Chibchan languages explained

Chibchan
Region:Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia
Familycolor:American
Fam1:Macro-Chibchan ?
Iso5:cba
Glotto:chib1249
Glottorefname:Chibchan
Map:Chibcha lang.png

The Chibchan languages (also known as Chibchano) make up a language family indigenous to the Isthmo-Colombian Area, which extends from eastern Honduras to northern Colombia and includes populations of these countries as well as Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. The name is derived from the name of an extinct language called Chibcha or Muisca, once spoken by the people who lived on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense of which the city of Bogotá was the southern capital at the time of the Spanish Conquista. However, genetic and linguistic data now indicate that the original heart of Chibchan languages and Chibchan-speaking peoples might not have been in Colombia, but in the area of the Costa Rica-Panama border, where the greatest variety of Chibchan languages has been identified.[1]

Notes and References

  1. Book: Kaufman, Terrence . 1990 . Language History in South America: What we know and how to know more . Doris L. . Payne . Amazonian Linguistics . 13–74 . Austin . University of Texas Press . 0-292-70414-3.
  2. Pache . Matthias . Evidence For A Chibcha-Jê Connection . International Journal of American Linguistics . 89 . 2 . 2023 . 0020-7071 . 10.1086/723641 . 219–253.
  3. Pache . Matthias . Pech and the Basic Internal Classification of Chibchan . International Journal of American Linguistics . 89 . 1 . 2023-01-01 . 0020-7071 . 10.1086/722240 . 81–103.
  4. Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho De Valhery. 2016. Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas . Ph.D. dissertation, University of Brasília.
  5. Book: Loukotka, Čestmír . Čestmír Loukotka . Classification of South American Indian languages . registration . UCLA Latin American Center . 1968 . Los Angeles.
  6. Pache, Matthias J. 2018. Contributions to Chibchan Historical Linguistics. Doctoral dissertation, Universiteit Leiden.
  7. Holt, Dennis. 1986. The Development of the Paya Sound-System. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles.
  8. Constenla Umaña, Adolfo (1981). Comparative Chibchan Phonology. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Linguistics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
  9. Constenla Umaña, Adolfo. 2012. Chibchan languages. In Lyle Campbell and Verónica Grondona (eds.), The Indigenous Languages of South America: A Comprehensive Guide, 391–440. Berlin: Mouton.
  10. Pache, M. J. (2018, December 5). Contributions to Chibchan historical linguistics. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/67094

    Page 18

    External relations

    A larger family called Macro-Chibchan, which would contain the Misumalpan languages, Xinca, and Lenca, was found convincing by Kaufman (1990).[1]

    Based primarily on evidence from grammatical morphemes, Pache (2018, 2023) suggests a distant relationship with the Macro-Jê languages.[2]

    Language contact

    Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Andaki, Barbakoa, Choko, Duho, Paez, Sape, and Taruma language families due to contact.

    Classification

    • Chibchan
      • A
      • B
        • Pech (Paya) – 990 speakers, endangered
        • Cuna–Colombian
          • Kuna (Dulegaya) – 60,600 speakers, vulnerable in Panama, endangered in Colombia
          • Chibcha–Motilon
            • Barí (Motilón) – 5,000 speakers, vulnerable
            • Chibcha–Tunebo
          • Arwako–Chimila
            • Chimila – 350 speakers, endangered
            • Arwako
              • Wiwa (Malayo, Guamaca) – 1,850 speakers, endangered
              • Kogi (Cogui) – 9,910 speakers, vulnerable

    The extinct languages of Antioquia, Old Catío and Nutabe have been shown to be Chibchan (Adelaar & Muysken, 2004:49). The language of the Tairona is unattested, apart from a single word, but may well be one of the Arwako languages still spoken in the Santa Marta range. It is said to be used by the Kogi people as a shamanistic ritual language. The Zenú Sinú language of northern Colombia is also sometimes included, as are the Malibu languages, though without any factual basis.

    Adolfo Constenla Umaña argues that Cueva, the extinct dominant language of Pre-Columbian Panama long assumed to be Chibchan based on a misinterpreted Kuna vocabulary, was actually Chocoan, but there is little evidence.

    The Cofán language (Kofán, Kofane, A'i) of Ecuador and Colombia has been erroneously included in Chibchan due to borrowed vocabulary.

    On the basis of shared grammatical innovations, Pache (2023) argues that Pech is most closely related to the Arhuacic languages of northern Colombia, forming a Pech-Arhuacic subgroup.[3]

    Jolkesky (2016)

    Internal classification by Jolkesky (2016):[4]

    (= extinct)

    Varieties

    Below is a full list of Chibchan language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.[5]

    Rama group
    Guatuso group
    • Guatuso – spoken on the Frío River, Costa Rica, now perhaps extinct.
    • Guetar / Brusela – extinct language once spoken on the Grande River, Costa Rica.
    • Suerre / Camachire / Chiuppa – extinct language once spoken on the Tortuguero River, Costa Rica. (Benzoni 1581, p. 214, only five words.)
    • Pocosi – extinct language once spoken on the Matina River and around the modern city of Puerto Limón, Costa Rica. (Unattested.)
    • Voto – extinct language once spoken at the mouth of the San Juan River, Costa Rica. (Unattested.)
    • Quepo – extinct language once spoken in Costa Rica on the Pacuare River. (W. Lehmann 1920, vol. 1, p. 238, only one single word.)
    • Corobisi / Corbesi / Cueresa / Rama de Rio Zapote – spoken by a few individuals in Costa Rica on the Zapote River. (Alvarez in Conzemius 1930, pp. 96–99.)
    Talamanca group
    • Terraba / Depso / Quequexque / Brurán – extinct language once spoken in Costa Rica on the Tenorio River.
    • Tirub / Rayado / Tiribi – extinct language spoken once in Costa Rica on the Virilla River.
    • Bribri / Lari – spoken on the Coca River and Tarire River, Costa Rica.
    • Estrella – Spanish name of an extinct language, the original name of which is unknown, once spoken on the Estrella River, Costa Rica.
    • Cabecar – language spoken on the Moy River, Costa Rica.
    • Chiripó – language spoken in Costa Rica on the Matina River and Chirripó River.
    • Viceyta / Abiseta / Cachi / Orosi / Tucurrique – extinct language once spoken on the Tarire River, Costa Rica.
    • Brunca / Boruca / Turucaca – extinct language of Costa Rica, spoken on the Grande River and in the Boruca region.
    • Coto / Cocto – extinct language once spoken between the sources of the Coto River and Grande River, Costa Rica. (Unattested.)
    Dorasque group
    • Chumulu – extinct language once spoken in El Potrero, Veraguas (Potrero de Vargas), Panama.
    • Gualaca – extinct language once spoken on the Chiriqui River, Panama.
    • Changuena – once spoken in Panama, on the Changuena River.
    Guaymi group
    • Muoi – extinct language once spoken in the Miranda Valley of Panama.
    • Move / Valiente – now spoken on the Guaymi River and in the Veragua Peninsula.
    • Norteño – dialect without an aboriginal name, spoken on the northern coast of Panama, now perhaps extinct.
    • Penonomeño – once spoken in the village of Penonemé.
    • Murire / Bucueta / Boncota / Bogota – spoken in the Serranía de Tabasara by a few families.
    • Sabanero / Savaneric / Valiente – extinct dialect without aboriginal name, once spoken on the plains south of the Serranía de Tabasara.
    • Pariza – extinct dialect spoken in the Conquest days on the Veragua Peninsula. (G. Espinosa 1864, p. 496, only one single word.)
    Cuna group
    • Coiba – extinct language once spoken on the Chagres River, Panama. (W. Lehmann 1920, vol. I, pp. 112–122; A. Santo Tomas 1908, pp. 124–128, only five words.)
    • Cuna / Bayano / Tule / Mandingo / San Blas / Karibe-Kuna / Yule – language spoken in eastern Panama, especially on the Bayano River, in San Blas and the small islands on the northern coast.
    • Cueva / Darien – extinct language Once spoken at the mouth of the Atrato River, Colombia.
    • Chochama – extinct language once spoken on the Suegro River, Panama. (Unattested.)
    Antioquia group
    • Guazuzú – once spoken in the Sierra de San Jerónimo, department of Antioquia, Colombia. (Unattested.)
    • Oromina / Zeremoe – extinct language once spoken south of the Gulf of Urabá, Antioquia, Colombia. (Unattested.)
    • Catio – once spoken in the region of Dabaiba, Colombia. (only a few words.)
    • Hevejico – once spoken in the Tonusco and Ebéjico Valleys. (Unattested.)
    • Abibe – once spoken in the Sierra de Abibe. (Unattested.)
    • Buritaca – once spoken at the sources of the Sucio River. (Unattested.)
    • Caramanta – once spoken around the city of Caramanta.
    • Cartama – once spoken around the modern city of Cartama. (Unattested.)
    • Pequi – once spoken in the Pequi region. (Unattested.)
    • Arma – once spoken on the Pueblanco River. (Unattested.)
    • Poze – once spoken on the Pozo River and Pacova River. (Cieza de Leon 1881, p. 26, only one single word.)
    • Nutabé – once spoken in the San Andrés Valley.
    • Tahami – once spoken on the Magdalena River and Tora River. (Unattested.)
    • Yamesi – once spoken at the mouth of the Nechi River and on the Porce River. (Simon 1882–1892, vol. 5, p. 80, only one single word.)
    • Avurrá – once spoken in the Aburrá Valley. (Piedrahita (Fernandez de Piedrahita) 1688, cap. 2, f. 9, only one single word.)
    • Guamoco – once spoken around the modern city of Zaragoza, Antioquia. (Unattested.)
    • Anserma / Humbra / Umbra – once spoken on the Cauca River around the city of Anserma, Caldas. (J. Robledo 1865, pp. 389 and 392, only a few words.)
    • Amachi – once spoken in the San Bartolomé Valley. (Unattested.)
    Chibcha group
    • Chibcha / Muisca / Mosca – extinct language once spoken on the upper plateau of Bogotá and Tunja, department of Cundinamarca, Colombia.
      • Duit dialect – once spoken on the Tunja River and Tundama River.
    • Tunebo / Tame – language now spoken by many tribes living in the area east of the Chibcha tribe. Dialects:
    • Chitarero – extinct language once spoken around the modern city of Pamplona, department of Santander. (Unattested.)
    • Lache – extinct language once spoken on the Chicamocha River and in the Sierra de Chita, department of Boyacá. (Unattested.)
    Motilon group
    Arhuaco (Arwako) group
    • Tairona / Teyuna – extinct language once spoken on the Frio River and on the Caribbean coast, department of Magdalena, Colombia, now a secret language of the priests in the Cagaba tribe.
    • Zyuimakane – extinct language once spoken on the Volador River in the same region. (Unattested.)
    • Bungá – extinct language once spoken on the Santa Clara River. (Unattested.)
    • Ulabangui – once spoken on the Negro River, in the Santa Clara River region. (Unattested.)
    • Cashingui – once spoken on the Palomino River. (Unattested.)
    • Masinga – once spoken on the Bonda River, in the Palomino River region. (Unattested.)
    • Bonda / Matuna – once spoken on the Bonda River and Santa María River. (Holmer 1953a, p. 313, only one single word; Preuss 1927, only a few toponyms.)
    • Cágaba / Köggaba / Kaugia / Koghi – language spoken in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in the villages of San Andrés, San Miguel, San José, Santa Rosa, and Pueblo Viejo.
    • Guamaca / Nábela / Sanha / Arsario – spoken in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta region in the villages of El Rosario, Potrerito, and Marocaso.
    • Bintucua / Ijca / Ika / Iku / Machaca / Vintukva – spoken in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta region in the village of San Sebastián (near Atanquez).
    • Atanque / Campanaque / Busintana / Buntigwa / Kallwama – spoken in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in the village of Atanquez.
    • Upar / Eurpari / Giriguana – extinct language once spoken on the César River. (Unattested.)
    • Cariachil – once spoken between the Molino River and Fonseca River. (Unattested.)
    • Ocanopán / Itoto – once spoken around Cerro Pintado. (Unattested.)
    Paya group

    Proto-language

    Proto-Chibchan
    Familycolor:American
    Target:Chibchan languages

    Pache (2018) is the most recent reconstruction of Proto-Chibchan.[6] Other reconstructions include Holt (1986).[7]

    Constenla (1981)

    Proto-Chibchan reconstructions by Constenla (1981):[8]

    gloss Proto-Chibchan
    arm, hand, shoulder
    • ˈkuíkI, *ˈkuí-
    ashes
    • bur-, *buˈrṹ
    at, in
    • skA; *ki; *sə
    at, in, towards
    • ka
    big (size or quantity)
    • təˈĩ
    bird
    blood
    • ApÍ
    boat, craft
    • huˈLù
    body
    • AˈpÀ
    bone
    • ˈkàrə
    breasts
    • kAʔ
    breast
    • ˈtsúʔ, *ˈtsúʔtsú
    brother
    • səˈkə
    brother-in-law
    • ˈuba; *ˈduáʔ
    butterfly
    • kuA-, *kuAʔ-
    cedar (several trees of the Cedrela genus)
    • uˈru
    • puLí, *puLíkI
    child, young of an animal, egg
    • əˈrə̀
    child, young of an animal
    • ˈuÁʔ-
    cloth
    • ˈsuá-
    cloud
    • ˈbõ̀, *bo-
    cockroach
    • ˈsóx-
    cocoa
    • kə́ˈhùʔ
    come
    • ˈda-; *ˈdI-
    cook
    • ˈdu-
    cotton
    • suˈhí
    cough, catarrh
    • ˈtóʔ
    crocodile
    • ˈkú-
    cultivated field
    • ˈtÌ
    curassow (Crax rubra)
    • ˈdubÍ
    deer
    • ˈsur, *ˈsurĩ̀
    diminutive
    • -ˈaːrə
    dog
    • ˈto
    dove (common ground dove)
    • ˈÚtu-
    dry
    • diˈsə-
    dry season
    • ˈduá-
    eagle, hawk
    • ˈpṹ
    ear
    • ˈkuhkə́, *ˈkuhkuə́
    eat, drink
    • ˈga-
    egg, sprout, suckling
    • ˈpú
    • dəˈkər̃ə́
    enter
    • ˈdok-
    excrement
    • ˈgã́
    eye
    • úb
    face
    • uˈbə́
    father
    • ˈkáka
    feline
    • dəbə̃́; *kuLÁʔ
    find
    • ˈkũ
    finger, hand
    • ˈkU
    firewood, fire, coal, live coal
    • ˈgÌ
    first person prefix
    • də̃-
    fish
    • ˈuA; *dibÃ̀
    five
    • sAkẽ́
    flesh
    • gAtA
    fly
    • ˈkulu
    foot
    • sAˈkə̃
    four
    • bəhˈke
    fruit
    • ubə́
    give birth
    • ˈgU-
    gnat (jején)
    • buˈr̃ṹʔ
    go
    • ˈdA-
    grease
    • ˈkiə́
    grind
    • ˈuʔ
    grindstone, to sharpen
    • ˈiáʔ
    grow, widen
    • təˈlə-
    guan (bird)
    • ˈkũ̀
    hand
    • AtA; *guLÀ
    head, hair
    • ˈtsã̀
    house
    • ˈhu
    how many
    • ˈbi
    hunger
    • bAˈLi
    I
    • ˈda
    jocote (Spondias purpurea), jobo (Spondias mombin)
    • bəˈrə́ʔ
    kill
    • ˈguə
    know, see
    lake
    • iAˈbÁ
    laugh
    • ˈhaĩ
    laurel (Cordia alliodora)
    • ˈBúʔ
    leaf
    • ˈkə́
    leg
    • kəˈrə
    liquid
    • dí; *ˈli
    lizard
    • ulíʔ
    louse
    • ˈkṹ
    maize
    • ˈIBI
    make
    • gU
    mayo (tree)
    • bèk
    • úriʔ
    • dõ̀, *do-
    • hòkI
    moon, month
    • siˈhíʔ
    mother-in-law
    • ˈgAkA
    mouse
    • ˈsuhkÌ
    mouth
    • ˈkahkə
    mud
    • ˈdÚ; *oˈr̃i
    name
    • ˈhaká
    nape, neck
    • duˈkurə
    neck
    • ˈgala
    net
    • kAˈlÁʔ
    nose
    • dəˈIkI
    now
    • ˈBə
    old
    • AˈkÍkI; *tAˈlá
    one
    • ˈé ?
    otter
    • doʔ
    paca (Agouti paca)
    • ˈkuri
    peachpalm (Bactris gasipaes, Guilelma utilis)
    • ˈsúbaʔ
    peccary (Tayassu pecari spiradens)
    • siˈdĩ́ʔ
    peel, undress
    • ˈsu-
    person
    • ApÍ-
    place, time, environment, land
    • ˈká
    plant
    • ˈdi
    poró tree, elequeme tree (synonyms)
    • baˈlò
    pot, vessel, jar
    • ˈũ
    pumpkin, squash
    • Apì
    rattle, maraca, colander, gourd cup (= object elaborated from a gourd)
    • ˈtã́
    reed
    • kəˈru
    rotten
    • ˈdṹ
    sand
    • ˈu; *ˈuBA
    say
    • ˈguA-; *ˈgI
    sea
    • dAgÌ
    second person prefix
    • bi-
    see
    • ˈguəkI
    seek
    • ˈdí
    seed, plant
    • ˈpkua
    seize, hold
    • kaLUh-
    seven
    • ˈkúh-
    shark
    • tAˈLì
    shrimp
    • ˈkUs
    sing
    • ˈtA
    six
    • ˈted
    skin, bark
    • hukə́
    sleep
    • kAp-
    small
    • ˈ¢id
    smell, odor
    • hALÀ
    snake
    • tAkAbÌ
    soil, earth, dirt, clay
    • ˈtÁBA
    son
    • gAbÀ
    spider
    • óhk
    squirrel
    • kudã́
    star
    • bÌ-
    stick (a spear), insert, put in
    • ˈtsã
    stone
    • ˈhákI
    sun
    • dì; *ˈka; *dui
    sweet
    • bəˈlóʔ
    tail
    • ˈduhkI
    tapir
    • dAĩ́ʔ
    take
    • ˈgúʔ
    tear
    • ˈubə́diə
    that
    • ˈhéʔ; *ˈse; *ˈkue; *ˈdiÀ
    third person
    • i-; *A
    this
    • ˈdi-; *ˈhíʔ
    three
    • ˈbai
    tobacco
    • ˈdu, *ˈduə̀
    tongue
    • pkúʔ, *ˈpkuə́
    tooth
    • ˈtu; *aˈkə
    toucan sp.
    • Biˈli
    tray (made of wood, used to wash)
    • kuˈLIʔ
    transitive verb marker
    • Bə-
    tree
    • ˈkàr; *kaˈri
    tree, trunk of a tree, wood
    • ˈkarə́
    tuber
    • ˈtuʔ
    turtle
    • kuÌ; *uˈli
    two
    • ˈbU
    uncle
    • kəˈru
    vulva
    • ˈkÍ
    water
    • ˈdíʔ
    we (inclusive)
    • ˈsẽ́ʔ
    weep
    • ˈbo
    what
    • ˈhi
    where
    • biə
    white
    • buLu
    wind
    • ˈBur-
    with
    • uA; *tÁ
    woodpecker
    • soˈr̃o
    woods, firewood
    • ˈbUʔ
    work
    • hiBA
    worm
    • ˈgĩ́
    you (sg.)
    • ˈbáʔ
    • ˈik

    Proto-Chibchan horticultural vocabulary (Constenla 2012):[9]

    • *dihke 'to sow'
    • *te1 'cultivated clearing'
    • *ike 'manioc'
    • *tuʔ 'tuber, yam' (Dioscorea spp.; Xanthosoma sagittifolium)
    • *apì 'pumpkin, squash'
    • *e, *ebe 'maize'
    • *du, *dua1 'tobacco'
    • *tã1 'rattles from gourd'
    • *toka 'gourd cup'

    Pache (2018)

    Proto-Chibchan reconstructions by Pache (2018):

    gloss Proto-Chibchan
    all
    • ᵐbaⁿd-; *pii-ⁿda
    • ka
    angry
    • uⁿdu
    arm, wing, shoulder
    • kwik
    armadillo
    • ⁿduʔ
    ashes
    • ᵐbũⁿd(ũ)
    aspect, imperfective
    • -e
    aspect, perfective
    • -o
    back
    • ⁿda(kiⁿd) ~ *ta(kiⁿd); *ᵑga(ⁿda)
    bad
    • ᵑgwahⁿd; *saⁿd(a)
    basket, mochila
    • si
    bat
    • (ⁿdu-)ku(ⁿd)
    to bathe, swim
    • hauᵐb ~ *aᵐbuʔ
    to be
    • ⁿda(i) ~ *ta(i)
    beam of light, heat
    • ᵐbaʔ
    beautiful
    • ⁿdu
    bee, honey
    • La
    bee, wasp
    • ᵐbuⁿd(u)
    to begin, start, first
    • pahⁿd-
    belly
    • ita ~ *iⁿda ~ *iaⁿd
    big
    • ᵐbuⁿdi ~ *kuⁿdi ~ *kuiⁿd(i); *ᵐbu-ⁿda
    bile, gall, bitter
    • hakiʔ
    bird, dove
    • ⁿdu(ⁿd)
    blood
    • hapi ~ *apiʔ
    to blow, fly
    • kuʔ
    body
    • apa
    bone, strong, hard
    • kãⁿd-
    bone, hard
    • ⁿdaⁿdi ~ ⁿdaiⁿd- / saⁿdi ~ *saiⁿd-
    breast, teat
    • kãʔ; *ʦuʔ
    breath, wind
    • ᵐbuⁿd-
    brother
    • ⁿdaᵐba; *ⁿdaka / *saka
    brother-in-law
    • (ⁿd-)uᵐba
    butterfly, hat
    • kwahkwah
    calabash
    • ⁿdãᵐbã / *sãᵐbã; *taukaʔ
    to catch, grasp
    • ka
    cedar
    • uⁿdu
    • ᵐba
    chicken
    • aʦa-kaⁿda
    child
    • ᵑgwaʔ
    child, small
    • ʦu
    clay, mud
    • (taBi-)ⁿda
    cloud, fog
    • ᵐba-
    coal, hot coal
    • kuⁿda
    cold, cold substance
    • ⁿdaᵐba-
    cold
    • ʦãĩh
    to come
    • ⁿda
    • ⁿda ~ *ta; *uˈa; *ᵐba
    to cook
    • Li; *ⁿdu
    cosmos (sky, day, time, space, earth, place)
    • kaʔ(k)
    creeping animal
    • ⁿda(ⁿd) / *sa(ⁿd)
    to dance
    • kwi
    dark
    • tuⁿdi ~ *tuiⁿd
    dative
    • ia
    diarrhea
    • ᵑga-ⁿdi(a)
    to do, make
    • õ
    dog
    • tau
    dove
    • ⁿdu-ᵐba(ⁿd)
    dry
    • ⁿdiⁿda / *ⁿdisa; *puⁿd-
    dust
    • kaʔ(k)-puⁿd-
    earth, floor, mud
    • taB(a)
    to eat
    • kuⁿdi ~ *kuiⁿd
    egg, offspring
    • La
    eight
    • hap-
    to enter
    • ⁿdaʔ-u
    excrement
    • ᵑga
    exterior
    • ᵐbaⁿd(a) ~ *ᵐbat(a)
    face
    • ᵑgwa(k)
    face, eye, fruit
    • uᵐba
    father
    • ka(ka)
    father, uncle, ancestor
    • ⁿdũ(-i)
    feather, wing, arm, hand
    • ᵑgak
    feline
    • ⁿdaᵐba; *ku(ⁿd-)
    field for cultivation
    • tai
    fireplace
    • ᵑga-u (ka[k])
    firewood
    • ᵑgi
    fish
    • ᵑgwa ~ *uᵑg
    flea
    • ᵐbak-
    foot, root
    • kihʦa ~ *kihsa
    four
    • ᵐbahka(i)
    friend, other
    • pai
    full
    • (hi-)iⁿda ~ *(hi-)ita
    to go
    • ᵐb-; *ⁿdaʔ ~ *taʔ
    god, wind
    • siᵐba
    to grow
    • kuH ~ *ᵐbuH
    hair, head
    • ʦa
    hand
    • haⁿd- ~ *hat-
    hand, arm
    • ᵑguⁿdaʔ
    hand, finger
    • kuuʔ
    to hear
    • kuh
    heart, liver, center
    • ᵐbihⁿda ~ *ᵐbihta; *taH(ᵐba)
    to holler
    • ᵐbau(ⁿd) ~ *kau(ⁿd)
    house
    • hu
    how much, how many
    • ᵐbi-
    human being
    • ᵐbaⁿdi ~ *ᵐbaiⁿd
    hummingbird
    • ᵐbiʦi ~ *ᵐbisi
    hunger
    • ᵐbaⁿdi
    I
    • ⁿdaH(ⁿd)
    instrumental/locative
    • ⁿdi
    jealous
    • ᵐbau(ⁿd)
    to kill
    • ᵑgua
    to know
    • ᵑgw-
    lake, rain [*ⁿdi-ɡwa]
    to laugh
    • haⁿd
    leaf
    • ka
    lightning
    • Guⁿdi ~ *GuiHⁿd
    lip
    • uk-ⁿda
    liquid
    • ⁿdiʔ-a
    liver
    • haiⁿd
    locative
    • ⁿda ~ *ta; *ki; *ʦika ~ *tsaik
    to look for, look after
    • ⁿdi
    louse
    • kũʔ
    maize
    • aiB ~ aBi
    manioc
    • i(k)
    meat, flesh
    • ᵑgaʔⁿda ~ *ᵑgaʔta; *sih
    monkey
    • huⁿdĩ ~ uⁿdĩʔ
    moon
    • siʔ
    mosquito
    • ʦuiⁿd
    mother-in-law, daughter-in-law
    • ᵑgak
    mouth
    • kah-ka
    mouth, vagina
    • ʦipi
    name
    • haka ~ *akaʔ
    nape
    • ⁿdu-kuⁿd(a) / *ⁿdu-kus(a)
    neck
    • ᵑgaⁿda
    net
    • kaⁿdaʔ
    new
    • (a-)ᵐbihⁿd- ~ *(a-)ᵐbiht-
    night, dark
    • ʦii
    nine, ten
    • uk(a)
    nominalizer
    • -ᵐba; *-ⁿd-; *-ka
    nose
    • ⁿdii(k)
    (older) sibling, (older) sister
    • ᵑgwi
    only
    • ᵐbii
    open
    • kah
    pale
    • siʔ-kwa
    palm
    • huka
    path
    • hi
    to peel
    • suʔ
    possessed
    • -i
    post, pole
    • ʦauⁿd ~ *tsuⁿda
    pot
    prick, sting, point
    • ⁿduk / *suk
    pumpkin, squash
    • apii(s)
    to put
    raptor
    • pũʔ
    rattle
    • taʔ
    raw
    • tah(-ka)
    red, yellow, ripe
    • taʔBa
    relational element
    • ⁿd(i)-; *ʦ(i)-
    rodent, large
    • kuⁿdi ~ *kuiⁿd
    rodent, small
    • suh(-kui)
    rope, string
    • ki
    round
    • ᵐbiⁿd(i)
    salt
    • ⁿdaᵑg
    sand
    • uB(V)(-ta)
    to scratch, rub
    • ʦuH
    to see
    • su
    seed
    • ⁿduⁿd-
    seed, fruit
    • kwa
    seven
    • kuh
    side
    • suuⁿd
    to sit (singular)
    • ʦaʔ
    six
    • taiⁿd-
    skin
    • huka ~ *huBa ~ kuaʔ
    to sleep
    • kap-
    small
    • Buⁿd-; *ʦiⁿd(a)
    smell
    • Laʔ
    snake
    • takaᵐb- ~ *taᵐbak
    soft
    • ʦiⁿdi
    son, child
    • ᵑgaᵐba
    to sow
    • ⁿdihk-
    spoon, ladle
    • ʦuiⁿd ~ *ʦuⁿdi
    to stand (singular)
    • ⁿdu-
    stick, bone, tree
    • kaⁿd- ~ *kat-
    stomach
    • ⁿduaᵐbih
    stone
    • hak ~ *kaʔ
    sun, day
    • ⁿdi
    sun, year
    • ⁿdu-
    to swallow, drink, eat
    • -hu ~ *-uʔ
    sweet potato
    • Baiʔ
    tail
    • ᵐbaⁿd(a)-; *ⁿduh(k)
    to take
    • ᵑgu
    to take out, pick up
    • hapi ~ *apiʔ
    tasty
    • ᵐbaⁿd-
    tear
    • uᵐba ⁿdiʔa
    that
    • a
    this
    • hi ~ *iʔ
    three
    • ᵐbãʔ(ĩ)
    throat
    • ᵐbi-ⁿdaʔ
    throat, hole
    • kuHⁿdi ~ *kuiHⁿd ~ *BuHⁿdi
    tobacco
    • ⁿdua
    tongue
    • kuʔ(-Ba)
    tooth (molar)
    • haka
    tooth
    • ⁿduʔ
    turkey, large galliform bird
    • (ᵑg)uⁿd-
    to turn around
    • ᵐbuⁿd- ~ *kuⁿd-
    turtle
    • kwi
    to twist
    • ᵐbu
    two
    • ᵐbuuʔ
    up, sky
    • ᵐbii
    urine
    • huʦi ~ *huiʦ
    valency-reducer
    • a-; *aʔ-; *aⁿd-
    to walk
    • ⁿdai
    to wash
    • suh(k)
    to watch
    • ᵑguⁿda ~ *ᵑgwaⁿd
    water, river
    • ⁿdiʔ
    to wear
    • (ⁿd)iˈa
    white, morning
    • ᵐbuⁿd(u)
    who, someone
    • ⁿdi
    wind
    • ᵐbuⁿd-kaⁿd(a)
    woman (adult)
    • ᵐbuⁿdi ~ *ᵐbuiⁿd ~ *ᵑguⁿdi ~ *ᵑguiⁿd
    woman (young)
    • ᵐbus-
    worm
    • ᵑgi
    wound, trace
    • saⁿda
    to wrap
    • ᵐbaʔk
    you
    • ᵐbaʔ
    young, sprout
    • pu

    Bibliography

    • Constenla Umaña, A. (1981). Comparative Chibchan Phonology. (Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Linguistics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia).
    • Constenla Umaña, A. (1985). Las lenguas dorasque y changuena y sus relaciones genealógicas. Filologia y linguística, 11.2:81–91.
    • Constenla Umaña, Adolfo. (1991). Las lenguas del Área Intermedia: Introducción a su estudio areal. Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica, San José.
    • Constenla Umaña, Adolfo. (1995). Sobre el estudio diacrónico de las lenguas chibchenses y su contribución al conocimiento del pasado de sus hablantes. Boletín del Museo del Oro 38–39: 13–56.
    • Estudios de Lingüística Chibcha, a journal of Chibchan linguistics, is published by the Universidad de Costa Rica.
    • Greenberg, Joseph H. (1987). Language in the Americas. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
    • Headland, E. (1997). Diccionario bilingüe con una gramatica Uw Cuwa (Tunebo). Bogotá: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
    • Holt, Dennis (1986). The Development of the Paya Sound-System. (Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Linguistics, University of California, Los Angeles).
    • Margery Peña, E. (1982). Diccionario español-bribri, bribri-español. San José: Editorial Universidad de Costa Rica.
    • Margery Peña, E. (1989). Diccionario Cabécar-Español, Español-Cabécar. Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica.
    • Pinart, A. L. (1890). Vocabulario Castellano-Dorasque: Dialectos Chumulu, Gualaca y Changuina. (Petite Bibliothèque Américaine, 2). Paris: Ernest Leroux.
    • Pinart, A. L. (1892). Vocabulario Guaymie: Dialectos Move-Valiente Norteño y Guaymie Penonomeño. (Petite Bibliothèque Américaine, 3). Paris: Ernest Leroux.
    • Pinart, A. L. (1897). Vocabulario Guaymie: Dialectos Murıre-Bukueta, Mouı y Sabanero. (Petite Bibliothèque Américaine, 4). Paris: Ernest Leroux.
    • Quesada, J. Diego (2007). The Chibchan Languages. Editorial Tecnológica de Costa Rica. .
    • Quesada Pacheco, M. A.; Rojas Chaves, C. (1999). Diccionario boruca-español, español-boruca. San José: Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica.

    External links

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