Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples explained

Location:Canada
Date:1763-disputed
Target:First Nations
Type:Genocide, ethnic cleansing, forced displacement, collective punishment, sexual abuse, starvation, forced conversion
Perpetrators:Government of Canada, Catholic Church, and various other Christian denominations.
Motive:

The Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples is the genocide and systematic destruction of the Indigenous inhabitants of Canada from colonization to the present day.[1] Throughout the history of Canada, the Canadian government has committed what has variously been described as atrocities, crimes, ethnocide, and genocide, against the Indigenous peoples in Canada.[2] [3]

Canada is a settler-colonial state "whose sovereignty and political economy is premised on the dispossession of Indigenous peoples and the exploitation of their land base", and therefore various concepts were used as justifications for the genocide since the very beginnings of the federation and its predecessor states.[4] The Canadian government implemented policies such as the Indian Act, residential schools, health-care segregation, and displacement that aimed to assimilate Indigenous peoples into mainstream society while erasing their religious and culture identities.[5]

There is debate among scholars and Indigenous people about the exact definition and type of genocide that has occurred. The current relationship of Indigenous peoples in Canada and the Crown is one that has been heavily defined by the effects of settler colonialism and Indigenous resistance.[6] Canadian Courts and recent governments have recognized and eliminated many discriminatory practices. A period of redress began with the formation of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada by the Government of Canada in 2008.[7] This included recognition of past cultural genocide,[8] settlement agreements, and betterment of racial discrimination issues, such as addressing the plight of missing and murdered Indigenous women.[9]

Settler colonialism

See main article: Settler colonialism in Canada. Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.[10] First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting European coureur des bois and voyageurs in their explorations of the continent during the North American fur trade.[11] These early European interactions with First Nations would change from friendship and peace treaties to dispossession of lands through treaties.[12] [13] From the late 18th century, European Canadians forced Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a western Canadian society.[14] These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with forced integration and relocations.[15]

As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population massively declined.[16] The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases,[17] [18] conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.[19] [20] Surviving Indigenous groups continued to suffer from severe racially motivated discrimination from their new colonial societies.[21] More recent understandings of the concept of "cultural genocide" and its relation to settler colonialism have led modern scholars to a renewed discussion of the genocidal aspects of the Canadian states' role in producing and legitimating the process of physical and cultural destruction of Indigenous people.[22] This is further expanded by employing Patrick Wolfe's analysis of settler-colonialism, as a structure (rather than an event) premised on the elimination rather than exploitation of the native population, creating a "structural genocide" of the Indigenous people of Canada.

Significant historical incidences

The impact of colonization on Canada can be seen in its culture, history, politics, laws, and legislatures.[23] This led to the systematic removal of Indigenous children from their families, the suppression of Indigenous languages and traditions, and the degradation of Indigenous communities. Other actions highlighted as indicative of genocide include sporadic massacres, the spread of disease, the prohibition of cultural practices, and the ecological devastation of indigenous territories. It can be argued that Colonialism and its effects are still ongoing when looking at current events.[23] [24]

Initial colonization in the late 15th century resulted in repeated outbreaks of European infectious diseases such as influenza, measles and smallpox,[25] combined with other effects of European contact, resulted in a twenty-five per cent to eighty per cent indigenous population decrease post-contact.[26] Roland G Robertson suggests that during the late 1630s, smallpox killed over half of the Wyandot (Huron), who controlled most of the early North American fur trade in the area of New France.[27]

The most well documented incident of genocide against Indigenous Canadians is the Indian Residential School System.[28] Another examples include the forced relocation of Inuit populations during the cold war to propagate Canadian sovereignty,[29] medical segregation that led to poor conditions and lack of innovations being implemented,[30] the sterilization of Indigenous men and women,[31] and the modern day plight of violence and discrimination faced by Indigenous females being marginalized.[32]

The Beothuk

With the death of Shanawdithit in 1829, the Beothuk people, and the Indigenous people of Newfoundland were officially declared extinct after suffering epidemics, starvation, loss of access to food sources, and displacement by English and French fishermen and traders.[33] The Beothuks' main food sources were caribou, fish, and seals; their forced displacement deprived them of two of these. This led to the over-hunting of caribou, leading to a decrease in the caribou population in Newfoundland. The Beothuks emigrated from their traditional land and lifestyle, attempting to avoid contact with Europeans,[34] into ecosystems unable to support them, causing under-nourishment and, eventually, starvation.[35] [36]

Scholars disagree in their definition of genocide in relation to the Beothuk.[37] While some scholars believe that the Beothuk died out as an unintended consequence of European colonization, others argue that Europeans conducted a sustained campaign of genocide against them.[38] [39]

Such a campaign was explicitly without official sanction after 1759, any such action thereafter being in violation of Governor John Byron's proclamation that "I do strictly enjoin and require all His Majesty's subjects to live in amity and brotherly kindness with the native savages [Beothuk] of the said island of Newfoundland",[40] as well as the subsequent Proclamation issued by Governor John Holloway on July 30, 1807, which prohibited mistreatment of the Beothuk and offered a reward for any information on such mistreatment.[41] Such proclamations seemed to have little effect, as writing in 1766, Governor Hugh Palliser reported to the British secretary of state that "the barbarous system of killing prevails amongst our people towards the Native Indians — whom our People always kill, when they can meet them".

Residential schools

See main article: Canadian Indian residential school system. Beginning in 1874 and lasting until 1996,[42] the Canadian government, in partnership with the dominant Christian Churches,[43] ran 130 residential boarding schools across Canada for Aboriginal children, who were forcibly taken from their homes.[44] Over the course of the system's existence, about 30% of native children, or roughly 150,000, were placed in residential schools nationally; at least 6,000 of these students died while in attendance.[45] [46] While the schools provided some education, they were plagued by under-funding, disease, abuse, and sexual abuse.[47] [48] The negative effects of the residential school system have long been accepted almost unanimously among scholars researching the residential school system, with debate focussing on the motives and intent.Part of this process during the 1960s through the 1980s, dubbed the Sixties Scoop, was investigated and the child seizures deemed genocidal by Judge Edwin Kimelman, who wrote: "You took a child from his or her specific culture and you placed him into a foreign culture without any [counselling] assistance to the family which had the child. There is something dramatically and basically wrong with that."[49] [3] Another aspect of the residential school system was its use of forced sterilization on Indigenous women who chose not to follow the schools advice of marrying non-Indigenous men.[50]

Indigenous people of Canada have long referred to the residential school system as genocide, with scholars referring to the system as genocidal since the 1990s. According to some scholars, the Canadian government's laws and policies, including the residential school system, that encouraged or required Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a Eurocentric society, violated the United Nations Genocide Convention that Canada signed in 1949 and passed through Parliament in 1952.[51] Therefore, these scholars believe that Canada could be tried in international court for genocide.[52] Others also point to the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, which was adopted into Canadian law in 2010, where article 7 discusses the rights of indigenous people to not be subjected to genocide or "any other act of violence, including forcibly removing children of the group to another group".

A legal case resulted in settlement of in 2006 and the 2008 establishment of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), which confirmed the injurious effect on children of this system and turmoil created between Indigenous peoples and non-Indigenous peoples.[53] The executive summary of the TRC concluded that the assimilation amounted to cultural genocide.[54] [55] This conclusion has been supported by other scholars, including David Bruce MacDonald and Graham Hudson, who also comment that the residential school system may also amount to more than just cultural genocide, laying out specific arguments as to how the residential school system met the Latin: dolus specialis requirement of the Genocide Convention. The ambiguity of the phrasing in the TRC report allowed for the interpretation that physical and biological genocide also occurred. The TRC was not authorized to conclude that physical and biological genocide occurred, as such a finding would imply a legal responsibility of the Canadian government that would be difficult to prove. As a result, the debate about whether the Canadian government also committed physical and biological genocide against Indigenous populations remains open.

Nutrition experiments

See main article: First Nations nutrition experiments. The First Nations nutrition experiments were a series of experiments run in Canada by Department of Pensions and National Health (now Health Canada) in the 1940s and 1950s. The experiments were conducted on at least 1,300 Indigenous people across Canada, approximately 1,000 of whom were children.[56] The deaths connected with the experiments have been described as part of Canada's[genocide of Indigenous peoples.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140920221808/https://calgaryherald.com/news/getting+harder+ignore+Canada+genocide/10219357/story.html Maher: It’s getting harder to ignore Canada’s genocide], by Stephen Maher, in the Calgary Herald; published September 19, 2014; retrieved August 24, 2019

The experiments involved nutrient-poor isolated communities such as those in The Pas and Norway House in northern Manitoba and residential schools[57] and were designed to learn about the relative importance and optimum levels of newly discovered vitamins and nutritional supplements.[58] [59] [60] The experiments included deliberate, sustained malnourishment and in some cases, the withholding of dental services.[61]

The Government of Canada was aware of malnourishment in its residential schools and granted approval for the execution of nutritional experiments on children. It is now known that the primary cause of malnutrition in residential schools was underfunding from the Canadian government. The nutritional experiments residential school children were subjected to neither provided evidence of completion nor contributed to the body of knowledge around nutrition and supplementation.

Nutritional experiments conducted on Indigenous children in residential schools came to public light in 2013 through the research of food historian Dr. Ian Mosby.

Sterilizations

See main article: Compulsory sterilization in Canada.

Compulsory sterilization in Canada has a documented history in the provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and British Columbia.[62] In June 2021, the Standing Committee on Human Rights in Canada found that compulsory sterilization is ongoing in Canada and its extent has been underestimated.[63]

In Alberta the Legislative Assembly passed the Sexual Sterilization Act in 1928 to promote eugenics.[64] With the arrival of the Great Depression in 1929 sterilization efforts increased, especially against Indigenous people and immigrants, due to fears of jobs being stolen by immigrants and living lives of poverty.[65] Indigenous women made up only 2.5% of the Canadian population, but 25% of those who were sterilized under the Canadian eugenics laws – many without their knowledge or consent.[50] In comparison to the "2834 individuals sterilized under Alberta's eugenic policy, historian Angus McLaren has estimated that in British Columbia no more than a few hundred individuals were sterilized".[2][66] The disparity between the numbers sterilized in the two provinces can be attributed in part to the tighter provisions of British Columbia's Sexual Sterilization Act. Whereas the Alberta legislation was amended twice to increase the program's scope and efficiency, British Columbia's sterilization program remained unchanged.[3][67]

Displacement

See main article: High Arctic relocation. The High Arctic relocation happened in the context of the Cold War, the federal government forcibly relocated 87 Inuit citizens to the High Arctic as human symbols of Canada's assertion of ownership of the region. The Inuit were told that they would be returned home to Northern Quebec after a year if they wished, but this offer was later withdrawn as it would damage Canada's claims to the High Arctic; they were forced to stay.[68] In 1993, after extensive hearings, the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples issued The High Arctic Relocation: A Report on the 1953–55 Relocation.[69] The government paid compensation and in 2010 issued a formal apology.[70]

Medical segregation

See main article: Indian hospitals. The Indian hospitals were racially segregated hospitals, originally serving as tuberculosis sanatoria but later operating as general hospitals for Indigenous peoples in Canada which operated during the 20th century.[71] [72] The hospitals were originally used to isolate Indigenous tuberculosis patients from the general population because of a fear among health officials that "Indian TB" posed a danger to the non-indigenous population.[73] [74] Many of these hospitals were located on Indian reserves, and might also be called reserve hospitals, while others were in nearby towns. Low salaries, poor working conditions, and the isolated locations of many hospitals made it difficult to maintain adequate numbers of qualified staff.[75] These hospitals also did not receive the same level of funding as facilities for non-Indigenous communities. Although treatment for tuberculosis in non-Indigenous patients improved during the 1940s and 1950s, these innovations were not propagated to the Indian hospitals. From 1949 to 1953, 374 experimental surgeries were performed on TB patients, without the use of general anesthetic at the Charles Camsell Indian Hospital.[76]

Missing and murdered Indigenous females

See main article: Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women. From 2016 to 2019, the Canadian government conducted the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women. The final report of the inquiry concluded that the high level of violence directed at First Nations, Inuit, and Metis women and girls is "caused by state actions and inactions rooted in colonialism and colonial ideologies."[77] The National Inquiry commissioners said in the report and publicly that the MMIWG crisis is "a Canadian genocide."[78] It also concluded that the crisis constituted an ongoing "race, identity and gender-based genocide."[79] [80] [81] The MMIWG inquiry used a broader definition of genocide from the Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes Act which encompasses "not only acts of commission, but 'omission' as well." The inquiry described the traditional legal definition of genocide as "narrow" and based on the Holocaust. According to the inquiry, "colonial genocide does not conform with popular notions of genocide as a determinate, quantifiable event" and concluded that "these [genocidal] policies fluctuated in time and space, and in different incarnations, are still ongoing."[82]

On June 3, 2019, Luis Almagro, secretary-general of Organization of American States (OAS), asked Foreign Affairs Minister Chrystia Freeland to support the creation of an independent probe into the MMIWG allegation of Canadian 'genocide' since Canada had previously supported "probes of atrocities in other countries" such as Nicaragua in 2018.[83] On June 4, in Vancouver, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau said that, "Earlier this morning, the national inquiry formally presented their final report, in which they found that the tragic violence that Indigenous women and girls have experienced amounts to genocide."

Reconciliation

See main article: Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. Indigenous reconciliation in Canada is a complex and ongoing process that seeks to address the historical injustices and inequalities experienced by Indigenous peoples. This includes acknowledging the harmful effects of colonization, the Indian Residential School system, and the displacement of Indigenous communities from their lands.[84] Reconciliation also aims to promote healing, understanding, and respect between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples in order to build a more equitable and inclusive society.[84]

A period of redress began with the formation of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada by the Government of Canada in 2008.[7] In October 2022, the Canadian House of Commons unanimously passed a motion calling on the federal Canadian government to recognize the residential school system as genocide.[85] This acknowledgment was followed by a visit by Pope Francis who apologized for Church members' role in what he labeled the "oppression, mistreatment and cultural genocide of indigenous people".[86] [87]

The National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation, which opened at the University of Manitoba in November 2015, is an archival repository home to the research, documents, and testimony collected during the course of the TRC's operation.[88]

See also

See main article: Index of racism-related articles and Outline of genocide studies.

References

Works cited

Further reading

External links

Notes and References

  1. Book: Richardson, Benjamin . From student strikes to the extinction rebellion: new protest movements shaping our future . 2020 . Edward Elgar . 978-1-80088-109-9 . Richardson . Benjamin J. . Cheltenham, UK Northampton, MA . 41 . Canada is a settler colonial state, whose sovereignty and political economy is premised on the dispossession of Indigenous peoples and exploitation of their land base' (2015:44). Many of the most egregious genocidal....
  2. ; ;
  3. Encyclopedia: Genocide and Indigenous Peoples in Canada . . 2 November 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240802020743/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/genocide-and-indigenous-peoples-in-canada . 2 August 2024.
  4. Book: Williams, Kimberly . Stampede: Misogyny, White Supremacy and Settler Colonialism . 2021 . . 9781773632179 . Canada is a settler colonial state, it is also what hooks (Jhally 1997) calls a white supremacist capitalist heteropatriarchy....
  5. Encyclopedia: J. R. . Miller . Residential Schools in Canada . . 11 January 2024 . 22 May 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240802233026/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/residential-schools . 2 August 2024.
  6. Web site: 2019-09-26. Timeline of Canadian Colonialism and Indigenous Resistance. 2020-11-06. The Leveller. en-US.
  7. Web site: 2015 . Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada: Calls to Action . https://web.archive.org/web/20150615202024/http://www.trc.ca/websites/trcinstitution/File/2015/Findings/Calls_to_Action_English2.pdf . 15 June 2015 . National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation . 5.
  8. Web site: Honouring the Truth, Reconciling for the Future: Summary of the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada . National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation . . 6 January 2019 . 31 May 2015 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20160706170855/http://www.trc.ca/websites/trcinstitution/File/2015/Findings/Exec_Summary_2015_05_31_web_o.pdf . 6 July 2016.
  9. Web site: Principles respecting the Government of Canada's relationship with Indigenous peoples . Ministère de la Justice . 14 July 2017 . 10 June 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230610052703/https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/csj-sjc/principles-principes.html . live.
  10. Book: Preston, David L. . The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783 . . 2009 . 978-0-8032-2549-7 . 43–44 . 10 February 2019 . 16 March 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173811/https://books.google.com/books?id=L-9N6-6UCnoC&pg=PA43 . live.
  11. Book: Miller, J.R. . Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-Making in Canada . . 2009 . 978-1-4426-9227-5 . 34 . 10 February 2019 . 16 March 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173822/https://books.google.com/books?id=TcPckf7snr8C&pg=PT34 . live.
  12. Book: Williams, L. . Indigenous Intergenerational Resilience: Confronting Cultural and Ecological Crisis . . Routledge Studies in Indigenous Peoples and Policy . 2021 . 978-1-000-47233-2 . 51 . 23 February 2023 . 23 February 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230223140054/https://books.google.com/books?id=HehEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT51 . live.
  13. Book: Turner, N. J. . Plants, People, and Places: The Roles of Ethnobotany and Ethnoecology in Indigenous Peoples' Land Rights in Canada and Beyond . . McGill-Queen's Indigenous and Northern Studies . 2020 . 978-0-2280-0317-5 . 14 . 23 February 2023 . 23 February 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230223140056/https://books.google.com/books?id=JVjZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 . live.
  14. Book: Asch, Michael . Aboriginal and Treaty Rights in Canada: Essays on Law, Equity, and Respect for Difference . . 1997 . 978-0-7748-0581-0 . 28.
  15. Book: Kirmayer . Laurence J. . Healing Traditions: The Mental Health of Aboriginal Peoples in Canada . Guthrie . Gail Valaskakis . . 2009 . 978-0-7748-5863-2 . 9.
  16. Book: Marshall, Ingeborg . A History and Ethnography of the Beothuk . . 1998 . 978-0-7735-1774-5 . 442 . 23 February 2023 . 16 March 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173816/https://books.google.com/books?id=ckOav3Szu7oC&pg=PA442 . live.
  17. Book: Northcott . Herbert C. . Wilson . Donna M. . 2008 . Dying and Death in Canada . . 978-1-55111-873-4 . 25–27.
  18. Book: True Peters, Stephanie . Smallpox in the New World . Marshall Cavendish . 2005 . 978-0-7614-1637-1 . 39.
  19. Book: Laidlaw . Z. . Indigenous Communities and Settler Colonialism: Land Holding, Loss and Survival in an Interconnected World . Lester . Alan . Springer . 2015 . 978-1-137-45236-8 . 150 . February 23, 2023 . March 16, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173822/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ec-_BwAAQBAJ&pg=PT150 . live.
  20. Book: Ray, Arthur J. . I Have Lived Here Since The World Began . Key Porter Books . 2005 . 978-1-55263-633-6 . 244.
  21. Corey . Snelgrove . Rita Kaur . Dhamoon . Jeff . Corntassel . Unsettling settler colonialism: The discourse and politics of settlers, and solidarity with Indigenous nations . Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society . 3 . 2 . 2014 . 11–12 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170104164929/https://nycstandswithstandingrock.files.wordpress.com/2016/10/snelgrove-dhamoon-corntassel-2014.pdf . January 4, 2017.
  22. Book: Andrew . Woolford . Jasmine . Thomas . Genocide of Indigenous Peoples: A Critical Bibliographic Review . Genocide of Canadian First Nations . Transaction Publishers . 2011 . 61–87 . Samuel . Totten . Samuel Totten . Robert . Hitchcock.
  23. Book: Reynolds, J. . Canada and Colonialism: An Unfinished History . UBC Press . 2024 . 978-0-7748-8096-1 . 3–10.
  24. Web site: Colonialism Is Alive and Well in Canada. 2020-11-06. West Coast Environmental Law. 11 March 2020 . en.
  25. Book: William G. Dean. Geoffrey J. Matthews. Concise Historical Atlas of Canada. 1998. University of Toronto Press. 978-0-8020-4203-3. 2.
  26. Book: Herbert C. Northcott. Donna Marie Wilson. Dying And Death in Canada. 2008. University of Toronto Press. 978-1-55111-873-4. 25–27.
  27. Book: R. G. Robertson. Rotting Face : Smallpox and the American Indian. 2001. University of Nebraska. 978-0-87004-497-7.
  28. Web site: Courchene . Mary . Phillip . Stewart . Sinclair . Senator Murray . Truth . Chair of the . Canada . Reconciliation Commission of . Childhood denied . CMHR . 2018-09-20 . 2024-08-18.
  29. Book: The High Arctic Relocation: Summary of Supporting Information . Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples . The High Arctic Relocation: Summary of Supporting Information . v. 1 . 1994 . 978-0-662-22335-1 . 2024-08-18 . intro.
  30. Book: Lux, M.K. . Separate Beds: A History of Indian Hospitals in Canada, 1920s-1980s . University of Toronto Press . 2016 . 978-1-4426-6312-1 . 3.
  31. Book: Stote, K. . An Act of Genocide: Colonialism and the Sterilization of Aboriginal Women . Fernwood Publishing . 2015 . 978-1-55266-732-3 . Intro.
  32. Book: Lavell-Harvard, D.M. . Brant . J. . Forever Loved: Exposing the Hidden Crisis of Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls in Canada . Demeter Press . 2016 . 978-1-77258-065-5 . 7.
  33. Web site: Department of Religious Studies . . en-CA . October 15, 2019 . April 10, 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110410121756/http://www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/texts/acampbell/pla/PLA07.HTM . live.
  34. Book: Conrad, Margaret . History of the Canadian Peoples . Fifth . 256–257.
  35. Web site: Disappearance of the Beothuk . Heritage Newfoundland and Labrador . September 6, 2017 . September 7, 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170907081020/http://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/aboriginal/beothuk-disappearance.php . dead.
  36. Web site: Extinction of the Beothuk: Aboriginal Peoples: Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage . www.heritage.nf.ca . 17 January 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20081006025555/http://www.heritage.nf.ca/aboriginal/beo_extinction.html . 6 October 2008 . dead.
  37. Genocide and Historical Debate: William D. Rubinstein Ascribes the Bitterness of Historians' Arguments to the Lack of an Agreed Definition and to Political Agendas . Rubinstein . W. D. . . 54 . 2004 . February 10, 2019 . January 31, 2013 . https://archive.today/20130131211914/http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5002110956 . live.
  38. Book: R. P. . Knowles . Modern Drama: Defining the Field . . 2003 . 169 . 978-0-8020-8621-1 . Tomplins . J. . Worthen . W. B..
  39. ;
  40. Web site: The Beothuk of Newfoundland . . January 5, 2013 . visitnewfoundland.ca . https://web.archive.org/web/20130108130959/http://visitnewfoundland.ca/beothuk.html . January 8, 2013 . dead . January 7, 2013.
  41. Web site: Holloway, John (1744-1826) . . August 2000 . Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage Website . December 3, 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230405234723/https://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/politics/naval-john-holloway.php . 5 April 2023 .
  42. Web site: Solving the "Indian Problem": Assimilation Laws, Practices & Indian Residential Schools . Rheault . D'Arcy . 2011 . Ontario Métis Family Records Centre . 29 June 2016 . 11 June 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120611203916/http://omfrc.org/newsletter/specialedition8.pdf . live.
  43. ;
  44. Popic . Linda . Compensating Canada's 'Stolen Generations' . . 2008 . 14 . December 2007 – January 2008.
  45. Web site: Residential School History: A Legacy of Shame . Wabano Centre for Aboriginal Health . June 28, 2016 . 2000 . https://web.archive.org/web/20151203062432/http://www.med.uottawa.ca/sim/data/Images/Residential_Schools.pdf . December 3, 2015.
  46. News: Tasker . John Paul . Residential schools findings point to 'cultural genocide,' commission chair says . July 1, 2016 . . May 29, 2015 . May 18, 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160518220713/http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/residential-schools-findings-point-to-cultural-genocide-commission-chair-says-1.3093580 . live.
  47. Charles . Grant . DeGane . Mike . Student-to-Student Abuse in the Indian Residential Schools in Canada: Setting the Stage for Further Understanding . Child & Youth Services . 2013 . 34 . 4 . 343–359 . 10.1080/0145935X.2013.859903 . 144148882.
  48. ;
  49. Book: Szumski, Bonnie . Genocide . . 2001 . 155–158.
  50. Pegoraro . L. . 2015 . Second-rate victims: the forced sterilization of Indigenous peoples in the USA and Canada . Settler Colonial Studies . 5 . 2 . 161–173 . 10.1080/2201473X.2014.955947.
  51. Book: Annett, K. . Hidden From History: The Untold Story of the Genocide of Aboriginal Peoples by the Church and State in Canada . The Truth Commission into the Genocide in Canada . 2001 . March 25, 2017 . July 9, 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140709002824/http://www.hiddenmysteries.org/religion/christianity/genocide.pdf . live.
  52. Book: Restoule, Jean-Paul . Aboriginal Identity: The Need for Historical and Contextual Perspectives . 24 . 2 . October 28, 2009 . 2002 . . Toronto, ON . 102–12 . http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/detail?accno=EJ630059 . Seeing Ourselves. John Macionis and Nijole v. Benokraitis and Bruce Ravelli.
  53. News: Canada commission issues details abuse of native children . February 25, 2012 . . February 25, 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240120132642/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-17161893 . January 20, 2024.
  54. Web site: Honouring the Truth, Reconciling for the Future: Summary of the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada . National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation . . May 30, 2021 . May 31, 2015 . 1 . May 30, 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210530175713/https://www.trc.ca/assets/pdf/Honouring_the_Truth_Reconciling_for_the_Future_July_23_2015.pdf.
  55. Web site: Canada's Residential Schools: The History, Part 1 Origins to 1939 – Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada . 1 . National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation . . 1 July 2016 . 2015 . 5 March 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170305044526/http://nctr.ca/assets/reports/Final%20Reports/Volume_1_History_Part_1_English_Web.pdf . live.
  56. News: Canadian government withheld food from hungry aboriginal kids in 1940s nutritional experiments, researcher finds. 2021-04-30.
  57. Web site: Isabel Wallace: Untested drugs harmed many in the past - Victoria Times Colonist. 24 August 2014.
  58. Mosby . Ian . Administering Colonial Science: Nutrition Research and Human Biomedical Experimentation in Aboriginal Communities and Residential Schools, 1942–1952 . Histoire sociale . 2013 . 46 . 1 . 145–172 . . 10.1353/his.2013.0015 . 51823776 .
  59. Web site: Son defends scientist behind aboriginal nutrition experiments | Toronto Star . Thestar.com . 2013-07-24 . 2014-08-05.
  60. Web site: Hungry Canadian aboriginal children were used in government experiments during 1940s, researcher says | Toronto Star . Thestar.com . 2013-07-16 . 2014-08-05.
  61. News: July 30, 2013. Aboriginal nutritional experiments had Ottawa's approval. CBC News. April 30, 2021.
  62. Web site: Indigenous women kept from seeing their newborn babies until agreeing to sterilization, says lawyer . 14 November 2018.
  63. Web site: Government of Canada . Public Services and Procurement Canada . 2002-07-01 . The scars that we carry : forced and coerced sterilization of persons in Canada. Part II / Standing Senate Committee on Human Rights ; the Honourable Salma Ataullahjan, chair, the Honourable Wanda Thomas Bernard, deputy chair.: YC32-0/441-4E-PDF - Government of Canada Publications - Canada.ca . 2023-10-20 . publications.gc.ca.
  64. Grekul . Jana Marie . The Social Construction of the Feebleminded Threat: Implementation of the Sexual Sterilization Act in Alberta 1929 – 1972 . . Ph.D. Thesis . 2002.
  65. News: 27 August 2015 . Sterilization of indigenous women an act of genocide, new book says . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20191028030143/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/thunder-bay/sterilization-of-indigenous-women-an-act-of-genocide-new-book-says-1.3205816 . 28 October 2019 . 16 October 2019 . CBC.
  66. McLaren, Angus. (1986). "The Creation of a Haven for 'Human Thoroughbreds': The Sterilization of the Feeble-minded and the Mentally Ill in British Columbia". Canadian Historical Review, LXVII, 2, pp. 127–150.
  67. The Right to Consent?: Eugenics in Alberta, 1928–1972, Jana Grekul 2009
  68. Book: McGrath, Melanie . The Long Exile: A Tale of Inuit Betrayal and Survival in the High Arctic . . 2006 . 0-00-715797-5.
  69. The High Arctic Relocation: A Report on the 1953–55 Relocation . René . Dussault . George . Erasmus . Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Canadian Government Publishing . 1994 . 20 June 2010 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20091001232453/http://www.fedpubs.com/subject/aborig/arctic_reloc.htm . 1 October 2009.
  70. Web site: 15 September 2010 . Apology for the Inuit High Arctic relocation . . https://web.archive.org/web/20240520163656/https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1100100016115/1534786491628 . May 20, 2024.
  71. Book: Lux, M.K. . Separate Beds: A History of Indian Hospitals in Canada, 1920s-1980s . University of Toronto Press . G - Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series . 2016 . 978-1-4426-1386-7 . 7.
  72. Web site: Maureen Lux* . We Demand 'Unconditional Surrender': Making and Unmaking the Blackfoot Hospital, 1890s to 1950s . Shm.oxfordjournals.org . subscription . 2013-01-30 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120827050301/http://shm.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2011/11/14/shm.hkr152.abstract . 2012-08-27 . dead .
  73. Encyclopedia: Indian Hospitals in Canada . . 2018-01-30 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180130204548/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/indian-hospitals-in-canada/ . 2018-01-30 . live .
  74. Web site: A Brief Look at Indian Hospitals in Canada. Indigenous Corporate Training. 2021-11-09.
  75. Book: Lux, Maureen K. Separate Beds: A History of Indian Hospitals in Canada, 1920s-1980s. 2016. 978-1442613867. 77–78. University of Toronto Press . 2018-02-20. https://web.archive.org/web/20180220152428/https://books.google.ca/books?id=o9gQDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA77. 2018-02-20. live.
  76. News: The health system in Canada's North is failing — but not by accident. 'It is designed to do what it is doing' The Star. thestar.com. 2018-10-24. en. https://web.archive.org/web/20181024192255/https://www.thestar.com/news/atkinsonseries/2018/10/19/the-health-system-in-canadas-north-is-failing-but-not-by-accident-it-is-designed-to-do-what-it-is-doing.html. 2018-10-24. live.
  77. Web site: Dalton . Jane . June 1, 2019 . Murdered and missing women and girls in Canada tragedy is genocide rooted in colonialism, official inquiry finds . subscription . live . https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220515/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/canada-genocide-murdered-missing-women-girls-indigenous-inquiry-report-a8939646.html . May 15, 2022 . June 2, 2019 . . State 'actions and inactions and ideology' blamed for allowing attackers to get away with violence over nearly 50 years.
  78. Web site: Barrera . Jorge . May 31, 2019 . National inquiry calls murders and disappearances of Indigenous women a 'Canadian genocide' . June 5, 2019 . CBC News.
  79. News: Abedi . Maham . June 4, 2019 . Why 'genocide' was used in the MMIWG report . . June 8, 2019 . June 8, 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190608011117/https://globalnews.ca/news/5350772/genocide-canada-mmiwg/ . live.
  80. Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls . 1a . 728 . 978-0-660-29274-8 . June 5, 2019 . June 5, 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190605193245/https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Final_Report_Vol_1a.pdf . live. CP32-163/2-1-2019E-PDF
  81. News: Ivison . John . June 4, 2019 . At MMIW report's heart, a contradiction that's impossible to ignore . National Post . June 7, 2019 . https://archive.today/20190605020803/https://nationalpost.com/news/john-ivison-at-mmiw-reports-heart-a-contradiction-thats-impossible-to-ignore . June 5, 2019.
  82. May 29, 2019 . A Legal Analysis of Genocide: Supplementary Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls . January 18, 2024 . www.mmiwg-ffada.ca . 9 . en . https://web.archive.org/web/20240716234141/https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Supplementary-Report_Genocide.pdf . July 16, 2024.
  83. Web site: Connolly . Amanda . June 8, 2019 . Organization of American States wants to probe MMIWG allegation of 'genocide' . June 8, 2019 . . https://web.archive.org/web/20240228040134/https://globalnews.ca/news/5354323/oas-mmiwg-genocide-report-probe/ . February 28, 2024.
  84. Web site: Reconciliation . Canada.ca . 2014-05-22 . 2024-08-18.
  85. News: October 28, 2022 . Motion to call residential schools genocide backed unanimously . The Globe and Mail . October 30, 2022 . October 29, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221029164810/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/politics/article-motion-to-call-residential-schools-genocide-backed-unanimously/ .
  86. Web site: Maqbool . Aleem . Pope Francis: Did the pontiff's apology in Canada go far enough? . BBC Home . July 30, 2022 . May 22, 2024.
  87. News: Horowitz . Jason . 30 July 2022 . Francis Calls Abuse of Indigenous People in Canada a 'Genocide' . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20231107101356/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/30/world/americas/pope-francis-canada-genocide.html . 7 November 2023 . 7 October 2023 . The New York Times . en-US . 0362-4331.
  88. Web site: Home . NCTR - National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation . 2021-01-11 . 2024-08-18.

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples".

Except where otherwise indicated, Everything.Explained.Today is © Copyright 2009-2024, A B Cryer, All Rights Reserved. Cookie policy.