Charles Proteus Steinmetz Explained

Charles Proteus Steinmetz
Birth Name:	Karl August Rudolph Steinmetz
Birth Date:	April 9, 1865
Birth Place:	Breslau, Province of Silesia, Prussia
Death Place:	Schenectady, New York, United States
Resting Place:	Vale Cemetery
Nationality:	American
Occupation:	Mathematician and electrical engineer
Alma Mater:	University of Breslau Union College (doctorate)
Workplaces:	Union College

Charles Proteus Steinmetz (born Karl August Rudolph Steinmetz; April 9, 1865 – October 26, 1923) was an American mathematician and electrical engineer and professor at Union College. He fostered the development of alternating current that made possible the expansion of the electric power industry in the United States, formulating mathematical theories for engineers. He made ground-breaking discoveries in the understanding of hysteresis that enabled engineers to design better electromagnetic apparatus equipment, especially electric motors for use in industry.^[1]

At the time of his death, Steinmetz held over 200 patents.^[2] A genius in both mathematics and electronics, he did work that earned him the nicknames "Forger of Thunderbolts"^[3] and "The Wizard of Schenectady".^[4] Steinmetz's equation, Steinmetz solids, Steinmetz curves, and Steinmetz equivalent circuit are all named after him, as are numerous honors and scholarships, including the IEEE Charles Proteus Steinmetz Award, one of the highest technical recognitions given by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers professional society.

Early life and education

Steinmetz was born Karl August Rudolph Steinmetz on April 9, 1865, in Breslau, Province of Silesia, Prussia (now Wrocław, Poland) the son of Caroline (Neubert) and Karl Heinrich Steinmetz.^[5] He was baptized as a Lutheran into the Evangelical Church of Prussia.^[6] Steinmetz, who stood only tall as an adult,^[4] had dwarfism, hunchback, and hip dysplasia, as did his father and grandfather. Steinmetz graduated with honors from St. John's Gymnasium in 1882.^[7]

Following Gymnasium, Steinmetz studied at the University of Breslau to begin work on his undergraduate degree in 1883. Nearing completion of his doctorate in 1888, he was forced to flee to Zürich, Switzerland, as the German government was preparing to prosecute him for his socialist activities.^[8]

Political persecution and emigration

As socialist meetings and press had been banned in Germany, Steinmetz fled to Zürich in 1889 to escape possible arrest. Cornell University Professor Ronald R. Kline, author of Steinmetz: Engineer and Socialist,^[9] points to other factors which reinforced Steinmetz's decision to leave his homeland such as financial problems and the prospect of a more harmonious life with his socialist friends and supporters than the stressful domestic circumstances of his father's household.^[9]

Faced with an expiring visa, he emigrated to the United States in 1889. He changed his first name to "Charles" to sound more American, and chose the middle name "Proteus", a wise hunchbacked character from the Odyssey who knew many secrets, after a epithet bestowed upon him by his college fraternity brothers.^[10]

Political activism and beliefs

Steinmetz was politically active in the US as a technocratic socialist for over thirty years. Following the Bolshevik introduction of a technocratic plan to electrify Russia, Steinmetz spoke of Lenin alongside Albert Einstein as the "two greatest minds of our time."^[9] He believed in a corporatist industrial government also covering its human welfare function.^[9]

A member of the original Technical Alliance, which also included Thorstein Veblen and Leland Olds, Steinmetz had great faith in the ability of machines to eliminate human toil and create abundance for all. He put it this way: "Some day we [will] make the good things of life for everybody."

Steinmetz's techno-utopian optimism was deeply intertwined with his political beliefs, and he was convinced that the spread of electrification would inevitably steer human society toward socialism.

Although Steinmetz's belief in the inevitability of socialism proved unfounded, there was at least a kernel of truth in his sentiment, as to date, no developing economy has successfully transitioned into a developed one in the absence of a major government-led push to comprehensively electrify the population.^[11]

Electrical engineering

Steinmetz is known for his contribution in three major fields of alternating current (AC) systems theory: hysteresis, steady-state analysis, and transients.^[12]

AC hysteresis theory

Shortly after arriving in the United States, Steinmetz went to work for Rudolf Eickemeyer in Yonkers, New York, and published in the field of magnetic hysteresis, earning worldwide professional recognition.^[13] Eickemeyer's firm developed transformers for use in the transmission of electrical power among many other mechanical and electrical devices. In 1893 Eickemeyer's company, along with all of its patents and designs, was bought by the newly formed General Electric Company, where Steinmetz quickly became known as the engineering wizard in GE's engineering community.^[13]

AC steady state circuit theory

Steinmetz's work revolutionized AC circuit theory and analysis, which had been carried out using complicated, time-consuming calculus-based methods. In the groundbreaking paper, "Complex Quantities and Their Use in Electrical Engineering", presented at a July 1893 meeting published in the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE), Steinmetz simplified these complicated methods to "a simple problem of algebra". He systematized the use of complex number phasor representation in electrical engineering education texts, whereby the lower-case letter "j" is used to designate the 90-degree rotation operator in AC system analysis.^[14] His seminal books and many other AIEE papers "taught a whole generation of engineers how to deal with AC phenomena".^[15]

AC transient theory

Steinmetz also greatly advanced the understanding of lightning. His systematic experiments resulted in the first laboratory created "man-made lightning", earning him the nickname the "Forger of Thunderbolts".^[3] These were conducted in a football field-sized laboratory at General Electric, using 120,000 volt generators. He also erected a lightning tower to attract natural lightning to study its patterns and effects, which resulted in several theories.^[16]

Professional life

Steinmetz acted in the following professional capacities:

• At Union College, as chair of electrical engineering from 1902 to 1913^[17] and as faculty member thereafter until his death in 1923^[17]
• Board member on the Schenectady Board of Education for six years, including four years as the board's president^[17]
• President of the Common Council of Schenectady^[17]
• President of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers from 1901 to 1902^[18]
• First vice-president of the International Association of Municipal Electricians (IAME) from 1913 until his death in 1923.

He was granted an honorary degree from Harvard University in 1901^[17] and a doctorate from Union College in 1903.^[17]

Steinmetz wrote 13 books and 60 articles, not exclusively about engineering. He was a member and adviser to the fraternity Phi Gamma Delta at Union College, whose chapter house was one of the first electrified residences.^[19]

While serving as president of the Schenectady Board of Education, Steinmetz introduced numerous progressive reforms, including extended school hours, school meals, school nurses, special classes for the children of immigrants, and the distribution of free textbooks.^[10]

Personal life

Steinmetz was affected by kyphosis, as were his father and grandfather. In spite of his love for children and family life, Steinmetz remained unmarried, to prevent his spinal deformity from being passed to any offspring.^[10]

When Joseph LeRoy Hayden, a loyal and hardworking lab assistant, announced that he would marry and look for his own living quarters, Steinmetz made the unusual proposal of opening his large home, complete with research lab, greenhouse, and office to the Haydens and their prospective family. Hayden favored the idea, but his future wife was wary of the unorthodox arrangement. She agreed after Steinmetz's assurance that she could run the house as she saw fit.^[10]

After an uneasy start, the arrangement worked well for all parties, especially after three Hayden children were born. Steinmetz legally adopted Joseph Hayden as his son, becoming grandfather to the youngsters, entertaining them with fantastic stories and spectacular scientific demonstrations. The unusual, harmonious living arrangement lasted for the rest of Steinmetz's life.^[10]

Steinmetz founded America's first glider club, but none of its prototypes "could be dignified with the term 'flight.^{[20] [21]}

Steinmetz was a lifelong agnostic. He died on October 26, 1923, and was buried in Vale Cemetery in Schenectady.

Legacy

Steinmetz earned wide recognition among the scientific community and numerous awards and honors both during his life and posthumously.

Steinmetz's equation, derived from his experiments, defines the approximate heat energy due to magnetic hysteresis released, per cycle per unit volume of magnetic material. A Steinmetz solid is the solid body generated by the intersection of two or three cylinders of equal radius at right angles. Steinmetz' equivalent circuit is still widely used for the design and testing of induction machines.

One of the highest technical recognitions given by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the "IEEE Charles Proteus Steinmetz Award", is given for major contributions to standardization within the field of electrical and electronics engineering. Other awards include the Certificate of Merit of Franklin Institute, 1908; the Elliott Cresson Medal, 1913; and the Cedergren Medal, 1914.^[22] Steinmetz was also an elected member of both the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the American Philosophical Society.^{[23] [24]}

The Charles P. Steinmetz Memorial Lecture series was begun in his honor in 1925,^[25] sponsored by the Schenectady branch of the IEEE.^[26] Through 2017 seventy-three gatherings have taken place, held almost exclusively at Union College, featuring notable figures such as Nobel laureate experimental physicist Robert A. Millikan, helicopter inventor Igor Sikorsky, nuclear submarine pioneer Admiral Hyman G. Rickover (1963), Nobel-winning semiconductor inventor William Shockley, and Internet "founding father" Leonard Kleinrock.^[27]

Steinmetz's connection to Union is further celebrated with the annual Steinmetz Symposium,^[28] a day-long event in which Union undergraduates give presentations on research they have done. Steinmetz Hall, which houses the Union College computer center, is named after him.

The Charles P. Steinmetz Scholarship is awarded annually by the college,^[29] underwritten since its inception in 1923 by the General Electric Company.^[26] An additional Charles P. Steinmetz Memorial Scholarship was later established at Union by Marjorie Hayden, daughter of Joseph and Corrine Hayden, and is awarded to students majoring in engineering or physics.^[30]

A 1914 "Duplex Drive Brougham" Detroit Electric automobile that once belonged to Steinmetz was purchased by Union College in 1971, and restored for use in campus ceremonies. The Steinmetz car is permanent displayed in the first-floor corridor between the Wold Center and F.W. Olin building.^{[31] [32]}

A Chicago public high school, Steinmetz College Prep, is named for him,^[33] as well as a Schenectady public school, the Steinmetz Career and Leadership Academy, formerly Steinmetz Middle-School.

A public park in north Schenectady, New York was named for him in 1931.^[34]

In 1983, the US Post Office included Steinmetz in a series of postage stamps commemorating American inventors.^[35]

In May 2015, a life-size bronze statue of Charles Steinmetz meeting Thomas Edison by sculptor and caster Dexter Benedict was unveiled on a plaza on the corner of Erie Boulevards and South Ferry Street in Schenectady.^[36]

Charles Steinmetz's Mohawk River cabin is preserved and on display in the outdoor collection of historic structures in Greenfield Village, part of the Henry Ford Museum complex in Dearborn, Michigan.^[37]

In popular culture

Steinmetz is featured in John Dos Passos' U.S.A. trilogy in one of the biographies.^{[38] [39]} He also serves as a major character in Starling Lawrence's The Lightning Keeper.^[40]

Steinmetz is a major character in the novel Electric City by Elizabeth Rosner.

In the 1944 Three Stooges short "Busy Buddies", Moe Howard references Steinmetz.^[41]

Steinmetz was portrayed in 1959 by the actor Rod Steiger in the CBS television anthology series, The Joseph Cotten Show. The episode focused on his socialist activities in Germany.

A famous anecdote about Steinmetz concerns a troubleshooting consultation at Henry Ford's River Rouge Plant. A humorous aspect of the story is the "itemized bill" he submitted for the work performed.^[10]

Bibliography

Patents

At the time of his death, Steinmetz held over 200 patents:^[2]

• , "System of distribution by alternating current" (January 29, 1895)
• , "Inductor dynamo"
• , "Three phase induction meter"
• , "Inductor dynamo"
• , "Induction motor"
• , "System of electrical distribution"
• , "Induction motor"
• , "Means for producing light" (May 7, 1912)
• , "Induction furnace"
• , "Protective device"
• , "Inductor dynamo"

Works

• Steinmetz. On the Law of Hysteresis. Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. IX. 2. 3–64. 1892. 10.1109/T-AIEE.1892.5570437. 41139163.
• Book: Steinmetz. Complex Quantities and Their Use in Electrical Engineering. Proceedings of the International Electrical Congress Held in the City of Chicago, August 21st to 25th, 1893. 1894. American Institute of Electrical Engineers. 33–74.
• Steinmetz. Theory of the General Alternating Current Transformer. Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. XII^th General Meeting. 245–256. 1895. 10.1109/T-AIEE.1895.4763861. 51631303.
• Book: Steinmetz. Berg. Ernst Julius Berg. Theory and Calculation of Alternating Current Phenomena. 1897. Electrical World and Engineer. New York. 1st. 7218906M. This book's first edition was expanded and updated in many subsequent editions.
• Steinmetz. The Alternating Current Induction Motor. Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. XIV. 1. 183–217. 1897. 10.1109/T-AIEE.1897.5570186. 51652760.
• Steinmetz. The Natural Period of a Transmission Line and the Frequency of Lightning Discharge Therefrom. https://web.archive.org/web/20130226201029/http://www.tuks.nl/pdf/Reference_Material/Steinmetz/CP%20Steinmetz%20-%20The%20Natural%20Period%20of%20a%20Transmission%20Line%20and%20the%20Frequency%20of%20lightning%20Discharge%20Therefrom-%20The%20Electrical%20World%20-%201898.pdf . 2013-02-26 . live. 203–205. 1898.
• Steinmetz. Speed Regulation of Prime Movers and Parallel Operation of Alternators. Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. 157th Meeting. 741–744. 1901. 10.1109/T-AIEE.1901.4764200. 51630424.
• Book: Steinmetz. Theoretical Elements of Electrical Engineering. Electrical World and Engineer. 1902. New York. 2nd.
• Steinmetz. The Alternating-Current Railway Motor. Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. 183rd. 9–25. 1904. 10.1109/T-AIEE.1904.4764436. 51639034.
• Steinmetz. Lightning Phenomena in Electric Circuits. Proceedings of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. XXVI. 1. 401–423. 1907. 10.1109/PAIEE.1907.6742407. 51661312.
• Steinmetz. Electrical Engineering Education. Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. XXVII. 1. 79–85. 1908a. 10.1109/T-AIEE.1908.4768047. 51639619.
• Steinmetz. Future of Electricity. Lecture delivered to the students of the New York Electrical Trade School. New York. 1908b. 10.1109/T-AIEE.1908.4768047. 75–89. 51639619.
• Steinmetz. Primary Standard of Light. Proceedings of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. XXVII. 2. 1319–1324. 1908c. 10.1109/PAIEE.1908.6741999. 51661636.
• Steinmetz. The General Equations of the Electric Circuit. Proceedings of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. XXVII. 2. 1231–1305. 1908d. 10.1109/PAIEE.1908.6742132. 51630604.
• Steinmetz. General Lectures on Electrical Engineering. Hayden. Robson & Adee. 1908e. Schenectady, NY.
• Steinmetz. Prime Movers. Proceedings of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. XXVIII. 2. 63–84. 1909a. 10.1109/PAIEE.1909.6659726. 51652876 .
• Steinmetz. The Value of the Classics in Engineering Education. Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. XXVIII. 2. 1103–1106. 1909b. 10.1109/T-AIEE.1909.4768232. 51655383.
• Book: Steinmetz. Radiation, Light and Illumination : A Series of Engineering Lectures Delivered at Union College. Hayden. McGraw-Hill. New York. 1909c.
• Hayden. Steinmetz. Disruptive Strength with Transient Voltages. Proceedings of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. XXIX. 5. 1125–1158. 1910. 10.1109/PAIEE.1910.6659996. 51658987.
• Steinmetz. Mechanical Forces in Magnetic Fields. Proceedings of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. XXIX. 12. 367–385. 1910. 10.1109/PAIEE.1910.6660496. 51674164.
• Book: Steinmetz. Engineering Mathematics; A Series of Lectures Delivered at Union College. McGraw-Hill. New York. 1911a.
• Book: Steinmetz. Elementary Lectures on Electric Discharges, Waves and Impulses, and Other Transients. McGraw-Hill. New York. 1911b.
• Book: Steinmetz. Theory and Calculation of Transient Electric Phenomena and Oscillations. McGraw-Hill. New York. 1911c.
• Steinmetz. Some Problems of High-Voltage Transmissions. Proceedings of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. XXXI. 1. 167–173. 1912a. 10.1109/PAIEE.1912.6659629. 51646565.
• Steinmetz. The death of energy and the second law of thermodynamics, with particular reference to the thermodynamics of the atmosphere. Proceedings of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. XXXI. 8. 1912b. 419–424. 10.1109/PAIEE.1912.6660272. free.
• Steinmetz. Instability of Electric Circuits. Proceedings of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. XXXIII. 1. 2005–2021. 1914a. 10.1109/PAIEE.1914.6661036. 51673393.
• Steinmetz. Recording Devices. Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. XXXIII. 1. 283–292. 1914b. 10.1109/T-AIEE.1914.4765133. 51663159.
• Steinmetz. Outline of Theory of Impulse Currents. Proceedings of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. XXXV. 1. 1–31. 1916a. 10.1109/PAIEE.1916.6590573. 51643938.
• Book: Steinmetz. America and the New Epoch. Harper & Brothers. New York & London. 1916b.
• Book: Steinmetz. Theory and Calculation of Electric Apparatus. McGraw-Hill. New York. 1917.
• Steinmetz. America's Energy Supply. Proceedings of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. XXXVII. 2. 985–1014. 1918a. 10.1109/PAIEE.1918.6594102.
• Steinmetz. The Oxide Film Lightning Arrester. Proceedings of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. XXXVII. 2. 871–880. 1918b. 10.1109/PAIEE.1918.6594099. 51654897.
• Steinmetz. The General Equations of the Electric Circuit-III. Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. XXXVIII. 1. 191–260. 1919. 10.1109/T-AIEE.1919.4765606. 51640012.
• Steinmetz. Power Control and Stability of Electric Generating Stations. Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. XXXIX. 2. 1215–1287. 1920. 10.1109/T-AIEE.1920.4765322. 51646533.
• Steinmetz. Condenser Discharges Through a General Gas Circuit. Journal of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. XLI. 8. 63–76. 1922. 10.1109/JoAIEE.1922.6591026. 51668690.
• Steinmetz. High-Voltage Insulation. Hayden. Journal of the A.I.E.E.. XLII. 3. 1029–1042. 1923. 10.1109/JAIEE.1924.6534047. 51630818.
• Steinmetz. Frequency Conversion by Third Class Conductor and Mechanism of the Arcing Ground and Other Cumulative Surges. Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. XLII. 470–477. 1923a. 10.1109/T-AIEE.1923.5060887. 51630796.
• Book: Steinmetz. Four Lectures on Relativity and Space. McGraw-Hill. New York. 1923b.
• Steinmetz. Cable Charge and Discharge. Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. XLII. 577–592. 1923c. 10.1109/T-AIEE.1923.5060899. 51649225.
• Steinmetz. Overdamped Condenser Oscillations. Journal of the A.I.E.E.. XLIII. 5. 126–130. 1924. 10.1109/JAIEE.1924.6534780. 51668440.

See also

• Charles P. Steinmetz Academic Centre
• IEEE Charles Proteus Steinmetz Award
• (Steinmetz circuit)

General sources

• Alger . P.L. . Arnold . R.E. . The History of Induction Motors in America . Proceedings of the IEEE . 1976 . 64 . 9 . 1380–1383 . 10.1109/PROC.1976.10329 . 42191157 .
• Book: Broderick, John Thomas. Steinmetz and His Discoveries. Robson & Adee. 1924.
• Book: Ernest. Caldecott. Philip Langdon. Alger. Steinmetz the Philosopher. Schenectady, NY. Mohawk Development Service. 1965.
• IEEE Engineering Management Review. 44. 2. 2016. 7–9. 10.1109/EMR.2016.2568678. IEEE. Charles Proteus Steinmetz.
• Sender. Garlin. Charles Steinmetz: Scientist and Socialist (1865–1923): Including the Complete Steinmetz-Lenin Correspondence. New York. American Institute for Marxist Studies. 1977. Three Radicals.
• James B.. Gilbert. Collectivism and Charles Steinmetz. Business History Review. 48. 4. Winter 1974. 520–540. 3113539. 10.2307/3113539. 145106936.
• Arthur. Goodrich. Charles P. Steinmetz, Electrician. The World's Work. 8. June 1904. 4867–4869.
• Book: Hammond, John Winthrop. Charles Proteus Steinmetz: A Biography. registration. New York. The Century & Co.. 1924.
• Book: Hart, Larry. Steinmetz in Schenectady: A Picture History of Three Memorable Decades. Old Dorp Books. 1978.
• Book: Kline, Ronald R. . Steinmetz: Engineer and Socialist. Baltimore, MD. Johns Hopkins University Press. 1992.
• Encyclopedia: Kline. Ronald. Slotten. Hugh Richard. Steinmetz, Charles. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the History of American Science, Medicine, and Technology. 2014. 978-0199766666. Oxford University Press.
• Encyclopedia: Knowlton. A. E.. Standard Electrical of Electrical Engineers. 1949. McGraw-Hill. ch. 2-Electric & Magnetic Circuits, ch. 4- Properties of Materials, ch. 7 - AC Generators & Motors.
• Book: Lavine, Sigmund A.. Steinmetz, Maker of Lightning. registration. Dodd, Mead & Co.. 1955.
• Book: Leonard, Jonathan Norton. Loki: The Life of Charles Proteus Steinmetz. New York. Doubleday. 1929.
• Book: Miller, Floyd. The Electrical Genius of Liberty Hall: Charles Proteus Steinmetz. New York: McGraw-Hill. 1962.
• Book: John Anderson. Miller. Charles Proteus. Steinmetz. Modern Jupiter: The Story of Charles Proteus Steinmetz. American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 1958.
• Book: Emil J.. Remscheid. Virginia Remscheid. Charves. Recollections of Steinmetz: A Visit to the Workshops of Dr. Charles Proteus Steinmetz. General Electric Company, Research and Development. 1977.
• Whitehead. John B. Jr. . Book Review: Alternating Current Phenomena. 1901 . Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. 7. 9. 399–408. https://web.archive.org/web/20150508035923/http://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1901-07-09/S0002-9904-1901-00825-7/S0002-9904-1901-00825-7.pdf . 2015-05-08 . live. 10.1090/S0002-9904-1901-00825-7. free.

External links

• "Charles Steinmetz: Union's Electrical Wizard", Union College Magazine, November 1, 1998.
• Finding Aid to Charles Steinmetz Papers, Schenectady County Historical Society.
• Charles Proteus Steinmetz, the Wizard of Schenectady, Smithsonian Institution
• Charles Proteus Steinmetz: Accomplishments and Life, Edison Tech Center, Hall of Fame
• United States Supreme Court, Steinmetz v. Allen, 192 U.S. 543 (1904) . Steinmetz v. Allen, Commissioner of Patents. No. 383. Argued January 12, 13, 1904. Decided February 23, 1904.
• Divine Discontent, a documentary on Steinmetz

Notes and References

1. Charles Proteus Steinmetz. Invent Now, Inc. Hall of Fame profile. Invent Now, Inc.. May 25, 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20160303214720/http://invent.org/inductee-detail/?IID=139. March 3, 2016. dead.
2. Web site: C. P. Steinmetz. Becklaser.
3. News: Steinmetz, Forger of Thunderbolts; Charles Proteus Steinmetz: A Biography by John Winthrop Hammond. The New York Times. November 2, 1924.
4. Web site: Charles Proteus Steinmetz, the Wizard of Schenectady. Gilbert. King.
5. Book: Clemens, Nora. Discovering the Nature of Energy. Rosen Publishing Group.. New York. 978-1448847020. 78. 1st. Greenberger, Robert. 2011-08-15. registration.
6. Book: McEvoy, Don. Credo: Unitarians and Universalists of Yesteryear Talk about Their Lives and Motivations. 2018-09-25. Lowell Pub.. Google Books. 9780970549907. 2001.
7. Erhardt . Louis . Luminaries In The Limelight . Lighting Design & Application . February 2000 . 30 . 2 .
8. Dr. Steinmetz . TIME Magazine . November 5, 1923 . 2 . 10 .
9. Ronald R. Klein, Steinmetz: Engineer and Socialist (Johns Hopkins Studies in the History of Technology), 1992,
10. Web site: King. Gilbert. Charles Proteus Steinmetz, the Wizard of Schenectady. Smithsonian. Smithsonian Institution. June 9, 2017. en.
11. Web site: Two Billion Light Up: The South Asian Electric Wave. Gold and Revolution. 2024-08-10. 2024-07-25. Fresne. Patrick.
12. See also IEC Electropedia's: hysteresis, steady state of a system, complex number and transient behaviour.
13. The Magnetic Force of Charles Proteus Steinmetz . IEEE Power Engineering Review . Feb 1996 . 16 . 9 . 7 . 10.1109/MPER.1996.535476 . 44921529 .
14. Bedell. Frederick. History of A-C Wave Form, Its Determination and Standardization. Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. 61. 12. 865. 10.1109/T-AIEE.1942.5058456. 1942. 51658522.
15. Web site: Steinmetz, Putting it in Perspective - R, L, and C Elements and the Impedance Concept. Zabreb School of Engineering. December 21, 2012. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20140105044817/http://zrno.fsb.hr/katedra/download/materijali/966.pdf. January 5, 2014.
16. Web site: Charles Proteus Steinmetz (1865-1923). Open Tesla Research. en-US. May 5, 2020.
17. https://lemelson.mit.edu/ Lemelson-MIT Program
18. Web site: Charles Proteus Steinmetz . IEEE Global History Network . IEEE . August 8, 2011.
19. Web site: Union Magazine Winter 2019. Issuu. January 28, 2019 . en. May 28, 2019.
20. Crouch, Tom D. (February 7, 2002). A Dream of Wings: Americans and the Airplane, 1875–1905, pp. 171–172.
21. Froehlich, Fritz; Kent, Allen (editors, 1990). The Froehlich/Kent Encyclopedia of Telecommunications: Volume 15, p. 467
22. Web site: Charles Proteus Steinmetz, Pioneer of Alternating Current.
23. Web site: 2023-02-09 . Charles Proteus Steinmetz . 2023-10-19 . American Academy of Arts & Sciences . en.
24. Web site: APS Member History . 2023-10-19 . search.amphilsoc.org.
25. Web site: Technology innovator to headline Steinmetz Memorial Lecture - Union College . July 22, 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180615135643/https://www.union.edu/news/stories/2015/04/prominent-woman-engineer-to-headline-steinmetz-memorial-lecture.php . June 15, 2018 . dead .
26. Book: IEEE Schenectady Section History. IEEE Schenectady Section. December 13, 2021 . IEEE. Schenectady. Section History founded January 26, 1903.
27. Web site: Dr. Charles Proteus Steinmetz memorial lecture series.
28. Web site: Steinmetz Symposium: Celebrating 25 years of student research . Union College . May 9, 2015.
29. Web site: Charles P. Steinmetz Scholarship (Union College-NY) – Scholarship Library. www.scholarshiplibrary.com. July 22, 2018. July 23, 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180723003528/http://www.scholarshiplibrary.com/wiki/Charles_P._Steinmetz_Scholarship_(Union_College-NY). dead.
30. Web site: Union College, Endowed Scholarships. July 22, 2018. March 18, 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190318140746/https://uconnect.union.edu/s/1684/images/gid2/editor_documents/giving-pdfs/scholarships.pdf?gid=2&pgid=61&sessionid=3b42c219-9f73-4237-b8b8-a4b0ad0fdb69&cc=1. dead.
31. Web site: 2014-04-10 . Steinmetz car gets prominent spot at Union College . 2022-07-08 . Union College . en.
32. News: 2014-04-01 . Steinmetz Car drives into the spotlight . 2022-07-08 . Union College . en.
33. Web site: Who was Charles Steinmetz? . Steinmetz College Prep . March 28, 2019.
34. Web site: Steinmetz Park Association . 2006 . Steinmetz Park Master Plan . January 22, 2013 . Schenectady, N.Y. . 3 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20111120181618/http://cityofschenectady.com/pdf/development/Steinmetz_Park_Masterplan_2006_Final_Web.pdf . November 20, 2011 .
35. Web site: American Inventors, September 21, 1983, Smithsonian Postal Museum.
36. Web site: Bump . Bethany . 2015-04-10 . Edison, Steinmetz statues slated for park near Schenectady GE . 2022-07-13 . The Daily Gazette . en-US.
37. Web site: Charles Steinmetz Cabin - The Henry Ford . 2024-07-01 . www.thehenryford.org . en.
38. The 42nd Parallel, p. 335.
39. Web site: Berg . Kirsten . The Fine Line between Poetry and Mathematics . Powell's Books . 2022-12-08 . October 1, 2008.
40. News: Starling Lawrence Writes a Novel About the Early Days of G.E . The New York Times . Dinitia . Smith . May 13, 2006.
41. News: Busy Buddies (1944). October 1, 2008.