Chang'an Explained

T:長安
S:长安
L:"Perpetual Peace"
Gr:Charng-an
J:Coeng4-on1
Y:Chèuhng-ōn
Mc:ɖɨang-'an
Tp:Cháng-an
Bpmf:ㄔㄤˊ ㄢ

Chang'an (;) is the traditional name of Xi'an. The site has been inhabited since Neolithic times, during which the Yangshao culture was established in Banpo, in what is now the city's suburbs. Furthermore, in the northern vicinity of modern Xi'an, Qin Shi Huang of the Qin dynasty, China's first emperor, held his imperial court and constructed his massive mausoleum guarded by the Terracotta Army.

From its capital at Xianyang, the Qin dynasty ruled a larger area than either of the preceding dynasties. The imperial city of Chang'an during the Han dynasty was located northwest of today's Xi'an. During the Tang dynasty, the area that came to be known as Chang'an included the area inside the Ming Xi'an fortification, plus some small areas to its east and west, and a substantial part of its southern suburbs. Thus, Tang Chang'an was eight times the size of the Ming Xi'an, which was reconstructed upon the site of the former imperial quarters of the Sui and Tang city. During its heyday, Chang'an was one of the largest and most populous cities in the world. Around AD 750, Chang'an was called a "million-man city" in Chinese records, with modern estimates putting it at around 800,000–1,000,000 within city walls.[1] [2] According to the census in 742 recorded in the New Book of Tang, 362,921 families with 1,960,188 persons were counted in Jingzhao Fu (Chinese: 京兆府), the metropolitan area including small cities in the vicinity.[3]

Han period

The Han capital was located 3 km northwest of modern Xi'an. As the capital of the Western Han, it was the political, economic and cultural center of China. It was also the eastern terminus of the Silk Road, and a cosmopolitan metropolis. It was a consumer city, a city whose existence was not primarily predicated upon manufacturing and trade, but rather boasted such a large population because of its role as the political and military center of China. By 2 AD, the population was 246,200 in 80,000 households.[4] This population consisted mostly of the scholar gentry class whose education was being sponsored by their wealthy aristocratic families. In addition to these civil servants there was a larger underclass to serve them.

Initially, Emperor Liu Bang decided to build his capital at the area south of Luo River, which according to Chinese geography was in modern Luoyang. This location was the site of the holy city Chengzhou, capital of Eastern Zhou. However, the strategic military value of a capital located in the Wei Valley became the deciding factor for locating the new capital. To this end, it is recorded c 200 BC he forcibly relocated thousands of clans in the military aristocracy to this region.[4] The purpose was twofold. First, it kept all potential rivals close to the new Emperor, and second, it allowed him to redirect their energy toward defending the capital from invasion by the nearby Xiongnu. His adviser Liu Jing described this plan as weakening the root while strengthening the branch.

After the necessary political structure was set up, the area of the capital was divided into three prefectures and construction began. At its founding in 195 BC, the population of Changan was 146,000.[4] During the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, the diplomat Zhang Qian was dispatched westward into Central Asia. Subsequently, Chang'an city became the Asian gateway to Europe as the point of departure of the Silk Road. On 4 October 23 AD, Chang'an was captured and sacked during a peasant rebellion. The emperor, Wang Mang was killed and decapitated by the rebels two days later.[5] After the Western Han period, the Eastern Han government settled on Luoyang as the new capital. Chang'an was therefore also sometimes referred to as the Western Capital or Xijing (Chinese: 西京) in some Han dynasty texts. In 190 AD during late Eastern Han, the court was seized and relocated back to Chang'an by the notorious Prime Minister Dong Zhuo, as it was a strategically superior site against the mounting insurgency formed against him. After Dong's death (192) the capital was moved back to Luoyang in August 196, and to Xuchang in autumn 196.[6] By this time, Chang'an was already regarded as the symbolic site of supreme power and governance.

City walls

The 25.7 km long city wall was initially 3.5 m wide at the base tapering upward 8 m for a top width of 2 m.[7] Beyond this wall, a 6.13 m wide moat with a depth of 4.62 m was spanned by 13.86 m long stone bridges. The wall was later expanded to 12–16 m at base and 12 m high. The moat was expanded to 8 m wide and 3 m deep. The expansion of the wall was likely a solution to flooding from the Wei River. The entire city was sited below the 400 m contour line which the Tang dynasty used to mark the edge of the floodplain.[4]

Twelve gates with three gateways each, according with the ritual formulas of Zhou dynasty urban planning, pierced the wall. These gates were distributed three a side and from them eight 45 m wide main avenues extended into the city.[7] These avenues were also divided into three lanes aligned with the three gateways of each gate. The lanes were separated by median strips planted with pine, elm, and scholar trees. Bachengmen Avenue was an exception with a width of 82 m and no medians.[4] Four of the gates opened directly into the palaces.

City structure

The overall form of the city was an irregular rectangle. The ideal square of the city had been twisted into the form of the Big Dipper for astrological reasons, and also to follow the bank of the Wei River. The eight avenues divided the city into nine districts. These nine main districts were subdivided into 160 walled 1×1 li wards.[4] About 50–100 families lived in each ward. Historically, Chang'an grew in four phases: the first from 200 to 195 BC when the palaces were built; the second 195–180 BC when the outer city walls were built; the third between 141 and 87 BC with a peak at 100 BC; and the fourth from 1 BC–24 AD when it was destroyed.

The Xuanpingmen gate was the main gate between the city and the suburbs. The district north of the Weiyang Palace was the most exclusive. The main market, called the Nine Markets, was the eastern economic terminus of the Silk Road. Access to the market was from the Northeast and Northwest gates, which were the most heavily used by the common people. The former connect with a bridge over the Wei River to the northern suburbs and the latter connected with the rest of China to the east. An intricate network of underground passages connected the imperial harem with other palaces and the city.[8] These passages were controlled by underground gatehouses and their existence was unknown.

First phase

In 200 BC after marking the boundaries of the three prefectures, which comprised the metropolitan region of Xianyang, Liu Bang appointed Xiao He to design and build the new capital. He chose to site the city on ruins of the Qin dynasty Apex Temple (formerly, Xin Palace). This old Qin palace was meant to be the earthly mirror of Polaris, the apex star, where the heavenly emperor resided. This site thus represented the center of the earth lying under the center of heaven with an axis mundi running upward from the imperial throne to its heavenly counterpart. The ruins were greatly expanded to 7×7 li in size and renamed Changle Palace (;). Two years later, a new palace called Weiyang Palace was constructed 5×7 li.[4] Prime minister Xiao He convinced Liu Bang that both the excessive size and multiplicity of palaces was necessary to secure his rule by creating a spectacle of power.

Second phase

In 195 BC, his son, Emperor Hui of Han began the construction of the walls of Chang'an and finished them in September 191 BC. The grid north of the palaces was built at this time with a 2° difference in alignment to the grid of the palaces.[4] The city remained quite static after this expansion.

Third phase

Emperor Wu began a third phase of construction which peaked on 100 BC with the construction of many new palaces. He also added the nine temples complex south of the city, and built the park. In 120 BC, Shanglin Park, which had been used for agriculture by the common people since Liu Bang was sealed off, was turned into an imperial park again. In the center of the park was a recreation of the three fairy islands in Kunming Lake.

Palaces

Jin, Sixteen Kingdoms and Northern Dynasties period

Chang'an was briefly the capital of the Western Jin dynasty from 312 to 316. It was also the capital of Former Zhao (318–329), Former Qin (351–385) and Later Qin (384–417). In 417, a century after the Western Jin lost Chang'an, the city was reconquered by Liu Yu of Eastern Jin, who founded the Liu Song dynasty in 420. The city was lost to Northern Wei by 439. When Northern Wei split in two, Chang'an became the capital of Western Wei (535–557), and also of its successor state Northern Zhou (557–581).

Sui and Tang periods

The Sui and Tang empires occupied the same location. In 582, Emperor Wen of the Sui dynasty sited a new region southeast of the much ruined Han dynasty Chang'an to build his new capital, which he called Daxing . Daxing was renamed Chang'an in the year 618 when the Duke of Tang, Li Yuan, proclaimed himself the Emperor Gaozu of Tang. Chang'an during the Tang dynasty (618–907) was, along with Constantinople (Istanbul) and Baghdad, one of the largest cities in the world. It was a cosmopolitan urban center with considerable foreign populations from other parts of Asia and beyond. This new Chang'an was laid out on a north–south axis in a grid pattern, dividing the enclosure into 108 wards and featuring two large marketplaces, in the east and west respectively. Every day, administrators of the two marketplaces would beat gongs three hundred times in the morning and evening to signify the start and stop of business. People who lived in the wards were not allowed to go outside after curfew. Officials with higher ranking had the privilege to live closer to the central avenue. Chang'an's layout influenced the city planning of several other Asian capitals for many years to come. Chang'an's walled and gated wards were much larger than conventional city blocks seen in modern cities, as the smallest ward had a surface area of 68 acres, and the largest ward had a surface area of .[9] The height of the walls enclosing each ward were on average 9 to in height.[9] The Japanese built their ancient capitals, Heijō-kyō (today's Nara) and later Heian-kyō or Kyoto, modeled after Chang'an in a more modest scale, yet was never fortified.[10] The modern Kyoto still retains some characteristics of Sui-Tang Chang'an. Similarly, the Korean Silla dynasty modeled their capital of Gyeongju after the Chinese capital. Sanggyeong, one of the five capitals of the state of Balhae, was also laid out like Chang'an.

Much of Chang'an was destroyed during its repeated sacking during the An Lushan Rebellion and several subsequent events. Chang'an was occupied by the forces of An Lushan and Shi Siming, in 756; then taken back by the Tang government and allied troops in 757. In 763, Chang'an was briefly occupied by the Tibetan Empire. In 765, Chang'an was besieged by an alliance of the Tibetan Empire and the Uyghur Khaganate. Several laws enforcing segregation of foreigners from Han Chinese were passed during the Tang dynasty. In 779, the Tang dynasty issued an edict which forced Uighurs in the capital, Chang'an, to wear their ethnic dress, stopped them from marrying Chinese females, and banned them from pretending to be Chinese.[11] Between 783 and 784, Chang'an was again occupied by rebels during the Jingyuan Rebellion (Chinese: 涇原兵變). In 881, Chang'an was occupied by Huang Chao. In 882, the Tang dynasty briefly regained control of Chang'an. However, the Tang forces, although welcomed by the inhabitants, looted Chang'an before being driven back by the forces of Huang Chao. In revenge, Huang Chao conducted a systematic slaughter of the inhabitants after retaking the city. Chang'an was finally retaken by the Tang government in 883. However, in 904, Zhu Quanzhong ordered the city's buildings demolished and the construction materials moved to Luoyang, which became the new capital. The residents, together with the emperor Zhaozong, were also forced to move to Luoyang. Chang'an never recovered after the apex of the Tang dynasty, but there are some monuments from the Tang era still standing.

After Zhu Quanzhong moved the capital to Luoyang, Youguojun (Chinese: 佑國軍) was established in Chang'an, with Han Jian being the Youguojun Jiedushi (Chinese: 佑國軍節度使). Han Jian rebuilt Chang'an on the basis of the old Imperial City. Much of Chang'an was abandoned and the rebuilt Chang'an, called "Xincheng (lit. new city)" by the contemporary people, was less than 1/16 of the old Chang'an in area.[12]

Layout of the city

During Tang, the main exterior walls of Chang'an rose high, were by six miles in length, and formed a city in a rectangular shape, with an inner surface area of .[13] The areas to the north that jutted out like appendages from the main wall were the West Park, the smaller East Park, and the Daming Palace, while the southeasternmost extremity of the main wall was built around the Serpentine River Park that jutted out as well. The West Park walled off and connected to the West Palace (guarded behind the main exterior wall) by three gates in the north, the walled-off enclosure of the Daming Palace connected by three gates in the northeast, the walled-off East Park led in by one gate in the northeast, and the Serpentine River Park in the southeast was simply walled off by the main exterior wall, and open without gated enclosures facing the southeasternmost city blocks. There was a Forbidden Park to the northwest outside of the city, where there was a cherry orchard, a Pear Garden, a vineyard, and fields for playing popular sports such as horse polo and cuju (ancient Chinese football).[14] On the northwest section of the main outer wall there were three gates leading out to the Forbidden Park, three gates along the western section of the main outer wall, three gates along the southern section of the main outer wall, and three gates along the eastern section of the main outer wall.[15]

Although the city had many different streets and roads passing between the wards, city blocks, and buildings, there were distinct major roads (lined up with the nine gates of the western, southern, and eastern walls of the city) that were much wider avenues than the others. There were six of these major roads that divided the city into nine distinct gridded sectors (listed below by cardinal direction). The narrowest of these streets were wide, those terminating at the gates of the outer walls being wide, and the largest of all, the Imperial Way that stretched from the central southern gate all the way to the Administrative City and West Palace in the north, was wide.[16] Streets and roads of these widths allowed for efficient fire breaks in the city of Chang'an. For example, in 843, a large fire consumed 4,000 homes, warehouses, and other buildings in the East Market, yet the rest of the city was at a safe distance from the blaze (which was largely quarantined in East Central Chang'an).[16] The citizens of Chang'an were also pleased with the government once the imperial court ordered the planting of fruit trees along all of the avenues of the city in 740.[17]

Pools, streams, and canals

Within the West Park was a running stream and within the walled enclosure of the West Palace were two running streams, one connecting three ponds and another connecting two ponds. The small East Park had a pond the size of those in the West Palace. The Daming Palace and the Xingqing Palace (along the eastern wall of the city) had small lakes to boast. The Serpentine River Park had a large lake within its bounds that was bigger than the latter two lakes combined, connected at the southern end by a river that ran under the main walls and out of the city.[15]

There were five transport and sanitation canals running throughout the city, which had several water sources, and delivered water to city parks, gardens of the rich, and the grounds of the imperial palaces.[17] The sources of water came from a stream running through the Forbidden Park and under the northern city wall, two running streams from outside the city in the south, a stream that fed into the pond of the walled East Park, which in turn fed into a canal that led to the inner city. These canal waterways in turn streamed water into the ponds of the West Palace; the lake in the Xingqing Palace connected two canals running through the city. The canals were also used to transport crucial goods throughout the city, such as charcoal and firewood in the winter.[17]

Locations and events during the Tang dynasty

Southwestern Chang'an

Locations and events in the southwest sector of the city included:[15] [18] [19]

South Central Chang'an

Locations and events in the south central sector of the city included:[15] [18] [19]

Southeastern Chang'an

Locations and events in the southeast sector of the city included:[15] [18] [19]

West Central Chang'an

Locations and events in the west central sector of the city included:[15] [21] [22] [23]

Central Chang'an

Locations and events in the central sector of the city included:[15] [22] [23]

East Central Chang'an

Locations and events in the east central sector of the city included:[15] [18] [22] [23]

Northwestern Chang'an

Locations and events in the northwest sector of the city included:[14] [15] [21]

North Central Chang'an

Locations and events in the north central sector of the city included:[14] [15] [21]

Northeastern Chang'an

Locations and events in the northeast sector of the city included:[14] [15] [21]

West Palace

The West Palace to the north included:[14] [15]

West Park

The West Park grounds included:[14] [15]

Daming Palace

The Daming Palace grounds included:[14] [15]

East Park

The East Park grounds included:[14] [15]

Tallies

For different buildings and locations in the entire city, the total numbers for each were:[15]

Citywide events

Citywide events of Chang'an include:[30] [31] [32] [33] [34]

the grandest of all festivals, and a seven-day holiday period for government officials. Civil officials, military officers, and foreign emissaries gathered first in the early hours of the morning to attend a levee, an occasion where omens, disasters, and blessings of the previous year would be reviewed, along with tribute of regional prefectures and foreign countries presented. It was also an opportunity for provincial governors to present their recommended candidates for the imperial examination. Although festival ceremonies in Chang'an were lavish, rural people in the countryside celebrated privately at home with their families in age old traditions, such as drinking a special wine, Killing Ghosts and Reviving Souls wine, that was believed to cure illnesses in the following year.
a three-day festival held on the 14th, 15th, and 16th days of the first full moon. This was the only holiday where the government lifted its nightly curfew all across the city so that people could freely exit their wards and stroll about the main city streets to celebrate. Citizens attempted to outdo one another each year in the amount of lamps and the size of lamps they could erect in a grand display. By far the most prominent was the one in the year 713 erected at a gate in Chang'an by the recently abdicated Emperor Ruizong of Tang. His lantern wheel had a recorded height of, the frame of which was draped in brocades and silk gauze, adorned with gold and jade jewelry, and when it had its total of some 50,000 oil cups lit the radiance of it could be seen for miles.
this solar-based holiday on April 5 (concurrent with the Qingming Festival) was named so because no fires were allowed to be lit for three days, hence no warmed or hot food. It was a time to respect one's ancestors by maintaining their tombs and offering sacrifices, while a picnic would be held later in the day. It was also a time for fun in outdoor activities, with amusement on swing sets, playing cuju football, horse polo, and tug of war. In the year 710, Emperor Zhongzong of Tang had his chief ministers, sons-in-law, and military officers engage in a game of tug of war, and purportedly laughed when the oldest ministers fell over. The imperial throne also presented porridge to officials, and even dyed chicken and duck eggs, similar to the practice on Easter in the Western world.

Decline

The once prosperous Tang capital abruptly declined after the end of the Tang dynasty. In 880, the rebel Huang Chao sacked the city, destroying much of it.[40] When the warlord Zhu Wen attacked the city again 25 years later, the capital was moved from Chang'an to Luoyang, and much of the city was abandoned and fell into disrepair.[40] Soon, most of the city was overrun by nature and was used for agriculture. The former imperial city was modified into a much smaller city. Then the northern and eastern city wall was expanded a little and the official name of the city was changed from Jingzhao, which means capital city, to Xi'an in Ming dynasty.[40]

See also

References

Sources

Further reading

External links

Notes and References

  1. (a) Tertius Chandler, Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census, Lewiston, New York: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1987. . (b) George Modelski, World Cities: –3000 to 2000, Washington, D.C.: FAROS 2000, 2003. .
  2. Book: Haywood . John . Jotischky . Andrew . McGlynn . Sean . Historical Atlas of the Medieval World, AD 600-1492 . 1998 . Barnes & Noble . 978-0-7607-1976-3 . 3.20, 3.31 . 2015-12-31 . 2016-04-14 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160414153922/https://books.google.com/books?id=YQMUNgAACAAJ . live .
  3. New Book of Tang, vol. 41 (Zhi vol. 27) Geography 1.
  4. Schinz, 1996
  5. Book: . Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture . Columbia University Press . 2000 . 978-0-231-11004-4 . John Stewart Bowman . 13 . registration.
  6. Book: de Crespigny, Rafe . 2006 . A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD) . Leiden . Brill . 35–39 . 978-9047411840 . 30 April 2018 . 14 December 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20191214153441/https://books.google.com/books?id=49OvCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA35 . live .
  7. Ministry of Culture, P.R. Chin (2003)
  8. Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, 2003
  9. Benn, 50.
  10. Ebrey, 92.
  11. Book: The golden peaches of Samarkand: a study of Tʻang exotics . Edward H. Schafer . 1963 . University of California Press . 0-520-05462-8 . 22 . 2010-06-28 . 2013-06-16 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130616133428/http://books.google.com/books?id=jqAGIL02BWQC&pg=PA22 . live .
  12. 薛平拴(Xue, Pingshuan), 五代宋元时期古都长安商业的兴衰演变
  13. Benn, 47.
  14. Benn, xiv.
  15. Benn, xiii.
  16. Benn, 48.
  17. Benn, 49.
  18. Benn, xviii
  19. Benn, xix
  20. Benn, 62.
  21. Benn, xv
  22. Benn, xvi.
  23. Benn, xvii.
  24. Benn, 54.
  25. Benn, 55.
  26. Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 33, 233.
  27. Lara Caroline Williams Blanchard,79.
  28. Benn, 64.
  29. beverly bossler,pp. 71-99 (29 pages).
  30. Benn, 149.
  31. Benn, 150.
  32. Benn, 151.
  33. Benn, 152.
  34. Benn, 153.
  35. Benn, 154.
  36. Benn, 155.
  37. Benn, 156.
  38. Benn, 157.
  39. Benn, 4.
  40. Web site: worldhistory.org . 2022-06-05 . 2021-11-23 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211123034405/https://www.worldhistory.org/Chang%27an/ . live .

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