics. 11 July 2022. 9 October 2022. https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-salt.pdf. live.
151. Web site: USGS Potash Product ion Statistics. 11 July 2022. 9 October 2022. https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-potash.pdf. live.
152. Web site: USGS Sulfur Production Statistics. 11 July 2022. 9 October 2022. https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-sulfur.pdf. live.
153. Web site: USGS Iron Ore Production Statistics. 11 July 2022. 9 October 2022. https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-iron-ore.pdf. live.
154. Web site: Gold Production in Chile . 11 July 2022 . 18 October 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221018212808/https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/chile/gold-production . live .
155. Web site: Agriculture in Chile, by FAO . 11 July 2022 . 11 May 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170511194947/http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL/ . live .
156. Web site: Chile – OECD Data. theOECD. en. 2 November 2018. 25 November 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20181125030826/https://data.oecd.org/chile.htm. live.
157. News: Algas nocivas matam mais de 4,2 mil toneladas de salmão no Chile. 4 September 2022. 24 October 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20221024140847/https://www.istoedinheiro.com.br/algas-nocivas-matam-mais-de-42-mil-toneladas-de-salmao-no-chile/. live.
158. Web site: 2019. 2019 Statistical Report on World Vitiviniculture. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20210206112544/https://www.oiv.int/public/medias/6782/oiv-2019-statistical-report-on-world-vitiviniculture.pdf. 6 February 2021. 7 March 2021. International Organisation of Vine and Wine.
159. Blanco, Hernán et al. (August 2007) International Trade and Sustainable Tourism in Chile. International Institute for Sustainable Development
160. Web site: Conguillio National Park (Official GANP Park Page) . 26 October 2022 . national-parks.org . en . 26 October 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221026143218/https://national-parks.org/chile/conguillio . live .
161. Web site: Centre . UNESCO World Heritage . Historic Quarter of the Seaport City of Valparaíso . 22 January 2024 . UNESCO World Heritage Centre . en . 27 January 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240127041016/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/959 . live .
162. Web site: Pro|Chile – Importadores | Selección idiomas . Prochile.us . 22 December 2013 . 19 July 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140719080258/http://www.prochile.us/ . live .
163. News: Chile unveils huge Patagonia scenic route. 27 September 2018. BBC News. 24 November 2018. en-GB. 24 November 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20181124162200/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-45663960. live.
164. Web site: Data of interest 1 – National Network according to category . 11 July 2022 . 29 May 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220529172624/https://www.observatoriologistico.cl/infraestructura/red-vial/?id=5d719224d2c6f20029110412 . live .
165. Web site: Data of interest 3 – Red vial national de dobles calzadas por región año 2020 . 11 July 2022 . 29 May 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220529172624/https://www.observatoriologistico.cl/infraestructura/red-vial/?id=5d719224d2c6f20029110412 . live .
166. Web site: In 2021 they will bid for roads that unite Antofagasta with Caldera and Iquique . 13 March 2019 . 11 July 2022 . 23 October 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221023012331/https://www.infraestructurapublica.cl/2021-licitaran-carreteras-unen-antofagasta-caldera-e-iquique/ . live .
167. Web site: 115 nuevos km de autopistas . 11 July 2022 . 11 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220711122610/https://www.plataformaurbana.cl/archive/2009/01/14/115-nuevos-km-de-autopistas/ . live .
168. Web site: Omnilineas website. Omnilineas. 17 February 2014. 19 February 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140219172710/http://www.omnilineas.cl/comparison/index.html. live.
169. Web site: Percentage of Individuals using the Internet 2000 . International Telecommunication Union . June 2013 . 22 June 2013 . 9 February 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140209141641/http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/statistics/2013/Individuals_Internet_2000-2012.xls . live .
170. Web site: Internet Assigned Numbers Authority . .cl Domain Delegation Data . www.iana.org . 3 April 2024 . 20 February 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240220234533/http://www.iana.org/domains/root/db/cl.html . live .
171. Book: Cybersecurity Governance in Latin America: States, Threats, and Alliances . Carlos Solar . State University of New York Press. 2023 . 9781438491424 .
172. Web site: IEA – Report. 4 November 2020. 2 February 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170202060054/https://www.iea.org/statistics/statisticssearch/report/?country=Chile&product=indicators. dead.
173. Web site: Renewable Capacity Statistics 2022. IRENA. April 2022. 8 May 2022. 9 October 2022. https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2022/Apr/IRENA_RE_Capacity_Statistics_2022.pdf. live.
174. Web site: Energia Renovável para a irigação no Deserto do Atacama . 11 July 2022 . 16 October 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20171016080702/http://www.iadb.org/en/news/webstories/2011-12-15/solar-power-plant-in-atacama-desert-in-chile,9715.html . live .
175. Web site: Chile inaugura 1ª planta de energia termossolar da América Latina . 11 July 2022 . 21 March 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220321111842/https://economia.uol.com.br/noticias/efe/2021/06/09/chile-inaugura-1-planta-de-energia-termossolar-da-america-latina.htm . live .
176. Web site: Anuario Estadísticas Vitales 2003. Instituto National de Estadísticas. 30 May 2008. 1 May 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200501215449/https://www.ine.cl/canales/chile_estadistico/demografia_y_vitales/estadisticas_vitales/pdf/anuarios/vitales2003.zip. live.
177. Web site: Chile: Proyecciones y Estimaciones de Población. Total País 1950–2050. Instituto National de Estadísticas. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20091230181515/http://www.ine.cl/canales/chile_estadistico/demografia_y_vitales/proyecciones/Informes/Microsoft%20Word%20-%20InforP_T.pdf. 30 December 2009.
178. Lizcano Fernández . Francisco . Composición Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI . Ethnic Composition of the Three Cultural Areas of the American Continent at the Beginning of the 21st Century . es . Convergencia . August 2005 . 12 . 38 . 185–232 . 23 November 2020 . 22 September 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220922054604/https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1405-14352005000200185 . live .
179. Valenzuela . C. . Marco de referencia sociogenético para los estudios de Salud Pública en Chile . Sociogenetic reference limits for public health studies in Chile . es . Revista Chilena de Pediatría . 1984 . 55 . 2 . 123–127 . 6473850 . 162443939 .
180. Vanegas L . Jairo . Villalón C . Marcelo . Valenzuela Y . Carlos . Ethnicity and race as variables in epidemiological research about inequity . Revista médica de Chile . May 2008 . 136 . 5 . 637–644 . 10.4067/S0034-98872008000500014 . 18769813 . free .
181. Cruz-Coke . Ricardo . 1994 . Genetic epidemiology of single gene defects in Chile . Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad de Chile . Santiago de Chile . 31. 9 . 702–706 . 10.1136/jmg.31.9.702 . 7815439 . 1050080 .
182. Web site: Estudio genético en chilenos muestra desconocida herencia africana | El Dínamo . Eldinamo.cl . 19 August 2013 . 22 December 2013 . 6 July 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140706180053/http://www.eldinamo.cl/2013/08/19/estudio-genetico-en-chilenos-muestra-desconocida-herencia-africana/ . dead .
183. Godinho . Neide Maria de Oliveira . O impacto das migrações na constituição genética de populações latino-americanas . The impact of migration on the genetic makeup of Latin American populations . pt . 2008 . 23 November 2020 . 12 November 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20201112044147/https://repositorio.unb.br/handle/10482/5542 . live .
184. Homburger . Julian . et al . 2015 . Genomic Insights into the Ancestry and Demographic History of South America . 11 . 12 . 1005602 . . 10.1371/journal.pgen.1005602 . 26636962 . 4670080 . free.
185. Web site: 5.2.6. Estructura racial . La Universidad de Chile . 26 August 2007 . 16 October 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20071016124831/http://mazinger.sisib.uchile.cl/repositorio/lb/ciencias_quimicas_y_farmaceuticas/medinae/cap2/5b6.html . dead . (Main page)
186. Web site: Informe Latinobarómetro 2011 . Latinobarometro.org . 13 July 2013 . 13 January 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160113084058/http://www.latinobarometro.org/latino/LATContenidos.jsp . live .
187. Web site: Encuesta CEP, Julio 2002. July 2002. 18 May 2012. es. 29 April 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20130429001707/http://www.cepchile.cl/enc_encuestas.html. dead.
188. Web site: ILOLEX: submits English query . http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091225170052/http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/cgi-lex/ratifce.pl?C169 . dead . 25 December 2009 . Ilo.org . 9 January 2004 .
189. Web site: Chile's Supreme Court Upholds Indigenous Water Use Rights . The Santiago Times. 30 November 2009 . 2 March 2010 . https://web.archive.org/web/20100303200719/http://www.santiagotimes.cl/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=17739:chiles-supreme-court-upholds-indigenous-water-use-rights&catid=19:other&Itemid=142 . 3 March 2010 . dead .
190. Web site: Osasuna Saila - Eusko Jaurlaritza . Euskadi.eus. 1 April 2021. 10 April 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210410191534/https://www.euskadi.eus/eusko-jaurlaritza/osasun-saila/hasiera/. live . Basque.
191. Book: Salazar Vergara. Gabriel. Pinto. Julio. Historia contemporánea de Chile: Actores, identidad y movimiento. II. https://books.google.com/books?id=Vyx8JQtvU78C&pg=PA78. 14 July 2013. 1999. Lom Ediciones. 978-956-282-174-2. 76–81. La Presencia Inmigrante. 29 November 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20231129020127/https://books.google.com/books?id=Vyx8JQtvU78C&pg=PA78. live.
192. Web site: Memoria presentada al Supremo Gobierno por la Comision Central del Censo . https://web.archive.org/web/20090919222206/http://www.ine.cl/canales/usuarios/cedoc_online/censos/pdf/censo_1907.pdf . 19 September 2009 . dead . 1907 . es . 13 February 2013 .
193. Web site: De los Vascos, Oñati y los Elorza . Waldo Ayarza Elorza . 59, 65, 66 . 13 July 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130819165814/http://www.euzkoetxeachile.cl/libros/04-De%20los%20Vascos%20Onati%20y%20los%20Elorza-2.pdf . 19 August 2013 . dead .
194. Parvex . R. . 2014 . Le Chili et les mouvements migratoires . Hommes & Migrations . Nº 1305 . 71–76 . 10.4000/hommesmigrations.2720 . free . 21 July 2020 . 1 August 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200801043210/https://journals.openedition.org/hommesmigrations/2720 . live .
195. Web site: Historia de Chile: Otros Artículos. Británicos y Anglosajones en Chile durante el siglo XIX . 16 March 2012 . Jorge Sanhueza Aviléz . Biografía de Chile . 12 November 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20201112003642/http://www.biografiadechile.cl/detalle.php?IdContenido=1673 . dead .
196. News: Alemanes en Chile: entre el pasado colono y el presente empresarial. Deustche-Welle. Victoria Dannemann. 21 July 2020. 1 May 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150501162120/http://www.dw.de/alemanes-en-chile-entre-el-pasado-colono-y-el-presente-empresarial/a-14958983-1. live.
197. Web site: Inmigración a Chile . Domivina. https://web.archive.org/web/20150702225324/http://www.domovina.cl/inmigrantes-otras.php . 2 July 2015 .
198. Web site: entrevista al Presidente de la Cámara vasca . Deia.com . 22 May 2008 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20090511001812/http://www.deia.com/es/impresa/2008/05/22/bizkaia/ekonomia/469496.php . 11 May 2009 .
199. Web site: Chile: Palestinian refugees arrive to warm welcome . Adnkronos.com . 7 April 2003 . 29 October 2009 . 24 November 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20171124194143/http://www1.adnkronos.com/AKI/English/CultureAndMedia/?id=1.0.2050534508 . dead .
200. Web site: 500,000 descendientes de primera y segunda generación de palestinos en Chile . Laventana.casa.cult.cu . 13 July 2013 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20090722073846/http://laventana.casa.cult.cu/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=514 . 22 July 2009.
201. News: Ghosh P. . Arabs in the Andes? Chile, The Unlikely Long-Term Home of a Large Palestinian Community . International Business Times . 29 September 2017 . 23 April 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210423212551/https://www.ibtimes.com/arabs-andes-chile-unlikely-long-term-home-large-palestinian-community-1449718 . live .
202. https://www.ine.cl/prensa/2020/03/12/seg%C3%BAn-estimaciones-la-cantidad-de-personas-extranjeras-residentes-habituales-en-chile-bordea-los-1-5-millones-al-31-de-diciembre-de-2019 Estimación de Población Extranjera en Chile, al 31 de diciembre de 2019
203. Web site: Chile: Moving Towards a Migration Policy . Migrationinformation.org . 1 August 2011 . 15 February 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140215080515/http://migrationinformation.org/Profiles/display.cfm?ID=199 . live .
204. Web site: El debate sobre la inmigración ilegal se extiende a la región . 31 December 2008 . Landaburu . Juan . 24 June 2007 . . 13 February 2009 . https://web.archive.org/web/20090213112339/http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=920108 . dead .
205. Web site: Chilean Election Unlikely to Halt New Barriers to Immigration. 20 November 2021. 21 November 2021. 21 November 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20211121064647/https://globalriskinsights.com/2021/11/chilean-election-unlikely-to-halt-new-barriers-to-immigration/. live.
206. Web site: List of Chilean cities. Observatorio Urbano, Ministerio de Vivienda y Urbanismo de Chile. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304031912/http://www.observatoriourbano.cl/indurb/pre_ciudades.asp?id_user=0&idComCiu=0. 4 March 2016.
207. Web site: Population 15 years of age or older, by religion, region, sex and age groups. (censused population) . 23 March 2018. 7 September 2015 . es . .pdf. dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20170207182725/http://plazapublica.cl/wp-content/uploads/658799.pdf . 7 February 2017.
208. 7,853,428 out of 11,226,309 people over 15 years of age. Web site: Population 15 years of age or older, by religion, administrative division, sex and age groups. https://web.archive.org/web/20060519100306/http://www.ine.cl/cd2002/cuadros/6/C6_00000.pdf . 19 May 2006 . live. Censo 2002. 1 March 2014. es.
209. Web site: Chile. International Religious Freedom Report. United States Department of State. 19 September 2008. 22 May 2019. 4 April 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230404113441/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108518.htm. live.
210. Web site: Track semanal de Opinión Pública . es . Weekly Public Opinion Track . 7 September 2015 . 11 December 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170207182725/http://plazapublica.cl/wp-content/uploads/658799.pdf . 7 February 2017 . dead.
211. Web site: Breathtaking Baha'i Temple Rises in Chile . Purushotma . Shastri . . HuffPost . 6 December 2017 . 5 August 2021 . 5 December 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20161205142740/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/shastri-purushotma/bahai-temple-of-light-ris_b_6242968.html . live .
212. Web site: Breathtaking Baha'i Temple Rises in Chile . Purushotma . Shastri . . HuffPost . 6 December 2017 . 21 February 2019 . 5 December 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20161205142740/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/shastri-purushotma/bahai-temple-of-light-ris_b_6242968.html . live .
213. Bill Kte'pi, "Chile", in Robert E. Emery, Cultural Sociology of Divorce: An Encyclopedia, Volume 1 (London: Sage, 2013), 266–68. books.google.com/books?id=wzJdSIfeeTQC&pg=PA266
214. News: Hola, Luther . The Economist. 6 November 2008 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20081210125640/http://www.economist.com/world/americas/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12564066 . 10 December 2008 .
215. News: Andrea Henríquez . Los evangélicos tienen su feriado . BBC Mundo . 31 October 2008 . 17 December 2009 . 25 June 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180625104726/http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/specials/2007/en_nombre_de_la_fe/newsid_7701000/7701290.stm . live .
216. Web site: Patron Saints: 'C' . Catholic Online . 28 June 2012 . 9 April 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190409002526/https://www.catholic.org/saints/patron.php?letter=C . live .
217. Web site: Las fechas del proceso de Canonización del Padre Hurtado . es . 9 January 2008 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080122033957/http://www.canonizacion.cl/cano_etapaPH.html . 22 January 2008 . dead.
218. Web site: Ethnologue report for Chile . Ethnologue.com . 1 August 2011 . 3 February 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130203004338/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=CL . live .
219. Web site: Oliver Zoellner . Oliver Zoellner | Generating Samples of Ethnic Minorities in Chile . Research-worldwide.de . 17 December 2009 . 2 December 2009 . https://web.archive.org/web/20091202075142/http://www.research-worldwide.de/article-chile2005.html . live .
220. Web site: Repeat after me: Hello, my name is . Globalpost.com . 22 February 2010 . 11 August 2010 . https://web.archive.org/web/20100811114741/http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/chile/090908/lack-english-proficiency . live .
221. Sáez Godoy . Leopoldo . Anglicismos en el español de Chile . Anglicisms in Chilean Spanish . es . Atenea (Concepción) . 2005 . 492 . 171–177 . 10.4067/S0718-04622005000200010 . free .
222. Web site: ¿Cuál es la cotización legal para salud de un trabajador activo y en qué plazo deben ser declaradas y pagadas? . supersalud.gob.cl . . 26 September 2021 . 26 September 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210926171408/http://www.supersalud.gob.cl/consultas/667/w3-article-2908.html . live .
223. Web site: Chile. TVET Country Profiles. UNESCO International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training . 29 April 2014. 29 April 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140429204820/http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/worldtvetdatabase1.php?ct=CHL. live.
224. Web site: Mensualidad de los colegios con los mejores puntajes en la PSU supera los mil . Emol.com . 30 December 2013 . 18 July 2014 . 19 July 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140719000507/http://www.emol.com/noticias/nacional/2013/12/30/637336/mensualidad-en-colegios-top-10-en-la-psu-supera-los-250-mil.html . live .
225. Web site: Program in Chile | Yale Law School . Law.yale.edu . 22 December 2013 . 24 December 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20131224103311/http://www.law.yale.edu/linkageinchili.htm . live .
226. Web site: Valdivia Chile . Allsouthernchile.com . 1 August 2011 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20090919231219/http://www.allsouthernchile.com/southamerica/valdivia-southern-chile-city-guide/index.html . 19 September 2009.
227. Web site: International Web Solutions, Inc. . Latin America :: Chile . Global Adrenaline . 1 August 2011 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110711100623/http://www.globaladrenaline.com/latinamerica/chile/ . 11 July 2011 .
228. Web site: Learning About Each Other . Learnapec.org . 1 August 2011 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110429020520/http://www.learnapec.org/index.cfm?action=exploration&cou_id=4 . 29 April 2011.
229. Web site: Chile Foreign Relations . Country-studies.com . 1 August 2011 . 8 July 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110708194324/http://www.country-studies.com/chile/foreign-relations.html . live .
230. Web site: Memoria Chilena . Memoriachilena.cl . 6 December 2008 . 12 January 2009 . https://web.archive.org/web/20090112172209/http://www.memoriachilena.cl/temas/index.asp?id_ut=elfolclordechileysustresgrandesraices . live .
231. News: Martinez. Jessica. Top Cultural Celebrations and Festivals in Chile. USA Today. 27 September 2013. 8 May 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200508185540/https://traveltips.usatoday.com/top-cultural-celebrations-festivals-chile-61003.html. live.
232. Web site: Un mapa por completar: la joven poesia chilena – ¿Por qué tanta y tan variada poesía? . Uchile.cl . 17 December 2009 . 10 May 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200510185823/https://www.uchile.cl/cultura/poetasjovenes/bianchi26.htm . dead .
233. Web site: Latin American Herald Tribune – Isabel Allende Named to Council of Cervantes Institute . Laht.com . 14 November 2010 . 30 April 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110430032920/http://www.laht.com/article.asp?ArticleId=346023&CategoryId=13003 . dead .
234. News: Bolaño's 2666: The Best Book of 2008. https://web.archive.org/web/20081115083810/http://www.time.com/time/arts/article/0,8599,1857951,00.html . dead . 15 November 2008 . Time . 10 November 2008 . 28 April 2010 . Lev . Grossman . Lev Grossman .
235. Sarah Kerr . The Triumph of Roberto Bolaño . The New York Review of Books . 18 December 2008 . 20 February 2010 . 4 March 2010 . https://web.archive.org/web/20100304074108/http://www.nybooks.com/articles/22171 . live .
236. News: The Visceral Realist . The New York Times . James . Wood . 15 April 2007 . 1 April 2010 . 11 April 2009 . https://web.archive.org/web/20090411144027/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/15/books/review/Wood.t.html . live .
237. Book: Maria Baez Kijac. The South American Table: The Flavor and Soul of Authentic.... 14 July 2013. 2003. Harvard Common Press. 978-1-55832-249-3. 29 November 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20231129020253/https://books.google.com/books?id=LlePAePLlqkC. live.
238. Whole paragraph same as in Ravi Jyee et al., eds., World Encyclopaedia of American Countries, vol. 1New Delhi: Afro-Asian-American Chamber of Commerce Occupational Research and Development, 2016. 179–80. http://164.100.47.193/Ebooks/Writereaddate/52_2017.pdf
239. Web site: The strongest National League in the World 2011 . IFFHS . 18 April 2012 . 5 November 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181105214658/https://iffhs.de/?b6e28fa3002f71504e52d17f7370eff3702bb1c2bb11 . live .
240. Web site: Día del patrimonio cultural . chileatiende.gob.cl/ . 14 May 2019 . 13 May 2020 . 20 June 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200620174316/https://www.chileatiende.gob.cl/fichas/40159-dia-del-patrimonio-cultural . live .