Cauchy momentum equation explained

The Cauchy momentum equation is a vector partial differential equation put forth by Cauchy that describes the non-relativistic momentum transport in any continuum.^[1]

Main equation

In convective (or Lagrangian) form the Cauchy momentum equation is written as:$$\backslash frac\; =\; \backslash frac\; 1\; \backslash rho\; \backslash nabla\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash boldsymbol\; +\; \backslash mathbf$$

where

u is the flow velocity vector field, which depends on time and space, (unit: m/s )t is time, (unit: s )(D u)/(D t) is the material derivative of u , equal to \partial _{tu} + u ⋅ \nabla u , (unit: m/s ^{2} ) \rho is the density at a given point of the continuum (for which the continuity equation holds), (unit: kg/m ^{3} )\boldsymbol{\sigma} is the stress tensor, (unit: Pa=N/m ^{2} =kg ⋅ m ^{-1} ⋅ s ^{-2} ) f = \begin{bmatrix}f _{x\ f} _{y\ f} _{z\end{bmatrix}} is a vector containing all of the accelerations caused by body forces (sometimes simply gravitational acceleration), (unit: m/s ^{2} ) \nabla ⋅ \boldsymbol{\sigma} = \begin{bmatrix} \dfrac{\partial \sigma _{xx} } + \dfrac + \dfrac \\\dfrac + \dfrac + \dfrac \\\dfrac + \dfrac + \dfrac \\\end is the divergence of stress tensor. (unit: Pa/m=kg ⋅ m ^{-2} ⋅ s ^{-2} )

Commonly used SI units are given in parentheses although the equations are general in nature and other units can be entered into them or units can be removed at all by nondimensionalization.

Note that only we use column vectors (in the Cartesian coordinate system) above for clarity, but the equation is written using physical components (which are neither covariants ("column") nor contravariants ("row")).^[2] However, if we chose a non-orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system, then we should calculate and write equations in covariant ("row vectors") or contravariant ("column vectors") form.

After an appropriate change of variables, it can also be written in conservation form:

$$\backslash frac\; +\; \backslash nabla\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash mathbf\; F\; =\; \backslash mathbf\; s$$

where is the momentum density at a given space-time point, is the flux associated to the momentum density, and contains all of the body forces per unit volume.

Differential derivation

Let us start with the generalized momentum conservation principle which can be written as follows: "The change in system momentum is proportional to the resulting force acting on this system". It is expressed by the formula:^[3]

$$\backslash vec\; p(t+\backslash Delta\; t)\; -\; \backslash vec\; p(t)\; =\; \backslash Delta\; t\; \backslash vec\backslash bar\; F$$

where

\vec p(t) is momentum at time, and \vec\bar F is force averaged over \Delta t . After dividing by \Delta t and passing to the limit \Delta t \to 0 we get (derivative):

$$\backslash frac\; =\; \backslash vec\; F$$

Let us analyse each side of the equation above.

Right side

, and the designation

\Delta f = f(x _{1+\Delta} x) - f(x _{1)} was used.]]

We split the forces into body forces

\vec F _{m} and surface forces \vec F _{p}

$$\backslash vec\; F=\backslash vec\; F\_p\; +\; \backslash vec\; F\_m$$

Surface forces act on walls of the cubic fluid element. For each wall, the X component of these forces was marked in the figure with a cubic element (in the form of a product of stress and surface area e.g.

- \sigma _{xx} dy dz with units $\backslash mathrm$).

Adding forces (their X components) acting on each of the cube walls, we get:

$$F\_p^x\; =\backslash left(\backslash sigma\_+\backslash fracdx\backslash right)dy\backslash ,dz-\backslash sigma\_dy\backslash ,dz+\backslash left(\backslash sigma\_+\backslash fracdy\backslash right)dx\backslash ,dz-\backslash sigma\_dx\backslash ,dz+\backslash left(\backslash sigma\_+\backslash fracdz\backslash right)dx\backslash ,dy-\backslash sigma\_dx\backslash ,dy$$

After ordering

F ^{x} _{p} and performing similar reasoning for components F ^{y,} _{p} F ^{z} _{p} (they have not been shown in the figure, but these would be vectors parallel to the Y and Z axes, respectively) we get:

We can then write it in the symbolic operational form:

$$\backslash vec\; F\_p=(\backslash nabla\backslash cdot\backslash boldsymbol\backslash sigma)\; \backslash ,dx\backslash ,dy\backslash ,dz$$

There are mass forces acting on the inside of the control volume. We can write them using the acceleration field

f (e.g. gravitational acceleration):$$\backslash vec\; F\_m\; =\; \backslash mathbf\; f\; \backslash rho\; \backslash ,dx\backslash ,dy\backslash ,dz$$

Left side

Let us calculate momentum of the cube:$$\backslash vec\; p\; =\; \backslash mathbf\; u\; m\; =\; \backslash mathbf\; u\; \backslash rho\; \backslash ,\; dx\; \backslash ,\; dy\; \backslash ,\; dz$$

Because we assume that tested mass (cube)

m = \rho dxdydz is constant in time, so$$\backslash frac=\backslash frac\; \backslash rho\; \backslash ,\; dx\; \backslash ,\; dy\; \backslash ,\; dz$$

Left and Right side comparison

We have

$$\backslash frac=\backslash vec\; F$$

then

$$\backslash frac=\backslash vec\; F\_p\; +\; \backslash vec\; F\_m$$then$$\backslash frac\backslash rho\; \backslash ,\; dx\; \backslash ,\; dy\; \backslash ,\; dz\; =\; (\backslash nabla\backslash cdot\backslash boldsymbol\backslash sigma)dx\; \backslash ,\; dy\; \backslash ,\; dz\; +\; \backslash mathbf\; f\; \backslash rho\; \backslash ,dx\; \backslash ,\; dy\; \backslash ,\; dz$$

Divide both sides by

\rho dxdydz , and because $\backslash frac\; =\; \backslash frac$ we get:$$\backslash frac\; =\; \backslash frac\backslash nabla\backslash cdot\backslash boldsymbol\backslash sigma\; +\; \backslash mathbf\; f$$

which finishes the derivation.

Integral derivation

Applying Newton's second law (th component) to a control volume in the continuum being modeled gives:

$$m\; a\_i\; =\; F\_i$$

Then, based on the Reynolds transport theorem and using material derivative notation, one can write

where represents the control volume. Since this equation must hold for any control volume, it must be true that the integrand is zero, from this the Cauchy momentum equation follows. The main step (not done above) in deriving this equation is establishing that the derivative of the stress tensor is one of the forces that constitutes .

Conservation form

The Cauchy momentum equation can also be put in the following form:

simply by defining:

where is the momentum density at the point considered in the continuum (for which the continuity equation holds), is the flux associated to the momentum density, and contains all of the body forces per unit volume. is the dyad of the velocity.

Here and have same number of dimensions as the flow speed and the body acceleration, while, being a tensor, has .^[4]

In the Eulerian forms it is apparent that the assumption of no deviatoric stress brings Cauchy equations to the Euler equations.

Convective acceleration

A significant feature of the Navier–Stokes equations is the presence of convective acceleration: the effect of time-independent acceleration of a flow with respect to space. While individual continuum particles indeed experience time dependent acceleration, the convective acceleration of the flow field is a spatial effect, one example being fluid speeding up in a nozzle.

Regardless of what kind of continuum is being dealt with, convective acceleration is a nonlinear effect. Convective acceleration is present in most flows (exceptions include one-dimensional incompressible flow), but its dynamic effect is disregarded in creeping flow (also called Stokes flow). Convective acceleration is represented by the nonlinear quantity, which may be interpreted either as or as, with the tensor derivative of the velocity vector . Both interpretations give the same result.^[5]

Advection operator vs tensor derivative

The convective acceleration can be thought of as the advection operator acting on the velocity field .^[5] This contrasts with the expression in terms of tensor derivative, which is the component-wise derivative of the velocity vector defined by, so that$$\backslash left[\backslash mathbf\{u\}\backslash cdot\backslash left(\backslash nabla\; \backslash mathbf\{u\}\backslash right)\backslash right]\_i=\backslash sum\_m\; v\_m\; \backslash partial\_m\; v\_i=\backslash left[(\backslash mathbf\{u\}\backslash cdot\backslash nabla)\backslash mathbf\{u\}\backslash right]\_i\backslash ,.$$

Lamb form

The vector calculus identity of the cross product of a curl holds:

$$\backslash mathbf\; \backslash times\; \backslash left(\backslash nabla\; \backslash times\; \backslash mathbf\; \backslash right)\; =\; \backslash nabla\_a\; \backslash left(\backslash mathbf\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash mathbf\; \backslash right)\; -\; \backslash mathbf\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash nabla\; \backslash mathbf$$

where the Feynman subscript notation is used, which means the subscripted gradient operates only on the factor .

Lamb in his famous classical book Hydrodynamics (1895),^[6] used this identity to change the convective term of the flow velocity in rotational form, i.e. without a tensor derivative:^[7]

$$\backslash mathbf\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash nabla\; \backslash mathbf\; =\; \backslash nabla\; \backslash left(\backslash frac\; \backslash right)\; +\; \backslash left(\backslash nabla\; \backslash times\; \backslash mathbf\; \backslash right)\; \backslash times\; \backslash mathbf$$

where the vector

l = \left( \nabla x u \right) x u is called the Lamb vector. The Cauchy momentum equation becomes:

$$\backslash frac\; +\; \backslash frac\; \backslash nabla\; \backslash left(u^2\backslash right)\; +\; (\backslash nabla\; \backslash times\; \backslash mathbf\; u)\; \backslash times\; \backslash mathbf\; u\; =\; \backslash frac\; 1\; \backslash rho\; \backslash nabla\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash boldsymbol\; \backslash sigma\; +\; \backslash mathbf$$

Using the identity:

$$\backslash nabla\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash left(\backslash frac\; \backslash right)\; =\; \backslash frac\; 1\; \backslash rho\; \backslash nabla\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash boldsymbol\; \backslash sigma\; -\; \backslash frac\; \backslash boldsymbol\; \backslash sigma\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash nabla\; \backslash rho$$

the Cauchy equation becomes:

$$\backslash nabla\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash left(\backslash frac\; u^2\; -\; \backslash frac\; \backslash rho\; \backslash right)\; -\; \backslash mathbf\; f\; =\; \backslash frac\; \backslash boldsymbol\; \backslash sigma\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash nabla\; \backslash rho\; +\; \backslash mathbf\; u\; \backslash times\; (\backslash nabla\; \backslash times\; \backslash mathbf\; u)\; -\; \backslash frac$$

In fact, in case of an external conservative field, by defining its potential :

$$\backslash nabla\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash left(\backslash frac\; u^2\; +\; \backslash phi\; -\; \backslash frac\; \backslash rho\; \backslash right)\; =\; \backslash frac\; \backslash boldsymbol\; \backslash sigma\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash nabla\; \backslash rho\; +\; \backslash mathbf\; u\; \backslash times\; (\backslash nabla\; \backslash times\; \backslash mathbf\; u)\; -\; \backslash frac$$

In case of a steady flow the time derivative of the flow velocity disappears, so the momentum equation becomes:

$$\backslash nabla\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash left(\backslash frac\; u^2\; +\; \backslash phi\; -\; \backslash frac\; \backslash rho\; \backslash right)\; =\; \backslash frac\; \backslash boldsymbol\; \backslash sigma\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash nabla\; \backslash rho\; +\; \backslash mathbf\; u\; \backslash times\; (\backslash nabla\; \backslash times\; \backslash mathbf\; u)$$

And by projecting the momentum equation on the flow direction, i.e. along a streamline, the cross product disappears due to a vector calculus identity of the triple scalar product:

$$\backslash mathbf\; u\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash nabla\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash left(\backslash frac\; u^2\; +\; \backslash phi\; -\; \backslash frac\; \backslash rho\; \backslash right)\; =\; \backslash frac\; \backslash mathbf\; u\; \backslash cdot\; (\backslash boldsymbol\; \backslash sigma\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash nabla\; \backslash rho)$$

If the stress tensor is isotropic, then only the pressure enters:

\boldsymbol \sigma = - p I (where is the identity tensor), and the Euler momentum equation in the steady incompressible case becomes:

$$\backslash mathbf\; u\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash nabla\; \backslash left(\backslash frac\; u^2\; +\; \backslash phi\; +\; \backslash frac\; p\; \backslash rho\; \backslash right)\; +\; \backslash frac\; \backslash mathbf\; u\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash nabla\; \backslash rho\; =\; 0$$

In the steady incompressible case the mass equation is simply:

$$\backslash mathbf\; u\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash nabla\; \backslash rho\; =\; 0\backslash ,,$$

that is, the mass conservation for a steady incompressible flow states that the density along a streamline is constant. This leads to a considerable simplification of the Euler momentum equation:

$$\backslash mathbf\; u\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash nabla\; \backslash left(\backslash frac\; u^2\; +\; \backslash phi\; +\; \backslash frac\; p\; \backslash rho\; \backslash right)\; =\; 0$$

The convenience of defining the total head for an inviscid liquid flow is now apparent:

$$b\_l\; \backslash equiv\; \backslash frac\; u^2\; +\; \backslash phi\; +\; \backslash frac\; p\; \backslash rho\backslash ,,$$

in fact, the above equation can be simply written as:

$$\backslash mathbf\; u\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash nabla\; b\_l\; =\; 0$$

That is, the momentum balance for a steady inviscid and incompressible flow in an external conservative field states that the total head along a streamline is constant.

Irrotational flows

The Lamb form is also useful in irrotational flow, where the curl of the velocity (called vorticity) is equal to zero. In that case, the convection term in

D u /Dt reduces to

$$\backslash mathbf\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash nabla\; \backslash mathbf\; =\; \backslash nabla\; \backslash left(\backslash frac\; \backslash right).$$

Stresses

The effect of stress in the continuum flow is represented by the and terms; these are gradients of surface forces, analogous to stresses in a solid. Here is the pressure gradient and arises from the isotropic part of the Cauchy stress tensor. This part is given by the normal stresses that occur in almost all situations. The anisotropic part of the stress tensor gives rise to, which usually describes viscous forces; for incompressible flow, this is only a shear effect. Thus, is the deviatoric stress tensor, and the stress tensor is equal to:

$$\backslash boldsymbol\; \backslash sigma\; =\; -\; p\; \backslash mathbf\; I\; +\; \backslash boldsymbol\; \backslash tau$$

where is the identity matrix in the space considered and the shear tensor.

All non-relativistic momentum conservation equations, such as the Navier–Stokes equation, can be derived by beginning with the Cauchy momentum equation and specifying the stress tensor through a constitutive relation. By expressing the shear tensor in terms of viscosity and fluid velocity, and assuming constant density and viscosity, the Cauchy momentum equation will lead to the Navier–Stokes equations. By assuming inviscid flow, the Navier–Stokes equations can further simplify to the Euler equations.

The divergence of the stress tensor can be written as

$$\backslash nabla\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash boldsymbol\; =\; -\backslash nabla\; p\; +\; \backslash nabla\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash boldsymbol.$$

The effect of the pressure gradient on the flow is to accelerate the flow in the direction from high pressure to low pressure.

As written in the Cauchy momentum equation, the stress terms and are yet unknown, so this equation alone cannot be used to solve problems. Besides the equations of motion—Newton's second law—a force model is needed relating the stresses to the flow motion. For this reason, assumptions based on natural observations are often applied to specify the stresses in terms of the other flow variables, such as velocity and density.

External forces

The vector field represents body forces per unit mass. Typically, these consist of only gravity acceleration, but may include others, such as electromagnetic forces. In non-inertial coordinate frames, other "inertial accelerations" associated with rotating coordinates may arise.

Often, these forces may be represented as the gradient of some scalar quantity, with in which case they are called conservative forces. Gravity in the direction, for example, is the gradient of . Because pressure from such gravitation arises only as a gradient, we may include it in the pressure term as a body force . The pressure and force terms on the right-hand side of the Navier–Stokes equation become

$$-\backslash nabla\; p\; +\; \backslash mathbf\; =\; -\backslash nabla\; p\; +\; \backslash nabla\; \backslash chi\; =\; -\backslash nabla\; \backslash left(p\; -\; \backslash chi\; \backslash right)\; =\; -\backslash nabla\; h.$$

It is also possible to include external influences into the stress term

\boldsymbol{\sigma} rather than the body force term. This may even include antisymmetric stresses (inputs of angular momentum), in contrast to the usually symmetrical internal contributions to the stress tensor.^[8]

Nondimensionalisation

In order to make the equations dimensionless, a characteristic length and a characteristic velocity need to be defined. These should be chosen such that the dimensionless variables are all of order one. The following dimensionless variables are thus obtained:

Substitution of these inverted relations in the Euler momentum equations yields:

$$\backslash frac\; \backslash frac+\; \backslash frac\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash left(\backslash rho\_0\; u\_0^2\; \backslash rho^*\; \backslash mathbf\; u^*\; \backslash otimes\; \backslash mathbf\; u^*\; +\; p\_0\; p^*\; \backslash right)=\; -\; \backslash frac\; \backslash nabla^*\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash boldsymbol\; \backslash tau^*\; +\; f\_0\; \backslash mathbf\; f^*$$

and by dividing for the first coefficient:

$$\backslash frac+\; \backslash nabla^*\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash left(\backslash rho^*\; \backslash mathbf\; u^*\; \backslash otimes\; \backslash mathbf\; u^*\; +\; \backslash frac\; p^*\; \backslash right)=\; -\; \backslash frac\; \backslash nabla^*\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash boldsymbol\; \backslash tau^*\; +\; \backslash frac\; \backslash mathbf\; f^*$$

Now defining the Froude number:

$$\backslash mathrm=\backslash frac,$$

the Euler number:

$$\backslash mathrm=\backslash frac,$$

and the coefficient of skin-friction or the one usually referred as 'drag coefficient' in the field of aerodynamics:

$$C\_\backslash mathrm=\backslash frac,$$

by passing respectively to the conservative variables, i.e. the momentum density and the force density:

the equations are finally expressed (now omitting the indexes):

Cauchy equations in the Froude limit (corresponding to negligible external field) are named free Cauchy equations:

and can be eventually conservation equations. The limit of high Froude numbers (low external field) is thus notable for such equations and is studied with perturbation theory.

Finally in convective form the equations are:

3D explicit convective forms

Cartesian 3D coordinates

For asymmetric stress tensors, equations in general take the following forms:^{[9] [10] [11] [12]}

Cylindrical 3D coordinates

Below, we write the main equation in pressure-tau form assuming that the stress tensor is symmetrical (

\sigma _{ij} = \sigma _{ji} \Longrightarrow \tau _{ij} = \tau _{ji} ):

See also

• Euler equations (fluid dynamics)
• Navier–Stokes equations
• Burnett equations
• Chapman–Enskog expansion

Notes and References

1. Book: Acheson, D. J.. Elementary Fluid Dynamics. . 1990. 0-19-859679-0. 205.
2. Web site: David A. Clarke . A Primer on Tensor Calculus . 2011 . 11 (pdf 15) .
3. Book: Anderson, John D. Jr.. 1995 . Computational Fluid Dynamics. New York . McGraw-Hill . 61–64 . 0-07-001685-2.
4. In 3D for example, with respect to some coordinate system, the vector has 3 components, while the tensors and have 9 (3×3), so the explicit forms written as matrices would be:

   Note, however, that if symmetrical, will only contain 6 degrees of freedom. And 's symmetry is equivalent to 's symmetry (which will be present for the most common Cauchy stress tensors), since dyads of vectors with themselves are always symmetrical.

5. Book: Emanuel, G. . Analytical fluid dynamics . CRC Press . 2001 . second . 0-8493-9114-8 . 6–7 .
6. Web site: en. Hydrodynamics. Lamb . Horace . 1932. 6th. Dover Publications .
7. Book: Batchelor, G. K. . George Batchelor

   . George Batchelor . An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics . 1967 . Cambridge University Press . 0-521-66396-2 . §3.5. 160.

8. Dahler. J. S.. Scriven. L. E.. Angular Momentum of Continua. Nature. 192. 4797. 1961. 36–37. 0028-0836. 10.1038/192036a0. 1961Natur.192...36D. 11034749.
9. C. I. . Berdahl . W. Z. . Strang . Behavior of a Vorticity-Influenced Asymmetric Stress Tensor in Fluid Flow. October 1986 . 13 (Below the main equation, authors describe \sigma _{ki,k} = \partial \sigma _{ki} /\partial x _{k} = \nabla ⋅ \sigma ) . AIR FORCE WRIGHT AERONAUTICAL LABORATORIES .
10. Book: Tasos C. . Papanastasiou . Georgios C. . Georgiou . Andreas N. . Alexandrou . Viscous Fluid Flow . 2000 . 66, 68, 143, 182 (Authors use \nabla ⋅ \sigma = \nabla ⋅ (p I + \tau) ). CRC Press. 0-8493-1606-5.
11. Book: Deen, William M.. Introduction to Chemical Engineering Fluid Mechanics. Cambridge University Press. 2016. 133–136. 978-1-107-12377-9.
12. Web site: Adam. Powell. The Navier-Stokes Equations. 12 April 2010. 2 (Author uses \nabla ⋅ \sigma = \nabla ⋅ (p I + \tau) ).