Central Atlas Tamazight (also referred to as just Tamazight[1]) belongs to the Northern Berber branch of the Berber languages.
As a member of the Afroasiatic family, Tamazight grammar has a two-gender (tawsit[2]) system, VSO typology, emphatic consonants (realized in Tamazight as velarized), and a templatic morphology.
Tamazight has a verbo-nominal distinction, with adjectives being a subset of verbs.[3]
Nouns may be masculine or feminine and singular or plural. Definiteness is not marked (even though many loanwords from Arabic contain what was originally the Arabic definite article). Normally plurals end in /-n/, singular masculines have the prefix /a-/ and plurals /i-/, and feminines have the circumfix pronounced as //t(a)...t(ː)// in singular and pronounced as //t(i)...(in/t)// in plural. In Ayt Seghrouchen initial /a/ is dropped in many singular nouns, though their plurals and construct states are similar to Ayt Ayache.
Plurals may either involve a regular change ("sound plurals"), internal vowel change ("broken plurals"), or a combination of the two. Some plurals are mixed, e.g. pronounced as //tafust// ('hand') > pronounced as //tifusin// ('hands').
Native masculine singular nouns usually start with pronounced as //a(m)-// in singular and pronounced as //i-// in plural, and "sound plurals" (as opposed to "broken plurals" which also take the suffix pronounced as //-n// in plural). This suffix undergoes the following assimilatory rules:
Native feminine usually are surrounded by pronounced as //t...(t)// (or pronounced as //m...t//) in the singular. "Sound" plurals usually take pronounced as //t(i/u)...n// and "Broken" plurals pronounced as //ti-//.
Examples:.
/axam/-/ixamn/ 'big tent(s)' (m)
/amaziɣ/-/imaziɣn/ '' (m)
/adaʃu//-/iduʃa/ 'sandal(s)' (m)
/asrdun/-/isrdan/ '' (m)
/taxamt/-/tixamin/ 'tent(s)' (f)
/tafunast/-/tifunasin/ '' (f)
/tagrtilt/-/tigrtal/ 'mat(s)' (f)
/tamazirt/-/timizar/ '' (f)
Nouns may be put into the construct state (contrasting with free state) to indicate possession, or when the subject of a verb follows the verb. This is also used for nouns following numerals and some prepositions (note that pronounced as //ɣɾ//, 'to', only requires this for feminine nouns), as well as the word pronounced as //d-// ('and'). The construct state is formed as follows:
Initial pronounced as //a// > pronounced as //u, wː, wa//
Initial pronounced as //i// > pronounced as //i, j, ji//
Initial pronounced as //u// > pronounced as //wu//
Initial pronounced as //ta// > pronounced as //t// or rarely pronounced as //ta//
Initial pronounced as //ti// > pronounced as //t// or rarely pronounced as //ti//
Initial pronounced as //tu// > pronounced as //tu//
Examples (in AA):
pronounced as //babuxam// (< pronounced as //axam//) 'head of the house'
pronounced as //ijːs ntslit// (< pronounced as //tislit//) 'the horse of the bride'
Tamazight's use of possessive suffixes mirrors that of many other Afroasiatic languages.
| Possessive suffix | Object1 (affixed2) | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dialect: | AA | AS | AA | AS | AA | AS | ||
| direct object | indirect object | |||||||
| I | pronounced as //nkː// | pronounced as //ntʃ ~ ntʃint// | pronounced as //-(i)nw//3 | pronounced as //i// | ||||
| you (ms) | pronounced as //ʃɡː// | pronounced as //ʃkː ~ ʃkːint// | pronounced as //-nʃ// | pronounced as //-nːs// | pronounced as //aʃ//4 | pronounced as //ʃ// | ||
| you (fs) | pronounced as //ʃmː// | pronounced as //ʃmː ~ ʃmːint// | pronounced as //-nːm// | pronounced as //am//4 | pronounced as //ʃm// | |||
| he | pronounced as //ntːa// | pronounced as //ntːa ~ ntːan// | pronounced as //-ns// | pronounced as //-nːs// | pronounced as //as//4 | pronounced as //t// | ||
| she | pronounced as //ntːat// | pronounced as //tː// | ||||||
| we (m) | pronounced as //nkʷːni// | pronounced as //ntʃni// | pronounced as //-nːɣ// | pronounced as //-nːx// | pronounced as //aɣ//4 | pronounced as //ax// | ||
| we (f) | pronounced as //ntʃninti// | |||||||
| you (mp) | pronounced as //kʷnːi// | pronounced as //ʃnːi// | pronounced as //-nːun// | pronounced as //awn//4 | pronounced as //ʃun// | |||
| you (fp) | pronounced as //kʷnːinti// | pronounced as //ʃnːinti// | pronounced as //-nːkʷnt// | pronounced as //-nːʃnt// | pronounced as //akʷnt//4 | pronounced as //awnt ~ aʃnt// | pronounced as //ʃunt// | |
| they (m) | pronounced as //nitni// | pronounced as //-nsn// | pronounced as //-nːsn// | pronounced as //asn//4 | pronounced as //tn// | |||
| they (f) | pronounced as //nitni// | pronounced as //nitnti// | pronounced as //-nsnt// | pronounced as //-nːsnt// | pronounced as //asnt//4 | pronounced as //tnt// | ||
Ayt Seghrouchen also has a special set of suffixes for future transitive verbs (which combine with the future marker pronounced as //ad-//):
| singular ! | plural | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| m | f | m | f | ||
| 1st | pronounced as //adi-// | pronounced as //adax-// | |||
| 2nd | pronounced as //aʃː-// | pronounced as //asːm-// | pronounced as //aʃːun-// | ||
| 3rd | pronounced as //atː-// | pronounced as //adtː-// | pronounced as //atːn-// | pronounced as //atːnt-// | |
Independent possessives are formed by attaching the possessive suffixes to pronounced as //wi-// (if the object possessed is masculine) or pronounced as //ti-//' (for feminine), e.g. pronounced as //winw// ('mine').
Special possessive suffixes are used with kinship terms.
Emphatics are formed with the word pronounced as //nːit//, e.g. pronounced as //nkː nːit// ('I myself').
| Proximate | Remote | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (s) | (pl) | (s) | (pl) | ||||||
| AA | AS | AA | AS | AA | AS | AA | AS | ||
| (m) | pronounced as //wa// | pronounced as //wu// | pronounced as //wi// | pronounced as //inu// | pronounced as //wanː// | pronounced as //winː// | pronounced as //winː// | pronounced as //ininː// | |
| (f) | pronounced as //ta// | pronounced as //tu// | pronounced as //ti// | pronounced as //tinu// | pronounced as //tanː// | pronounced as //tinː// | pronounced as //tinː// | pronounced as //tininː// | |
| suffixes | pronounced as //-a//1 / pronounced as //-u//2 | pronounced as //-inː// | |||||||
When pronounced as //-a// / pronounced as //-u// / pronounced as //-inː// is suffixed to a noun ending in pronounced as //a// or pronounced as //u// epenthetic pronounced as //j// is inserted, e.g. pronounced as //tabardaja// ('this pack-saddle').
Other deictic suffixes: pronounced as //-dːɣ// ('this'), pronounced as //-nːa// ('that'), e.g. pronounced as //tadːartdːɣ// ('this house'), pronounced as //tadːartnːa// ('that house').
Verbs are marked for tense, aspect, mood, voice, and polarity, and agree with the number, person, and gender of the subject.
Verb framing
Satellite framing is accomplished with the proximate affix[4] /d/ (/dː/ in AS) and remote /nː/, e.g. /dːu/ 'to go' yields /i-dːa/ 'he went', /i-dːa-d/ 'he came', /i-dːa-nː/ 'he went there' (in AS the verb /rˠaħ/ 'to go' is used instead)
Voice
Derived verb stems may be made from basic verb stems to create causatives, reciprocals, recipro-causatives, passives, or habituals.
Causatives are derived from unaugmented stems with the prefix /s(ː)-/.[5]
/ħudr/ 'bend' > /sħudr/
Habituals are derived from unaugmented and reciprocal/recipro-causative stems with the prefix /tː-/ (sometimes with internal change), from causatives by an infixed vowel, and from passives by an optional infixed vowel:/fa/ 'yawn' > /tːfa/
(/ħudr/ 'bend' >) /sħudr/ > /sħudur/
(/ʕum/ 'swim' > /mːsʕum/ >) /tːmːsʕum/
(/bdr/ 'mention' > /tːubdr/ >) /tːubdar/
Reciprocals are formed with the prefix /m(ː)-/, and recipro-causatives with /-m(ː)s-/, sometimes with internal change.
/sal/ 'ask' > /mːsal/
Passives are formed with the prefix /tːu-/:/ħnːa/ 'pity' > /tːuħnːa/
Tense, mode, and subject
pronounced as //ad-// marks future tense, pronounced as //is-// marks interrogative mode, and pronounced as //ur-// marks negative mode.
Pronominal complement markers cliticize to the verb, with the indirect object preceding the direct object, e.g. /izn-as-t/ "he sold it to him".[6]
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Standard negation is accompanied by a negative indefinite pronoun, walu.[9]
| s | pronounced as //rwl// | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| pl | (m) | pronounced as //rwlat// | pronounced as //rwlm// |
| (f) | pronounced as //rwlnt// | ||
Tamazight has a null copula. The words pronounced as //ɡ// pronounced as //iʒ// 'to be, to do' may function as a copula in Ayt Ayache and Ayt Seghrouchen respectively, especially in structures preceded by /aj/ 'who, which, what'.
Many Arabic loans have been integrated into the Tamazight verb lexicon. They adhere fully to patterns of native stems, and may even undergo ablaut.
Ablaut
In Ayt Ayache, ablaut occurs only in affirmative and/or negative past (in applicable verb classes). Types of ablaut include Ø:i/a, Ø:i, and a:u, which may be accompanied by metathesis. In Ayt Seghrouchen types of ablaut include Ø:i (in negative), i/a, i/u, a-u, and a-i.
Adjectives come after the noun they modify, and inflect for number and gender:[10]
/argaz amʕdur/ 'the foolish man' (lit. 'man foolish')
/tamtˤot tamʕdurt/ 'the foolish woman'
/irgzen imʕdar/ 'the foolish men'
/tajtʃin timʕdar/ 'the foolish women'
Adjectives may also occur alone, in which case they become an NP.
Practically all adjectives also have a verbal form used for predicative purposes, which behaves just like a normal verb:
/i-mmuʕdr urgaz/ 'the man is foolish' (lit. '3ps-foolish man')
/argaz i-mmuʕdr-n/ 'the foolish man' [using a non-finite verb]
As such, adjectives may be classed as a subset of verbs which also have other non-verbal features. However Penchoen (1973:21) argues that they are actually nouns.
Prepositions
Prepositions include pronounced as //xf// ('on'), pronounced as //qbl// ('before'), pronounced as //ɣɾ// ('to'), and pronounced as //ɡ// ('until'). These may take pronominal suffixes (see Pronouns).
Some prepositions require the following noun to be in the construct state, while others do not.
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pronounced as //n// encliticizes onto the following word (which is put into construct state), and assimilates to some initial consonants: it becomes pronounced as //l// before a noun with initial pronounced as //l//, pronounced as //w// before initial pronounced as //a//, and pronounced as //j// before initial pronounced as //i// (note that this creates geminates rather than doubled phonemes, e.g. pronounced as //ʃa lːħlib// 'some milk'). Nouns with initial pronounced as //a// normally drop in when following pronounced as //ʃa// 'some of', e.g. pronounced as //ʃa wksum// (< |pronounced as /ʃa n aksum/|) 'some meat', but some don't, following the normal rules of construct state, e.g. pronounced as //ʃa wːataj// (< |pronounced as /ʃa n ataj/|) 'some tea'.
Conjunctions
The conjunction pronounced as //d// 'and' requires construct state, and also assimilates to a following pronounced as //t//, e.g. pronounced as //aɣjul tːfunast// 'the donkey and the cow'.
Other conjunctions include:
| pronounced as //lːij// | pronounced as //zɡːa// | when, while | |
| pronounced as //ɣas anːaxf ɣas// | pronounced as //xas//, pronounced as //adinx// | as soon as | |
| pronounced as //aj// | pronounced as //aj//, pronounced as //din// | who, which | |
| pronounced as //akʷːma// | pronounced as //akːadin// | whatever | |
| pronounced as //akʷːmani// | pronounced as //akːmani// | wherever | |
| pronounced as //akʷːmilmi// | whenever | ||
| pronounced as //akʷːanːa// | whatever | ||
| pronounced as //akʷːunːa// | whoever | ||
| pronounced as //d// | and | ||
| pronounced as //d// | with | ||
Cardinal numerals
The first few (1–3 in Ayt Ayache, 1–2 in Ayt Seghrouchen) cardinal numerals have native Berber and borrowed Arabic forms. The Arabic numerals are only used for counting in order and for production of higher numbers when combined with the tens.
| Native | Borrowed | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ayt Ayache | Ayt Seghrouchen | |||
| 1 | (m) | pronounced as //jun// | pronounced as //idʒ// | pronounced as //waħd// |
| (f) | pronounced as //jut// | pronounced as //iʃt// | ||
| 2 | (m) | pronounced as //sin// | pronounced as //snat// | pronounced as //tnajn// |
| (f) | pronounced as //snat// | |||
| 3 | (m) | pronounced as //ʃɾad// | pronounced as //tlata// | |
| (f) | pronounced as //ʃɾatː// | |||
The numbers 3–9 have special apocopated forms, used before the words pronounced as //snin// ('years'), pronounced as //mjːa// ('100'), pronounced as //alaf// ('1,000'), and pronounced as //mlajn// ('million'), e.g. pronounced as //sbʕ snin// ('7 years'; without the preposition pronounced as //n//).
| 3 | (pronounced as //tlata//) | pronounced as //tlt// | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 4 | pronounced as //ɾˠbʕa// | pronounced as //ɾˠbʕ// | |
| 5 | pronounced as //xmsa// | pronounced as //xms// | |
| 6 | pronounced as //stːa// | pronounced as //stː// | |
| 7 | pronounced as //sbʕa// | pronounced as //sbʕ// | |
| 8 | pronounced as //tmanɾa// | pronounced as //tmn// | |
| 9 | pronounced as //tsʕa// | pronounced as //tsʕ// |
The numbers 11–19 only end in pronounced as //-ɾ// before the words pronounced as //ʕam// ('year') and pronounced as //alf// ('thousand'; without the preposition pronounced as //n//).
| 11 | pronounced as //ħ daʕʃ(ɾ)// | |
|---|---|---|
| 12 | pronounced as //tnaʕʃ(ɾ)// | |
| 13 | pronounced as //tltˠaʕʃ(ɾ)// | |
| 14 | pronounced as //ɾˠbʕtˠaʕʃ(ɾ)// | |
| 15 | pronounced as //xmstaʕʃ// / pronounced as //xmstˠaʕʃɾ// | |
| 16 | pronounced as //stːaʕʃ// / pronounced as //stˠːaʕʃɾ// | |
| 17 | pronounced as //sbʕtˠaʕʃ(ɾ)// | |
| 18 | pronounced as //tmntaʕʃ/tmntˠaʕʃɾ// | |
| 19 | pronounced as //tsʕtˠaʕʃ(ɾ)// |
pronounced as //mjːat// is only used for '100' before pronounced as //alf// ('1,000') or pronounced as //ʕam// ('year'; without the preposition pronounced as //n//). Also note the dual forms, and pronounced as //ʒuʒ mlajn// for '2,000,000'.
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Cardinal numbers precede the modified noun, connected by the preposition pronounced as //n// (optional for the number 1).[12]
The procliticization-triggered phonological change of pronounced as //n// may cause pronounced as //jun// / pronounced as //jut// and pronounced as //sin// to become proclitics pronounced as //ju-//, pronounced as //si-//, e.g. pronounced as //julːʕil// ('one boy'), pronounced as //jutːɾbatː ~ jut ntɾbatː// ('one girl'), pronounced as //siwːaɾːjalː// ('two rials').
When referring to money, pronounced as //qːlː// ('minus') and pronounced as //ɣiɾ// ('except') may be used, for example: pronounced as //mjːa qːlː// / pronounced as //ɣiɾ ʕʃɾˠa// ('90 [rials]'), pronounced as //mitajn qːlː ʕʃɾin// ('180 [rials]'), pronounced as //mitajn ɣiɾ xmsa// ('195 [rials]').
Nouns following numerals require construct state.
Ordinal numerals
The word for 'the first' is unique in that it is not derived from a cardinal stem and it inflects for number:
| 'the first' | singular | plural | |
|---|---|---|---|
| m | pronounced as //amzwaɾu// | pronounced as //imzwura// | |
| f | pronounced as //tamzwaɾutː// | pronounced as //timzwura// |
From 'the second' on, ordinals are formed by prefixing pronounced as //wisː-// in the masculine and pronounced as //tisː-// in the feminine (using the native Berber forms of 2 and 3).
Fractions
There are unique words which may be used for some fractions, although male ordinals can be used for 1/4 on.
| Tamazight | Gloss | |
|---|---|---|
| pronounced as //amnasˠf//, pronounced as //azin//1 | 'half' | |
| pronounced as //tːulut// | '1/3' | |
| pronounced as //ɾˠːubuʕ// | '1/4' | |
| pronounced as //lxumus// | '1/5' | |
| pronounced as //sːudus// | '1/6' | |
| pronounced as //tːumun// | '1/8' | |
| pronounced as //lʕuʃuɾˠ// | '1/10' |
Word order is usually Verb + Subject [in construct state] but sometimes is Subject [in free state] + Verb, e.g. (pronounced as //ifːɣ umaziɣ// vs. pronounced as //amaziɣ ifːɣ// 'the Berber went out'). Tamazight exhibits pro-drop behavior.[13]
wh- questions are always clefts, and multiple wh-questions are not found. This means that Tamazight cannot grammatically express an equivalent to the English "who saw what?".[14]
Tamazight's clefting, relativisation, and wh-interrogation cause what is called "anti-agreement effects", similarly to Shilha. This is when the verb doesn't agree with or agrees in a special way with wh-words.[15] In Berber, the feminine singular prefix pronounced as //t-// disappears when the subject is a wh- phrase, but only for affirmative verbs.[16]