Canada Explained

Conventional Long Name:	Canada
Alt Flag:	A vertical triband design (red, white, red) with a red maple leaf in the centre.
Alt Coat:	At the top there is a rendition of St. Edward's Crown, with the crest of a crowned gold lion standing on a twisted wreath of red and white silk and holding a maple leaf in its right paw underneath. The lion is standing on top of a helm, which is above the escutcheon, ribbon, motto, and compartment. There is a supporter on either side of the escutcheon and ribbon; an English lion on the left and a Scottish unicorn on the right.
National Motto:	Latin: [[A mari usque ad mare]] (Latin) "From Sea to Sea"
National Anthem:	"O Canada"
Royal Anthem:	"God Save the King"^[1]
Map Width:	220px
Alt Map:	A projection of North America with Canada highlighted in green
Capital:	Ottawa
Largest City:	Toronto
Demonym:	Canadian
Government Type:	constitutional monarchy
Leader Title1:	Monarch
Leader Name1:	Charles III
Leader Name2:	Mary Simon
Leader Title3:	Prime Minister
Leader Name3:	Justin Trudeau
Legislature:	Parliament
Upper House:	Senate
Lower House:	House of Commons
Sovereignty Type:	Independence
Sovereignty Note:	from the United Kingdom
Established Event1:	Confederation
Established Date1:	July 1, 1867
Established Event2:	Statute of Westminster, 1931
Established Date2:	December 11, 1931
Established Event3:	Patriation
Established Date3:	April 17, 1982
Area Km2:	9,984,670
Area Label:	Total area
Area Rank:	2nd
Area Sq Mi:	3,854,085
Percent Water:	11.76 (2015)^[2]
Area Label2:	Total land area
Area Data2:	9093507km2
Population Estimate:	41,012,563^[3]
Population Estimate Year:	2024 Q2
Population Census:	36,991,981^[4]
Population Census Year:	2021
Population Estimate Rank:	36th
Population Density Km2:	4.2
Population Density Sq Mi:	10.9
Population Density Rank:	236th
Gdp Ppp:	^[5]
Gdp Ppp Year:	2024
Gdp Ppp Rank:	16th
Gdp Ppp Per Capita:	$60,495
Gdp Ppp Per Capita Rank:	28th
Gdp Nominal Year:	2024
Gdp Nominal Rank:	10th
Gdp Nominal Per Capita:	$54,866
Gdp Nominal Per Capita Rank:	18th
Gini:	29.2
Gini Year:	2024
Gini Change:	decrease
Gini Ref:	^[6]
Hdi:	0.935
Hdi Year:	2022
Hdi Change:	increase
Hdi Ref:	^[7]
Hdi Rank:	18th
Currency:	Canadian dollar ($)
Currency Code:	CAD
Utc Offset:	−3.5 to −8
Utc Offset Dst:	−2.5 to −7
Cctld:	.ca

Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, making it the world's second-largest country by total area, with the world's longest coastline. Its border with the United States is the world's longest international land border. The country is characterized by a wide range of both meteorologic and geological regions. It is a sparsely inhabited country of just over 41million people, the vast majority residing south of the 55th parallel in urban areas. Canada's capital is Ottawa and its three largest metropolitan areas are Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.

Indigenous peoples have continuously inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years. Beginning in the 16th century, British and French expeditions explored and later settled along the Atlantic coast. As a consequence of various armed conflicts, France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom, highlighted by the Statute of Westminster, 1931, and culminating in the Canada Act 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy in the Westminster tradition. The country's head of government is the prime minister, who holds office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the elected House of Commons and is appointed by the governor general, representing the monarch of Canada, the ceremonial head of state. The country is a Commonwealth realm and is officially bilingual (English and French) in the federal jurisdiction. It is very highly ranked in international measurements of government transparency, quality of life, economic competitiveness, innovation, education and gender equality. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration. Canada's long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its history, economy, and culture.

A developed country, Canada has a high nominal per capita income globally and its advanced economy ranks among the largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade networks. Recognized as a middle power, Canada's strong support for multilateralism and internationalism has been closely related to its foreign relations policies of peacekeeping and aid for developing countries. Canada is part of multiple international organizations and forums.

Etymology

See main article: Name of Canada.

While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of Canada, the name is now accepted as coming from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata, meaning "village" or "settlement".^[8] In 1535, Indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona.^[9] Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village but to the entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief at Stadacona); by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this small region along the Saint Lawrence River as Canada.

From the 16th to the early 18th century, "Canada" referred to the part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River.^[10] In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada. These two colonies were collectively named the Canadas until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841.^[11]

Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country at the London Conference and the word dominion was conferred as the country's title.^[12] By the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "realm of the Commonwealth".^{[13] [14]}

The Canada Act 1982, which brought the Constitution of Canada fully under Canadian control, referred only to Canada. Later that year, the name of the national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day.^[15]

History

See main article: History of Canada.

Indigenous peoples

The first inhabitants of North America are generally hypothesized to have migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 14,000 years ago.^{[16] [17]} The Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada.^[18] The characteristics of Indigenous societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks.^{[19] [20]} Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations.^[21] Indigenous peoples in present-day Canada include the First Nations, Inuit, and Métis,^[22] the last being of mixed descent who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations people married European settlers and subsequently developed their own identity.

The Indigenous population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000^[23] and two million,^[24] with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.^[25] As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent and several First Nations, such as the Beothuk, disappeared.^[26] The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases, such as influenza, measles, and smallpox, to which they had no natural immunity,^[27] conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.^{[28] [29]}

Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.^[30] First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting European coureurs des bois and voyageurs in their explorations of the continent during the North American fur trade.^[31] These early European interactions with First Nations would change from friendship and peace treaties to the dispossession of Indigenous lands through treaties.^{[32] [33]} From the late 18th century, European Canadians forced Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a western Canadian society.^[34] These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with forced integration through state-funded boarding schools,^[35] health-care segregation,^[36] and displacement.^[37] A period of redress began with the formation of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada by the Government of Canada in 2008.^[38] This included recognition of past cultural genocide,^[39] settlement agreements, and betterment of racial discrimination issues, such as addressing the plight of missing and murdered Indigenous women.^[40]

European colonization

It is believed that the first documented European to explore the east coast of Canada was Norse explorer Leif Erikson.^{[41] [42]} In approximately 1000 AD, the Norse built a small short-lived encampment that was occupied sporadically for perhaps 20 years at L'Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland.^[43] No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when seafarer John Cabot explored and claimed Canada's Atlantic coast in the name of Henry VII of England.^[44] In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence where, on July 24, he planted a 10m (30feet) cross bearing the words, "long live the King of France", and took possession of the territory New France in the name of King Francis I.^[45] The early 16th century saw European mariners with navigational techniques pioneered by the Basque and Portuguese establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast.^[46] In general, early settlements during the Age of Discovery appear to have been short-lived due to a combination of the harsh climate, problems with navigating trade routes and competing outputs in Scandinavia.^{[47] [48]}

In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, by the royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I, founded St John's, Newfoundland, as the first North American English seasonal camp.^[49] In 1600, the French established their first seasonal trading post at Tadoussac along the Saint Lawrence. French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent year-round European settlements at Port Royal (in 1605) and Quebec City (in 1608).^[50] Among the colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana.^[51] The Beaver Wars broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade.^[52]

The English established additional settlements in Newfoundland in 1610 along with settlements in the Thirteen Colonies to the south.^{[53] [54]} A series of four wars erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War.^[55] Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years' War.^[56]

British North America

The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights, created the Province of Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia. St John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769.^[57] To avert conflict in Quebec, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley.^[58] More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule.^[59] It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies.^[60] The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the American Revolution.

After the successful American War of Independence, the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the newly formed United States and set the terms of peace, ceding British North American territories south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River to the new country.^[61] The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of Loyalists, the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. New Brunswick was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes, which led to the incorporation of Saint John, New Brunswick, as Canada's first city.^[62] To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.^[63]

The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed.^[64] Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain between 1815 and 1850.^[65] New arrivals included refugees escaping the Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic-speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances.^[66] Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.

The desire for responsible government resulted in the abortive Rebellions of 1837.^[67] The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture. The Act of Union 1840 merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America east of Lake Superior by 1855.^[68] The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858).^[69] The Anglo-Russian Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1825) established the border along the Pacific coast, but, even after the US Alaska Purchase of 1867, disputes continued about the exact demarcation of the Alaska–Yukon and Alaska–BC border.^[70]

Confederation and expansion

Following three constitutional conferences, the British North America Act, 1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.^{[71] [72]} Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870.^[73] British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871 on the promise of a transcontinental railway extending to Victoria in the province within 10 years,^[74] while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873.^[75] In 1898, during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, Parliament created the Yukon Territory. Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905. Between 1871 and 1896, almost one quarter of the Canadian population emigrated south to the US.^[76]

To open the West and encourage European immigration, the Government of Canada sponsored the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway), passed the Dominion Lands Act to regulate settlement and established the North-West Mounted Police to assert authority over the territory.^{[77] [78]} This period of westward expansion and nation building resulted in the displacement of many Indigenous peoples of the Canadian Prairies to "Indian reserves",^[79] clearing the way for ethnic European block settlements.^[80] This caused the collapse of the Plains Bison in western Canada and the introduction of European cattle farms and wheat fields dominating the land.^[81] The Indigenous peoples saw widespread famine and disease due to the loss of the bison and their traditional hunting lands.^[82] The federal government did provide emergency relief, on condition of the Indigenous peoples moving to the reserves.^[83] During this time, Canada introduced the Indian Act extending its control over the First Nations to education, government and legal rights.^[84]

Early 20th century

Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the British North America Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into the First World War.^[85] Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps, which played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of the war.^[86] Out of approximately 625,000 Canadians who served in the First World War, some 60,000 were killed and another 172,000 were wounded.^[87] The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when the Unionist Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with conscription was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers.^[88] The Military Service Act brought in compulsory military service, though it, coupled with disputes over French language schools outside Quebec, deeply alienated Francophone Canadians and temporarily split the Liberal Party. In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain, and the Statute of Westminster, 1931, affirmed Canada's independence.^[89]

The Great Depression in Canada during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country.^[90] In response to the downturn, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas) in the 1940s and 1950s.^[91] On the advice of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, war with Germany was declared effective September 10, 1939, by King George VI, seven days after the United Kingdom. The delay underscored Canada's independence.

The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. In all, over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during the Second World War and approximately 42,000 were killed and another 55,000 were wounded.^[92] Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war, including the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid, the Allied invasion of Italy, the Normandy landings, the Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944. Canada provided asylum for the Dutch monarchy while that country was occupied and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to its liberation from Nazi Germany.^[93]

The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union. Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.^[94]

Contemporary era

The financial crisis of the Great Depression led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a Crown colony ruled by a British governor.^[95] After two referendums, Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.^[96]

Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new Canadian identity, marked by the adoption of the maple leaf flag in 1965,^[97] the implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in 1969,^[98] and the institution of official multiculturalism in 1971.^[99] Socially democratic programs were also instituted, such as Medicare, the Canada Pension Plan, and Canada Student Loans; though, provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.^[100]

Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the Canada Act 1982, the patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.^{[101] [102] [103]} Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country under its own monarchy.^{[104] [105]} In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.^[106]

At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a secular nationalist movement.^[107] The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970,^[108] and the Parti Québécois was elected in 1976, organizing an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990.^[109] This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and the invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West.^{[110] [111]} A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent.^[112] In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional, and the Clarity Act was passed by Parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.

In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history;^[113] the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students;^[114] and the Oka Crisis of 1990,^[115] the first of a number of violent confrontations between provincial governments and Indigenous groups.^[116] Canada joined the Gulf War in 1990 and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s, including operations in the Balkans during and after the Yugoslav Wars,^[117] and in Somalia, resulting in an incident that has been described as "the darkest era in the history of the Canadian military".^{[118] [119]} Canada sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001, resulting in the largest amount of Canadian deaths for any single military mission since the Korean War in the early 1950s.^{[120] [121]}

In 2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into the Libyan Civil War^[122] and also became involved in battling the Islamic State insurgency in Iraq in the mid-2010s.^[123] The country celebrated its sesquicentennial in 2017, three years before the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada began on January 27, 2020, with widespread social and economic disruption.^[124] In 2021, the possible graves of hundreds of Indigenous people were discovered near the former sites of Canadian Indian residential schools.^[125] Administered by various Christian churches and funded by the Canadian government from 1828 to 1997, these boarding schools attempted to assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture.

Geography

See main article: Geography of Canada.

By total area (including its waters), Canada is the second-largest country in the world, after Russia.^[126] By land area alone, Canada ranks fourth, due to having the world's largest area of fresh water lakes.^[127] Stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the east, along the Arctic Ocean to the north, and to the Pacific Ocean in the west, the country encompasses 9984670km2 of territory.^[128] Canada also has vast maritime terrain, with the world's longest coastline of 243042km (151,019miles).^[129] In addition to sharing the world's largest land border with the United States—spanning 88910NaN0—Canada shares a land border with Greenland (and hence the Kingdom of Denmark) to the northeast, on Hans Island,^[130] and a maritime boundary with France's overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon to the southeast.^[131] Canada is also home to the world's northernmost settlement, Canadian Forces Station Alert, on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island—latitude 82.5°N—which lies 817km (508miles) from the North Pole.^[132]

Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions: the Canadian Shield, the interior plains, the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands, the Appalachian region, the Western Cordillera, Hudson Bay Lowlands, and the Arctic Archipelago.^[133] Boreal forests prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in northern Arctic regions and through the Rocky Mountains, and the relatively flat Canadian Prairies in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture. The Great Lakes feed the St. Lawrence River (in the southeast) where the lowlands host much of Canada's economic output. Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 of which are larger than 1000NaN0—containing much of the world's fresh water.^{[134] [135]} There are also fresh-water glaciers in the Canadian Rockies, the Coast Mountains, and the Arctic Cordillera.^[136] Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes.^[137]

Climate

See main article: Temperature in Canada and Climate change in Canada. Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near -15C, but can drop below -40°C with severe wind chills.^[138] In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25C30C, with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40°C.^[139]

Much of Northern Canada is covered by ice and permafrost. The future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of climate change in Canada.^[140] Canada's annual average temperature over land has risen by, with changes ranging from 1.1to in various regions, since 1948. The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies.^[141] In the southern regions of Canada, air pollution from both Canada and the United States—caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted in acid rain, which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth, and agricultural productivity.^[142] Canada is one of the largest greenhouse gas emitters globally,^[143] with emissions increased by 16.5 percent between 1990 and 2022.^[144]

Biodiversity

See main article: Wildlife of Canada.

Canada is divided into 15 terrestrial and five marine ecozones.^[145] These ecozones encompass over 80,000 classified species of Canadian wildlife, with an equal number yet to be formally recognized or discovered.^[146] Although Canada has a low percentage of endemic species compared to other countries,^[147] due to human activities, invasive species, and environmental issues in the country, there are currently more than 800 species at risk of being lost.^[148] About 65 percent of Canada's resident species are considered "Secure".^[149] Over half of Canada's landscape is intact and relatively free of human development.^[150] The boreal forest of Canada is considered to be the largest intact forest on Earth, with approximately 3000000km2 undisturbed by roads, cities or industry.^[151] Since the end of the last glacial period, Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions,^[152] with 42 percent of its land area covered by forests (approximately 8 percent of the world's forested land).^[153]

Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation's landmass and freshwater are conservation areas, including 11.4 percent designated as protected areas. Approximately 13.8 percent of its territorial waters are conserved, including 8.9 percent designated as protected areas.^[154] Canada's first National Park, Banff National Park established in 1885 spans .^{[155] [156]} Canada's oldest provincial park, Algonquin Provincial Park, established in 1893, covers an area of .^[157] Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area is the world's largest freshwater protected area, spanning roughly .^[158] Canada's largest national wildlife region is the Scott Islands Marine National Wildlife Area which spans .^{[159] [160]}

Government and politics

See main article: Government of Canada and Politics of Canada.

Canada is described as a "full democracy",^[161] with a tradition of liberalism,^[162] and an egalitarian,^[163] moderate political ideology.^[164] An emphasis on social justice has been a distinguishing element of Canada's political culture.^{[165] [166]} Peace, order, and good government, alongside an Implied Bill of Rights, are founding principles of the Canadian government.^{[167] [168]}

At the federal level, Canada has been dominated by two relatively centrist parties practising "brokerage politics": the centre-left leaning Liberal Party of Canada^{[169] [170]} and the centre-right leaning Conservative Party of Canada (or its predecessors).^[171] The historically predominant Liberals position themselves at the centre of the political scale. Five parties had representatives elected to the Parliament in the 2021 election—the Liberals, who formed a minority government; the Conservatives, who became the Official Opposition; the New Democratic Party (occupying the left^{[172] [173]}); the Bloc Québécois; and the Green Party.^[174] Far-right and far-left politics have never been a prominent force in Canadian society.^{[175] [176] [177]}

Canada has a parliamentary system within the context of a constitutional monarchy—the monarchy of Canada being the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.^{[178] [179] [180] [181]} The reigning monarch is also monarch of 14 other sovereign Commonwealth countries^[182] and Canada's 10 provinces. The monarch appoints a representative, the governor general, on the advice of the prime minister, to carry out most of their ceremonial royal duties.^{[183] [184]}

The monarchy is the source of sovereignty and authority in Canada.^{[185] [186]} However, while the governor general or monarch may exercise their power without ministerial advice in rare crisis situations, the use of the executive powers (or royal prerogative) is otherwise directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and chosen and headed by the prime minister,^[187] the head of government. To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the individual who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a majority of members in the House.^[188] The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) is one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown the governor general, lieutenant governors, senators, federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and government agencies. The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the leader of the Official Opposition and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.^[189]

The Parliament of Canada passes all federal statute laws. It comprises the monarch, the House of Commons, and the Senate. While Canada inherited the British concept of parliamentary supremacy, this was later, with the enactment of the Constitution Act, 1982, all but completely superseded by the American notion of the supremacy of the law.^[190]

Each of the 338 members of Parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an electoral district or riding. The Constitution Act, 1982, requires that no more than five years pass between elections, although the Canada Elections Act limits this to four years with a "fixed" election date in October; general elections still must be called by the governor general and can be triggered by either the advice of the prime minister or a lost confidence vote in the House.^{[191] [192]} The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.^[193]

Canadian federalism divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the 10 provinces. Provincial legislatures are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons. Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign, have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces,^[194] and differ structurally from their provincial counterparts.^[195]

Law

See main article: Law of Canada.

The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country and consists of written text and unwritten conventions.^[196] The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act, 1867 prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments.^[197] The Statute of Westminster, 1931, granted full autonomy, and the Constitution Act, 1982, ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.^[198] The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be overridden by any government; a notwithstanding clause allows Parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years.^[199]

Canada's judiciary interprets laws and has the power to strike down acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court, final arbiter, and has been led since 2017 by Richard Wagner, the Chief Justice of Canada.^[200] The governor general appoints the court's nine members on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice.^[201] The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.^[202]

Common law prevails everywhere except Quebec, where civil law predominates.^[203] Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.^[204] Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces.^[205] In most rural and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.^[206]

Canadian Aboriginal law provides certain constitutionally recognized rights to land and traditional practices for Indigenous groups in Canada.^[207] Various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and many Indigenous peoples.^[208] The role of Aboriginal law and the rights they support were reaffirmed by section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982. These rights may include provision of services, such as healthcare through the Indian Health Transfer Policy, and exemption from taxation.^[209]

Provinces and territories

See main article: Provinces and territories of Canada.

See also: Canadian federalism.

Canada is a federation composed of 10 federated states, called provinces, and three federal territories. These may be grouped into four main regions: Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada (Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together).^[210] Provinces and territories have responsibility for social programs such as healthcare, education, and welfare,^[211] as well as administration of justice (but not criminal law). Although the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.^[212]

The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their sovereignty from the Crown^[213] and power and authority from the Constitution Act, 1867, whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by the Parliament of Canada^[214] and the commissioners represent the King in his federal Council, rather than the monarch directly. The powers flowing from the Constitution Act, 1867, are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively^[215] and any changes to that arrangement require a constitutional amendment, while changes to the roles and powers of the territories may be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada.^[216]

Foreign relations

See main article: Foreign relations of Canada. Canada is recognized as a middle power for its role in global affairs with a tendency to pursue multilateral and international solutions.^{[217] [218] [219] [220]} Canada is known for its commitment to international peace and security, as well as being a mediator in conflicts,^[221] and for providing aid to developing countries representing 0.37 percent of its gross national income (GNP).^{[222] [223]}

Canada and the United States have a long and complex relationship;^{[224] [225]} they are close allies, co-operating regularly on military campaigns and humanitarian efforts.^{[226] [227]} Canada also maintains historic and traditional ties to the United Kingdom and to France,^[228] along with both countries' former colonies through its membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the .^[229] Canada is noted for having a positive relationship with the Netherlands, owing, in part, to its contribution to the Dutch liberation during the Second World War. Canada has diplomatic and consular offices in over 270 locations in approximately 180 foreign countries.

Canada is a member of various international organizations and forums.^[230] Canada was a founding member of the United Nations in 1945 and formed the North American Aerospace Defense Command together with the United States in 1958.^[231] The country has membership in the World Trade Organization, the Five Eyes, the G7 and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The country was a founding member the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC) in 1989 and joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1990.^{[232] [233]} Canada ratified the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, and seven principal UN human rights conventions and covenants since then.^[234]

Military and peacekeeping

See main article: Canadian Armed Forces and Canadian peacekeeping. Alongside many domestic obligations, more than 3,000 Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) personnel are deployed in multiple foreign military operations.^[235] The Canadian unified forces comprise the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army, and Royal Canadian Air Force. The nation employs a professional, volunteer force of approximately 68,000 active personnel and 27,000 reserve personnel—increasing to 71,500 and 30,000 respectively under "Strong, Secure, Engaged"^[236] —with a sub-component of approximately 5,000 Canadian Rangers.^[237] In 2022, Canada's military expenditure totalled approximately $26.9 billion, or around 1.2 percent of the country's gross domestic product (GDP)placing it 14th for military expenditure by country.^[238]

Canada's role in developing peacekeeping and its participation in major peacekeeping initiatives during the 20th century has played a major role in its positive global image.^{[239] [240]} Peacekeeping is deeply embedded in Canadian culture and a distinguishing feature that Canadians feel sets their foreign policy apart from the United States.^{[241] [242] [243]} Canada has long been reluctant to participate in military operations that are not sanctioned by the United Nations,^[244] such as the Vietnam War or the 2003 invasion of Iraq.^[245] Since the 21st century, Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts has greatly declined.^[246] The large decrease was a result of Canada directing its participation to UN-sanctioned military operations through NATO, rather than directly through the UN.^[247] The change to participation via NATO has resulted in a shift towards more militarized and deadly missions rather than traditional peacekeeping duties.^[248]

Economy

See main article: Economy of Canada.

Canada has a highly developed mixed-market economy,^{[249] [250]} with the world's ninth-largest economy, and a nominal GDP of approximately .^[251] It is one of the world's largest trading nations, with a highly globalized economy.^[252] In 2021, Canadian trade in goods and services reached $2.016 trillion.^[253] Canada's exports totalled over $637 billion, while its imported goods were worth over $631 billion, of which approximately $391 billion originated from the United States. In 2018, Canada had a trade deficit in goods of $22 billion and a trade deficit in services of $25 billion. The Toronto Stock Exchange is the ninth-largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over .^[254]

The Bank of Canada is the central bank of the country.^[255] The minister of finance and minister of innovation, science, and industry use data from Statistics Canada to enable financial planning and develop economic policy.^[256] Canada has a strong cooperative banking sector, with the world's highest per-capita membership in credit unions.^[257] It ranks low in the Corruption Perceptions Index (14th in 2023)^[258] and "is widely regarded as among the least corrupt countries of the world".^[259] It ranks high in the Global Competitiveness Report (14th in 2019)^[260] and Global Innovation Index (15th in 2023).^[261] Canada's economy ranks above most Western nations on The Heritage Foundation's Index of Economic Freedom^[262] and experiences a relatively low level of income disparity.^[263] The country's average household disposable income per capita is "well above" the OECD average.^[264] Canada ranks among the lowest of the most developed countries for housing affordability^[265] and foreign direct investment.^{[266] [267]}

Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one.^[268] The Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three-quarters of the country's workforce.^[269] Canada has an unusually important primary sector, of which the forestry and petroleum industries are the most prominent components.^[270] Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustained by nearby mines or sources of timber.^[271] Canada's economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since the Second World War.^[272] The Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include Mexico in 1994 (later replaced by the Canada–United States–Mexico Agreement).^[273] As of 2023, Canada is a signatory to 15 free trade agreements with 51 different countries.^[274]

Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.^[275] Atlantic Canada possess vast offshore deposits of natural gas,^[276] and Alberta hosts the fourth-largest oil reserves in the world.^[277] The vast Athabasca oil sands and other oil reserves give Canada 13 percent of global oil reserves, constituting the world's third- or fourth-largest.^[278] Canada is additionally one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies region is one of the most important global producers of wheat, canola, and other grains.^[279] The country is a leading exporter of zinc, uranium, gold, nickel, platinoids, aluminum, steel, iron ore, coking coal, lead, copper, molybdenum, cobalt, and cadmium.^{[280] [281]} Canada has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important industries.^[282] The fishing industry is also a key contributor to the economy.^[283]

Science and technology

See main article: Science and technology in Canada.

In 2020, Canada spent approximately $41.9 billion on domestic research and development, with supplementary estimates for 2022 at $43.2 billion.^[284], the country has produced 15 Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, and medicine.^[285] The country ranks seventh in the worldwide share of articles published in scientific journals, according to the Nature Index,^[286] and is home to the headquarters of a number of global technology firms.^[287] Canada has one of the highest levels of Internet access in the world, with over 33 million users, equivalent to around 94 percent of its total population.^[288]

Canada's developments in science and technology include the creation of the modern alkaline battery,^[289] the discovery of insulin,^[290] the development of the polio vaccine,^[291] and discoveries about the interior structure of the atomic nucleus.^[292] Other major Canadian scientific contributions include the artificial cardiac pacemaker, mapping the visual cortex,^{[293] [294]} the development of the electron microscope,^{[295] [296]} plate tectonics, deep learning, multi-touch technology, and the identification of the first black hole, Cygnus X-1.^[297] Canada has a long history of discovery in genetics, which include stem cells, site-directed mutagenesis, T-cell receptor, and the identification of the genes that cause Fanconi anemia, cystic fibrosis, and early-onset Alzheimer's disease, among numerous other diseases.^[298]

The Canadian Space Agency operates a highly active space program, conducting deep-space, planetary, and aviation research and developing rockets and satellites.^[299] Canada was the third country to design and construct a satellite when in 1962 Alouette 1 was launched.^[300] Canada is a participant in the International Space Station (ISS), and is a pioneer in space robotics, having constructed the Canadarm, Canadarm2, Canadarm3 and Dextre robotic manipulators for the ISS and NASA's Space Shuttle.^[301] Since the 1960s, Canada's aerospace industry has designed and built numerous marques of satellite, including Radarsat-1 and 2, ISIS, and MOST.^[302] Canada has also produced one of the world's most successful and widely used sounding rockets, the Black Brant.^[303]

Demographics

See main article: Demographics of Canada and List of cities in Canada.

The 2021 Canadian census enumerated a total population of 36,991,981, an increase of around 5.2 percent over the 2016 figure.^[304] It is estimated that Canada's population surpassed 40,000,000 in 2023.^[305] The main drivers of population growth are immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth.^[306] Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world,^[307] driven mainly by economic policy and family reunification.^{[308] [309]} A record 405,000 immigrants were admitted in 2021.^[310] Canada leads the world in refugee resettlement; it resettled more than 47,600 in 2022.^[311] New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas, such as Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.^[312]

Canada's population density, at, is among the lowest in the world. Canada spans latitudinally from the 83rd parallel north to the 41st parallel north and approximately 95 percent of the population is found south of the 55th parallel north. About 80 percent of the population lives within 150km (90miles) of the border with the contiguous United States.^[313] Canada is highly urbanized, with over 80 percent of the population living in urban centres.^[314] The most densely populated part of the country, accounting for nearly 50 percent, is the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.^{[315] [316]}

The majority of Canadians (81.1 percent) live in family households, 12.1 percent report living alone, and 6.8 percent live with other relatives or unrelated persons.^[317] Fifty-one percent of households are couples with or without children, 8.7 percent are single-parent households, 2.9 percent are multigenerational households, and 29.3 percent are single-person households.

Ethnicity

See main article: Ethnic origins of people in Canada.

Respondents in the 2021 Canadian census self-reported over 450 "ethnic or cultural origins". The major panethnic groups chosen were: European, North American, Asian, North American Indigenous, African, Latin, Central and South American, Caribbean, Oceanian, and other .^{[318] [319]} Over 60 percent of Canadians reported a single origin, and 36 percent reported having multiple ethnic origins, thus the overall total is greater than 100 percent.The country's ten largest self-reported specific ethnic or cultural origins in 2021 were Canadian (accounting for 15.6 percent of the population), followed by English (14.7 percent), Irish (12.1 percent), Scottish (12.1 percent), French (11.0 percent), German (8.1 percent), Chinese (4.7 percent), Italian (4.3 percent), Indian (3.7 percent), and Ukrainian (3.5 percent).^[320]

Of the 36.3million people enumerated in 2021, approximately 25.4million reported being "White", representing 69.8 percent of the population.^[321] The Indigenous population representing 5 percent or 1.8million individuals, grew by 9.4 percent compared to the non-Indigenous population, which grew by 5.3 percent from 2016 to 2021. One out of every four Canadians or 26.5 percent of the population belonged to a non-White and non-Indigenous visible minority,^[322] the largest of which in 2021 were South Asian (2.6million people; 7.1 percent), Chinese (1.7million; 4.7 percent), and Black (1.5million; 4.3 percent).^[323]

Between 2011 and 2016, the visible minority population rose by 18.4 percent.^[324] In 1961, about 300,000 people, less than two percent of Canada's population, were members of visible minority groups.^[325] The 2021 census indicated that 8.3million people, or almost one-quarter (23.0 percent) of the population, reported themselves as being or having been a landed immigrant or permanent resident in Canada—above the 1921 census previous record of 22.3 percent.^[326] In 2021, India, China, and the Philippines were the top three countries of origin for immigrants moving to Canada.^[327]

Languages

See main article: Languages of Canada. A multitude of languages are used by Canadians, with English and French (the official languages) being the mother tongues of approximately 54 percent and 19 percent of Canadians, respectively. As of the 2021 census, just over 7.8 million Canadians listed a non-official language as their mother tongue. Some of the most common non-official first languages include Mandarin (679,255 first-language speakers), Punjabi (666,585), Cantonese (553,380), Spanish (538,870), Arabic (508,410), Tagalog (461,150), Italian (319,505), German (272,865), and Tamil (237,890). Canada's federal government practises official bilingualism, which is applied by the commissioner of official languages in consonance with section 16 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the federal Official Languages Act. English and French have equal status in federal courts, Parliament, and in all federal institutions. Citizens have the right, where there is sufficient demand, to receive federal government services in either English or French and official-language minorities are guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.^[328]

Quebec's 1974 Official Language Act established French as the only official language of the province.^[329] Although more than 82 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations in New Brunswick, Alberta, and Manitoba; Ontario has the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec.^[330] New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has a French-speaking Acadian minority constituting 33 percent of the population.^[331] There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and in central and western Prince Edward Island.^[332]

Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services, in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status, but is not fully co-official.^[333] There are 11 Indigenous language groups, composed of more than 65 distinct languages and dialects.^[334] Several Indigenous languages have official status in the Northwest Territories.^[335] Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut and is one of three official languages in the territory.^[336]

Canada is home to many sign languages, some of which are Indigenous.^[337] American Sign Language (ASL) is used across the country due to the prevalence of ASL in primary and secondary schools.^[338] Quebec Sign Language (LSQ) is used primarily in Quebec.^[339]

Religion

See main article: Religion in Canada. Canada is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of beliefs and customs. The Constitution of Canada refers to God; however, Canada has no official church and the government is officially committed to religious pluralism.^[340] Freedom of religion in Canada is a constitutionally protected right.^[341]

Rates of religious adherence have steadily decreased since the 1970s.^[342] With Christianity in decline after having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life,^[343] Canada has become a post-Christian, secular state.^{[344] [345] [346]} Although the majority of Canadians consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives,^[347] they still believe in God.^[348] The practice of religion is generally considered a private matter.^[349]

According to the 2021 census, Christianity is the largest religion in Canada, with Roman Catholics representing 29.9 percent of the population having the most adherents. Christians overall representing 53.3 percent of the population, are followed by people reporting irreligion or having no religion at 34.6 percent.^[350] Other faiths include Islam (4.9 percent), Hinduism (2.3 percent), Sikhism (2.1 percent), Buddhism (1.0 percent), Judaism (0.9 percent), and Indigenous spirituality (0.2 percent).^[351] Canada has the second-largest national Sikh population, behind India.^[352]

Health

Healthcare in Canada is delivered through the provincial and territorial systems of publicly funded health care, informally called Medicare.^{[353] [354]} It is guided by the provisions of the Canada Health Act of 1984^[355] and is universal.^[356] Universal access to publicly funded health services "is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national healthcare insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country".^[357] Around 30 percent of Canadians' healthcare is paid for through the private sector.^[358] This mostly pays for services not covered or partially covered by Medicare, such as prescription drugs, dentistry and optometry. Approximately 65 to 75 percent of Canadians have some form of supplementary health insurance; many receive it through their employers or access secondary social service programs.^[359]

In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing an increase in healthcare expenditures due to a demographic shift toward an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2021, the average age in Canada was 41.9 years. Life expectancy is 81.1 years.^[360] A 2016 report by the chief public health officer found that 88 percent of Canadians, one of the highest proportions of the population among G7 countries, indicated that they "had good or very good health".^[361] Eighty percent of Canadian adults self-report having at least one major risk factor for chronic disease: smoking, physical inactivity, unhealthy eating or excessive alcohol use.^[362] Canada has one of the highest rates of adult obesity among OECD countries, contributing to approximately 2.7 million cases of diabetes. Four chronic diseases—cancer (leading cause of death), cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases, and diabetes—account for 65 percent of deaths in Canada.^{[363] [364]}

In 2021, the Canadian Institute for Health Information reported that healthcare spending reached $308billion, or 12.7 percent of Canada's GDP for that year.^[365] In 2022, Canada's per-capita spending on health expenditures ranked 12th among health-care systems in the OECD.^[366] Canada has performed close to, or above the average on the majority of OECD health indicators since the early 2000s, ranking above the average on OECD indicators for wait-times and access to care, with average scores for quality of care and use of resources.^{[367] [368]} The Commonwealth Fund's 2021 report comparing the healthcare systems of the 11 most developed countries ranked Canada second-to-last.^[369] Identified weaknesses were comparatively higher infant mortality rate, the prevalence of chronic conditions, long wait times, poor availability of after-hours care, and a lack of prescription drugs and dental coverage. An increasing problem in Canada's health system is a lack of healthcare professionals,^[370] and hospital capacity.^[371]

Education

See main article: Education in Canada and Higher education in Canada.

Education in Canada is for the most part provided publicly, funded and overseen by federal, provincial, and local governments.^[372] Education is within provincial jurisdiction and a province's curriculum is overseen by its government.^{[373] [374]} Education in Canada is generally divided into primary education, followed by secondary and post-secondary education. Education in both English and French is available in most places across Canada.^[375] Canada has a large number of universities, almost all of which are publicly funded.^[376] Established in 1663, is the oldest post-secondary institution in Canada.^[377] The nation's three top ranking universities are the University of Toronto, McGill, and the University of British Columbia.^[378] The largest university is the University of Toronto, which has over 85,000 students.^[379]

According to a 2022 report by the OECD, Canada is one of the most educated countries in the world;^{[380] [381]} the country ranks first worldwide in the percentage of adults having tertiary education, with over 56 percent of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree.^[382] Canada spends an average of 5.3 percent of its GDP on education.^[383] The country invests heavily in tertiary education (more than per student).^[384], 89 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, compared to an OECD average of 75 percent.^[385]

The mandatory education age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18 years,^[386] contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99 percent.^[387] Just over 60,000 children are homeschooled in the country as of 2016. Canada is a well-performing OECD country in reading literacy, mathematics, and science, with the average student scoring 523.7, compared with the OECD average of 493 in 2015.^{[388] [389]}

Culture

Canada's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote a "just society" are constitutionally protected.^{[390] [391] [392]} Since the 1960s, Canada has emphasized equality and inclusiveness for all its people.^{[393] [394] [395]} The official state policy of multiculturalism is often cited as one of Canada's significant accomplishments^[396] and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity.^{[397] [398]} In Quebec, cultural identity is strong and there is a French Canadian culture that is distinct from English Canadian culture.^[399] As a whole, Canada is in theory a cultural mosaic of regional ethnic subcultures.^{[400] [401] [402]}

Canada's approach to governance emphasizing multiculturalism, which is based on selective immigration, social integration, and suppression of far-right politics, has wide public support.^[403] Government policies such as publicly funded health care, higher taxation to redistribute wealth, the outlawing of capital punishment, strong efforts to eliminate poverty, strict gun control, a social liberal attitude toward women's rights (like pregnancy termination) and LGBT rights, and legalized euthanasia and cannabis use are indicators of Canada's political and cultural values.^{[404] [405] [406]} Canadians also identify with the country's foreign aid policies, peacekeeping roles, the national park system, and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.^{[407] [408]}

Historically, Canada has been influenced by British, French, and Indigenous cultures and traditions.^[409] During the 20th century, Canadians with African, Caribbean, and Asian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity and its culture.^[410]

Symbols

See main article: National symbols of Canada and Canadian royal symbols.

Themes of nature, pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the early development of Canadian symbolism.^[411] Modern symbols emphasize the country's geography, cold climate, lifestyles, and the Canadianization of traditional European and Indigenous symbols.^[412] The use of the maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's current and previous flags and on the Arms of Canada. Canada's official tartan, known as the "maple leaf tartan", reflects the colours of the maple leaf through the seasons—green in the spring, gold in the early autumn, red at the first frost, and brown after falling.^[413] The Arms of Canada are closely modelled after those of the United Kingdom, with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version.^[414]

Other prominent symbols include the national motto, "Latin: [[A mari usque ad mare]]|italics=on" ("From Sea to Sea"),^[415] the sports of ice hockey and lacrosse, the beaver, Canada goose, common loon, Canadian horse, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the Canadian Rockies,^[416] and, more recently, the totem pole and Inuksuk.^[417] Canadian beer, maple syrup, tuques, canoes, nanaimo bars, butter tarts, and poutine are defined as uniquely Canadian.^[418] Canadian coins feature many of these symbols: the loon on the $1 coin, the Arms of Canada on the 50¢ piece, and the beaver on the nickel.^[419] An image of the monarch appears on $20 bank notes and the obverse of coins.

Literature

See main article: Canadian literature.

Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively.^[420] The earliest Canadian narratives were of travel and exploration.^[421] This progressed into three major themes of historical Canadian literature: nature, frontier life, and Canada's position within the world, all of which tie into the garrison mentality.^[422] In recent decades, Canada's literature has been strongly influenced by immigrants from around the world.^[423] By the 1990s, Canadian literature was viewed as some of the world's best.^[424]

Numerous Canadian authors have accumulated international literary awards,^[425] including novelist, poet, and literary critic Margaret Atwood, who received two Booker Prizes;^[426] Nobel laureate Alice Munro, who has been called the best living writer of short stories in English;^[427] and Booker Prize recipient Michael Ondaatje, who wrote the novel The English Patient, which was adapted as a film of the same name that won the Academy Award for Best Picture.^[428] L. M. Montgomery produced a series of children's novels beginning in 1908 with Anne of Green Gables.^[429]

Media

See main article: Media of Canada. Canada's media is highly autonomous, uncensored, diverse, and very regionalized.^{[430] [431]} The Broadcasting Act declares "the system should serve to safeguard, enrich, and strengthen the cultural, political, social, and economic fabric of Canada".^[432] Canada has a well-developed media sector, but its cultural output—particularly in English films, television shows, and magazines—is often overshadowed by imports from the United States.^[433] As a result, the preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).^[434]

Canadian mass media, both print and digital, and in both official languages, is largely dominated by a "handful of corporations".^[435] The largest of these corporations is the country's national public broadcaster, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, which also plays a significant role in producing domestic cultural content, operating its own radio and TV networks in both English and French.^[436] In addition to the CBC, some provincial governments offer their own public educational TV broadcast services as well, such as TVOntario and Télé-Québec.^[437]

Non-news media content in Canada, including film and television, is influenced both by local creators as well as by imports from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and France.^[438] In an effort to reduce the amount of foreign-made media, government interventions in television broadcasting can include both regulation of content and public financing.^[439] Canadian tax laws limit foreign competition in magazine advertising.^[440]

Visual arts

See main article: Canadian art.

Art in Canada is marked by thousands of years of habitation by its Indigenous peoples,^[441] and, in later times, artists have combined British, French, Indigenous, and American artistic traditions, at times embracing European styles while working to promote nationalism.^[442] The nature of Canadian art reflects these diverse origins, as artists have taken their traditions and adapted these influences to reflect the reality of their lives in Canada.^[443]

The Canadian government has played a role in the development of Canadian culture through the department of Canadian Heritage, by giving grants to art galleries,^[444] as well as establishing and funding art schools across the country, and through the Canada Council for the Arts, the national public arts funder, helping artists, art galleries and periodicals, and thus contributing to the development of Canada's cultural works.^[445]

Canadian visual art has been dominated by figures, such as painter Tom Thomson and the Group of Seven.^[446] The latter were painters with a nationalistic and idealistic focus, who first exhibited their distinctive works in May 1920. Though referred to as having seven members, five artists—Lawren Harris, A. Y. Jackson, Arthur Lismer, J. E. H. MacDonald, and Frederick Varley—were responsible for articulating the group's ideas. They were joined briefly by Frank Johnston and commercial artist Franklin Carmichael. A. J. Casson became part of the group in 1926.^[447] Associated with the group was another prominent Canadian artist, Emily Carr, known for her landscapes and portrayals of the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast.^[448]

Music

See main article: Music of Canada. Canadian music reflects a variety of regional scenes.^[449] Canada has developed a vast music infrastructure that includes church halls, chamber halls, conservatories, academies, performing arts centres, record companies, radio stations, and television music video channels.^[450] Government support programs, such as the Canada Music Fund, assist a wide range of musicians and entrepreneurs who create, produce and market original and diverse Canadian music.^[451] As a result of its cultural importance, as well as government initiatives and regulations, the Canadian music industry is one of the largest in the world,^[452] producing internationally renowned composers, musicians, and ensembles.^[453] Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the CRTC.^[454] The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences presents Canada's music industry awards, the Juno Awards.^[455] The Canadian Music Hall of Fame honours Canadian musicians for their lifetime achievements.^[456]

Patriotic music in Canada dates back over 200 years. The earliest work of patriotic music in Canada, "The Bold Canadian", was written in 1812.^[457] "The Maple Leaf Forever", written in 1866, was a popular patriotic song throughout English Canada and, for many years, served as an unofficial national anthem.^[458] "O Canada" also served as an unofficial national anthem for much of the 20th century and was adopted as the country's official anthem in 1980.^[459]

Sports

See main article: Sports in Canada.

Canada's official national sports are ice hockey and lacrosse.^[460] Other major professional games include curling, basketball, baseball, soccer, and Canadian football.^[461] Sports such as golf, volleyball, skiing, cycling, swimming, badminton, tennis, bowling, and martial arts are widely enjoyed at the youth and amateur levels.^[462] Great achievements in Canadian sports are recognized by Canada's Sports Hall of Fame.^[463] There are numerous other sport "halls of fame" in Canada, such as the Hockey Hall of Fame.

Canada shares several major professional sports leagues with the United States.^[464] Canadian teams in these leagues include seven franchises in the National Hockey League, as well as three Major League Soccer teams and one team in each of Major League Baseball and the National Basketball Association. Other popular professional competitions include the Canadian Football League, National Lacrosse League, the Canadian Premier League, and the various curling tournaments sanctioned and organized by Curling Canada.^[465]

Canada has enjoyed success both at the Winter Olympics and at the Summer Olympics^[466] —though, particularly, the Winter Games as a "winter sports nation"—and has hosted several high-profile international sporting events such as the 1976 Summer Olympics,^[467] the 1988 Winter Olympics,^[468] the 2010 Winter Olympics,^{[469] [470]} and the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup.^[471] Most recently, Canada hosted the 2015 Pan American Games and 2015 Parapan American Games in Toronto.^[472] The country is scheduled to co-host the 2026 FIFA World Cup alongside Mexico and the United States.^[473]

See also

• Index of Canada-related articles
• List of Canada-related topics by provinces and territories
• Outline of Canada

Further reading

See main article: Bibliography of Canada and Bibliography of Canadian history.

Overview

• Book: Marsh, James H. . The Canadian Encyclopedia . McClelland & Stewart . 1999 . 978-0-7710-2099-5 . none.

Culture

• Book: Cohen, Andrew . The Unfinished Canadian: The People We Are . McClelland & Stewart . 2007 . 978-0-7710-2181-7 . none . Andrew Cohen (journalist) . registration.
• Book: Vance, Jonathan F. . A History of Canadian Culture . Oxford University Press . 2011 . 978-0-19-544422-3 . none.
• Book: Forbes, H.D. . Multiculturalism in Canada: Constructing a Model Multiculture with Multicultural Values . Springer International Publishing . Recovering Political Philosophy . 2019 . 978-3-030-19835-0 . none.

Demography and statistics

• Book: Canada Year Book (CYB) annual 1867–1967 . Statistics Canada . 2008 . none.
• Book: Carment . David . The World in Canada: Diaspora, Demography, and Domestic Politics . Bercuson . David . McGill-Queen's University Press . 2008 . 978-0-7735-7854-8 . none.
• Canada Year Book, 2012 . December 2012 . Statistics Canada. Catalogue no 11-402-XWE . none.

Economy

• Book: Easterbrook . W.T. . Canadian Economic History . Aitken . Hugh G. J. . University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division . 2015 . 978-1-4426-5814-1 . none.
• Book: Economic Survey of Canada - 11 March 2021 . OECD . 2022 . none. – (Previous surveys)
• Book: Jones-Imhotep . Edward . Made Modern: Science and Technology in Canadian History . Adcock . Tina . UBC Press . 2018 . 978-0-7748-3726-2 . none.

Foreign relations and military

• Book: Conrad, John . Scarce Heard Amid the Guns: An Inside Look at Canadian Peacekeeping . Dundurn Press . 2011 . 978-1-55488-981-5 . none.
• Book: Thomas Juneau . Philippe Lagassé . Srdjan Vucetic . 2019 . Canadian Defence Policy in Theory and Practice . Springer Nature . 978-3-03-026403-1 . none.

Geography and environment

• Book: Leiss, W. . Canada and Climate Change . McGill-Queen's University Press . Canadian Essentials . 2022 . 978-0-2280-0985-6 .
• Book: MacDowell, L.S. . An Environmental History of Canada . UBC Press . 2012 . 978-0-7748-2103-2 .
• Book: Daniel R. . Montello . Michael T. . Applegarth . Tom L. . McKnight . 2021 . Regional Geography of the United States and Canada . 5th . Waveland Press . 978-1-4786-4712-6 . none.
• Book: Canadian Oxford World Atlas . Oxford University Press (Canada) . 2008 . 978-0-19-542928-2 . Stanford . Quentin H . 6th . none.

Government and law

• Book: Malcolmson . Patrick . The Canadian Regime: An Introduction to Parliamentary Government in Canada . Myers . Richard . University of Toronto Press . 2009 . 978-1-4426-0047-8 . 4th . none.
• Book: Morton, Frederick Lee . Law, politics, and the judicial process in Canada . Frederick Lee . 2002 . 978-1-55238-046-8 . none.

History

• Book: Careless, J. M. S. . Canada: A Story of Challenge . Cambridge University Press . 2012 . 978-1-107-67581-0 . Revised . none.
• Book: Francis . RD . Journeys: A History of Canada . Jones . Richard . Smith . Donald B . Nelson Education . 2009 . 978-0-17-644244-6 . none.
• Book: Taylor . Martin Brook . Canadian History . 2 volumes . Owram . Doug . University of Toronto Press . 1994 . none.,

Social welfare

• Book: Finkel, Alvin . Social Policy and Practice in Canada: A History . 2006 . Wilfrid Laurier University Press . 978-0-88920-475-1 . none . registration.
• Book: Thompson, Valerie D. . Health and Health Care Delivery in Canada . Elsevier Health Sciences . 2015 . 978-1-927406-31-1 . none.
• Book: Burke . Sara Z. . Schooling in Transition: Readings in Canadian History of Education . Milewski . Patrice . University of Toronto Press . 2011 . 978-0-8020-9577-0 . none.

External links

Overviews

• Canada from UCB Libraries GovPubs
  • Canada profile from the OECD
• Key Development Forecasts for Canada from International Futures

Government

• Official website of the Government of Canada
• Official website of the Governor General of Canada
• Official website of the Prime Ministers of Canada

Travel

• Canada's official website for travel and tourism

Notes and References

1. Web site: Royal Anthem . August 11, 2017 . Government of Canada . December 6, 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20201206190257/https://www.canada.ca/en/canadian-heritage/services/royal-symbols-titles/royal-anthem.html . live.
2. Web site: Surface water and surface water change . October 11, 2020 . . December 9, 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181209191004/https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER . live.
3. Web site: June 19, 2024 . Population estimates, quarterly . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20240622155329/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1710000901 . June 22, 2024 . June 24, 2024 . Statistics Canada.
4. Web site: February 9, 2022 . Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20220209165904/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&DGUIDList=2021A000011124&GENDERList=1&STATISTICList=1&HEADERList=0&SearchText=Canada . February 9, 2022.
5. Web site: World Economic Outlook Database, April 2024 Edition. (Canada) . . www.imf.org . April 16, 2024 . April 16, 2024.
6. Income inequality . OECD . 10.1787/459aa7f1-en.
7. Web site: Human Development Report 2023/24 . en . . 13 March 2024 . 13 March 2024. March 13, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240313164319/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf . live.
8. Book: Olson . James Stuart . Historical Dictionary of European Imperialism . Shadle . Robert . Greenwood Publishing Group . 1991 . 978-0-313-26257-9 . 109.
9. Book: Rayburn, Alan . Naming Canada: Stories about Canadian Place Names . . 2001 . 978-0-8020-8293-0 . 14–22.
10. Book: Magocsi, Paul R. . Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples . University of Toronto Press . 1999 . 978-0-8020-2938-6 . 1048 . registration.
11. Web site: 1841 . An Act to Re-write the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, and for the Government of Canada . J.C. Fisher & W. Kimble . 20.
12. Book: O'Toole, Roger . https://books.google.com/books?id=OGHgLlxfh7wC&pg=PA137 . Holy Nations and Global Identities: Civil Religion, Nationalism, and Globalisation . Brill . 2009 . 978-90-04-17828-1 . Hvithamar . Annika . 137 . Dominion of the Gods: Religious continuity and change in a Canadian context . Warburg . Margit . Jacobsen . Brian Arly.
13. Book: Morra, Irene . The New Elizabethan Age: Culture, Society and National Identity after World War II . I.B.Tauris . 2016 . 978-0-85772-867-8 . 49.
14. Book: McIntyre, D. . British Decolonization, 1946–1997: When, Why and How did the British Empire Fall? . Bloomsbury Publishing . British History in Perspective . 1998 . 978-1-349-26922-8 . 108.
15. Book: Canada and the British Empire . . 2008 . 978-0-19-927164-1 . Buckner . Philip . 37–40, 56–59, 114, 124–125.
16. Book: Dillehay, Thomas D. . The Settlement of the Americas: A New Prehistory . Basic Books . 2008 . 978-0-7867-2543-4 . 61.
17. Book: Fagan . Brian M. . World Prehistory: A Brief Introduction . Durrani . Nadia . Routledge . 2016 . 978-1-317-34244-1 . 124.
18. Book: Rawat, Rajiv . Circumpolar Health Atlas . University of Toronto Press . 2012 . 978-1-4426-4456-4 . 58.
19. Book: Hayes, Derek . Canada: An Illustrated History . Douglas & Mcintyre . 2008 . 978-1-55365-259-5 . 7, 13.
20. Book: Macklem, Patrick . Indigenous Difference and the Constitution of Canada . University of Toronto Press . 2001 . 978-0-8020-4195-1 . 170.
21. Book: Sonneborn, Liz . Chronology of American Indian History . January 2007 . Infobase Publishing . 978-0-8160-6770-1 . 2–12.
22. Book: Graber . Christoph Beat . International Trade in Indigenous Cultural Heritage: Legal and Policy Issues . Kuprecht . Karolina . Lai . Jessica C. . Jessica Lai . Edward Elgar Publishing . 2012 . 978-0-85793-831-2 . 366.
23. Book: Wilson . Donna M . Dying and Death in Canada . Northcott . Herbert C . University of Toronto Press . 2008 . 978-1-55111-873-4 . 25–27.
24. Book: Thornton, Russell . A population history of North America . . 2000 . 978-0-521-49666-7 . Haines . Michael R . 13, 380 . Population history of Native North Americans . Steckel . Richard Hall.
25. Book: O'Donnell, C. Vivian . Indians in Contemporary Society . Government Printing Office . 2008 . 978-0-16-080388-8 . Bailey . Garrick Alan . Handbook of North American Indians . 2 . 285 . Native Populations of Canada . https://books.google.com/books?id=Z1IwUbZqjTUC&pg=PA285.
26. Book: Marshall, Ingeborg . A History and Ethnography of the Beothuk . McGill-Queen's University Press . 1998 . 978-0-7735-1774-5 . 442.
27. Book: True Peters, Stephanie . Smallpox in the New World . Marshall Cavendish . 2005 . 978-0-7614-1637-1 . 39.
28. Book: Laidlaw . Z. . Indigenous Communities and Settler Colonialism: Land Holding, Loss and Survival in an Interconnected World . Lester . Alan . Springer . 2015 . 978-1-137-45236-8 . 150.
29. Book: Ray, Arthur J. . I Have Lived Here Since The World Began . Key Porter Books . 2005 . 978-1-55263-633-6 . 244.
30. Book: Preston, David L. . The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783 . . 2009 . 978-0-8032-2549-7 . 43–44.
31. Book: Miller, J.R. . Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-Making in Canada . University of Toronto Press . 2009 . 978-1-4426-9227-5 . 34.
32. Book: Williams, L. . Indigenous Intergenerational Resilience: Confronting Cultural and Ecological Crisis . Taylor & Francis . Routledge Studies in Indigenous Peoples and Policy . 2021 . 978-1-000-47233-2 . 51.
33. Book: Turner, N.J. . Plants, People, and Places: The Roles of Ethnobotany and Ethnoecology in Indigenous Peoples' Land Rights in Canada and Beyond . McGill-Queen's University Press . McGill-Queen's Indigenous and Northern Studies . 2020 . 978-0-2280-0317-5 . 14.
34. Book: Asch, Michael . Aboriginal and Treaty Rights in Canada: Essays on Law, Equity, and Respect for Difference . UBC Press . 1997 . 978-0-7748-0581-0 . 28.
35. Book: Commission de vérité et réconciliation du Canada . Canada's Residential Schools: The History, Part 1, Origins to 1939: The Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Volume I . January 1, 2016 . McGill-Queen's University Press . 978-0-7735-9818-8 . 3–7.
36. Book: Lux, M.K. . Separate Beds: A History of Indian Hospitals in Canada, 1920s-1980s . University of Toronto Press . G - Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series . 2016 . 978-1-4426-1386-7 . 7.
37. Book: Kirmayer . Laurence J. . Healing Traditions: The Mental Health of Aboriginal Peoples in Canada . Guthrie . Gail Valaskakis . UBC Press . 2009 . 978-0-7748-5863-2 . 9.
38. Web site: 2015 . Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada: Calls to Action . https://web.archive.org/web/20150615202024/http://www.trc.ca/websites/trcinstitution/File/2015/Findings/Calls_to_Action_English2.pdf . June 15, 2015 . National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation . 5.
39. Web site: Honouring the Truth, Reconciling for the Future: Summary of the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada . National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation . Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada . January 6, 2019 . May 31, 2015 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20160706170855/http://www.trc.ca/websites/trcinstitution/File/2015/Findings/Exec_Summary_2015_05_31_web_o.pdf . July 6, 2016.
40. Web site: Principles respecting the Government of Canada's relationship with Indigenous peoples . Ministère de la Justice . July 14, 2017 . June 10, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230610052703/https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/csj-sjc/principles-principes.html . live.
41. Encyclopedia: Wallace . Birgitta . October 12, 2018 . Leif Eriksson . The Canadian Encyclopedia . June 4, 2020 . April 13, 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210413193628/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/leif-ericsson . live.
42. Book: Johansen . Bruce E. . Encyclopedia of American Indian History . Pritzker . Barry M. . ABC-CLIO . 2007 . 978-1-85109-818-7 . 727–728.
43. Encyclopedia: L'Anse aux Meadows National Historic Site . Archaeology in America: An Encyclopedia . ABC-CLIO . 2009 . 27, 82 . 978-0-313-02189-3 . Lightfoot . Kent . McManamon . Francis . Milner . George . Linda S. . Cordell.
44. Book: Blake . Raymond B. . Conflict and Compromise: Pre-Confederation Canada . Keshen . Jeffrey . Knowles . Norman J. . Messamore . Barbara J. . University of Toronto Press . 2017 . 978-1-4426-3553-1 . 19.
45. Book: Cartier . Jacques . The Voyages of Jacques Cartier . Biggar . Henry Percival . Cook . Ramsay . University of Toronto Press . 1993 . 978-0-8020-6000-6 . 26 . registration.
46. Book: Kerr, Donald Peter . Historical Atlas of Canada: From the beginning to 1800 . University of Toronto Press . 1987 . 978-0-8020-2495-4 . 47.
47. Book: Baten, Jörg . A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present . 2016 . Cambridge University Press . 978-1-107-50718-0 . 84.
48. Book: Wynn, Graeme . Canada and Arctic North America: An Environmental History . ABC-CLIO . 2007 . 978-1-85109-437-0 . 49.
49. Book: Rose, George A . Cod: The Ecological History of the North Atlantic Fisheries . October 1, 2007 . . 978-1-55081-225-1 . 209.
50. Book: Kelley . Ninette . The Making of the Mosaic: A History of Canadian Immigration Policy . Trebilcock . Michael J. . September 30, 2010 . University of Toronto Press . 978-0-8020-9536-7 . 27.
51. Book: LaMar, Howard Roberts . The Reader's Encyclopedia of the American West . . 1977 . 978-0-690-00008-5 . 355 . Howard R. Lamar.
52. Book: Tucker . Spencer C . The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History . Arnold . James . Wiener . Roberta . September 30, 2011 . ABC-CLIO . 978-1-85109-697-8 . 394.
53. Book: Buckner . Phillip Alfred . The Atlantic Region to Confederation: A History . Reid . John G. . University of Toronto Press . 1994 . 978-0-8020-6977-1 . 55–56.
54. Book: Hornsby, Stephen J . British Atlantic, American frontier: spaces of power in early modern British America . . 2005 . 978-1-58465-427-8 . 14, 18–19, 22–23.
55. Book: Nolan, Cathal J . Wars of the age of Louis XIV, 1650–1715: an encyclopedia of global warfare and civilization . ABC-CLIO . 2008 . 978-0-313-33046-9 . 160.
56. Allaire . Gratien . May 2007 . From 'Nouvelle-France' to 'Francophonie canadienne': a historical survey . International Journal of the Sociology of Language . 185 . 25–52 . 10.1515/IJSL.2007.024 . 0165-2516.
57. Hicks . Bruce M . March 2010 . Use of Non-Traditional Evidence: A Case Study Using Heraldry to Examine Competing Theories for Canada's Confederation . . 23 . 1 . 87–117 . 10.3828/bjcs.2010.5.
58. Book: Hopkins, John Castell . Canada: an Encyclopaedia of the Country: The Canadian Dominion Considered in Its Historic Relations, Its Natural Resources, its Material Progress and its National Development, by a Corps of Eminent Writers and Specialists . Linscott Publishing Company . 1898 . 125.
59. Book: Nellis, Eric . An Empire of Regions: A Brief History of Colonial British America . University of Toronto Press . 2010 . 978-1-4426-0403-2 . 331.
60. Book: Stuart . Peter . The Catholic Faith and the Social Construction of Religion: With Particular Attention to the Québec Experience . Savage . Allan M. . WestBow Press . 2011 . 978-1-4497-2084-1 . 101–102.
61. Book: Leahy . Todd . Native American Movements . Wilson . Raymond . September 30, 2009 . . 978-0-8108-6892-2 . 49.
62. Book: Newman, Peter C . Hostages to Fortune: The United Empire Loyalists and the Making of Canada . 2016 . Touchstone . 978-1-4516-8615-9 . 117 . Peter C. Newman.
63. Book: McNairn, Jeffrey L . The capacity to judge . University of Toronto Press . 2000 . 978-0-8020-4360-3 . 24.
64. Book: Harrison . Trevor . Canadian Society in the Twenty-first Century: An Historical Sociological Approach . Friesen . John W. . Canadian Scholars' Press . 2010 . 978-1-55130-371-0 . 97–99.
65. Book: Harris, Richard Colebrook . Historical Atlas of Canada: The land transformed, 1800–1891 . University of Toronto Press . 1987 . 978-0-8020-3447-2 . 21 . etal.
66. Gallagher . John A. . 1936 . The Irish Emigration of 1847 and Its Canadian Consequences . live . 43–57 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140707141525/http://www.cchahistory.ca/journal/CCHA1935-36/Gallagher.html . July 7, 2014 . CCHA Report.
67. Book: Read, Colin . Rebellion of 1837 in Upper Canada . McGill-Queen's University Press . 1985 . 978-0-7735-8406-8 . 99.
68. Romney . Paul . Spring 1989 . From Constitutionalism to Legalism: Trial by Jury, Responsible Government, and the Rule of Law in the Canadian Political Culture . Law and History Review . 7 . 1 . 121–174 . 10.2307/743779 . 743779 .
69. Book: Evenden . Leonard J . Geographical Snapshots of North America . Turbeville . Daniel E . Guilford Press . 1992 . 978-0-89862-030-6 . Janelle . Donald G . 52 . The Pacific Coast Borderland and Frontier . https://archive.org/details/geographicalsnap0000unse/page/52.
70. Encyclopedia: Farr . DML . Block . Niko . August 9, 2016 . The Alaska Boundary Dispute . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20171215092859/http://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/alaska-boundary-dispute/ . December 15, 2017 . The Canadian Encyclopedia.
71. Book: Dijkink . Gertjan . The Territorial Factor: Political Geography in a Globalising World . Knippenberg . Hans . . 2001 . 978-90-5629-188-4 . 226.
72. Book: Bothwell, Robert . History of Canada Since 1867 . . 1996 . 978-0-87013-399-2 . 31, 207–310.
73. Book: Bumsted, JM . The Red River Rebellion . Watson & Dwyer . 1996 . 978-0-920486-23-8.
74. Encyclopedia: Railway History in Canada . The Canadian Encyclopedia . March 15, 2021 . April 29, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230429164701/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/railway-history . live.
75. Web site: Building a nation . https://web.archive.org/web/20060303140806/http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/themes.aspx?id=building&sub=building_basics_confederation&lang=En . March 3, 2006 . May 23, 2011 . Canadian Atlas . Canadian Geographic.
76. Book: Denison, Merrill . The Barley and the Stream: The Molson Story . 1955 . McClelland & Stewart Limited . 8.
77. Web site: 2008 . Sir John A. Macdonald . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20110614221958/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/sir-john-a-macdonald/023013-5000-e.html . June 14, 2011 . May 23, 2011 . Library and Archives Canada.
78. Web site: Cook . Terry . 2000 . The Canadian West: An Archival Odyssey through the Records of the Department of the Interior . https://web.archive.org/web/20110614222015/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/publications/archivist-magazine/015002-2230-e.html . June 14, 2011 . May 23, 2011 . The Archivist . Library and Archives Canada.
79. Book: Hele, Karl S. . The Nature of Empires and the Empires of Nature: Indigenous Peoples and the Great Lakes Environment . Wilfrid Laurier University Press . 2013 . 978-1-55458-422-2 . 248.
80. Web site: Gagnon . Erica . Settling the West: Immigration to the Prairies from 1867 to 1914 . December 18, 2020 . Canadian Museum of Immigration . November 28, 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20201128194403/https://pier21.ca/research/immigration-history/settling-the-west-immigration-to-the-prairies-from-1867-to-1914 . live.
81. Book: Armitage . Derek . Adaptive Capacity and Environmental Governance . Plummer . Ryan . Springer Science & Business Media . 2010 . 978-3-642-12194-4 . 183–184.
82. Book: Daschuk, James William . Clearing the Plains: Disease, Politics of Starvation, and the Loss of Aboriginal Life . University of Regina Press . 2013 . 978-0-88977-296-0 . 99–104.
83. Book: Hall, David John . From Treaties to Reserves: The Federal Government and Native Peoples in Territorial Alberta, 1870–1905 . McGill-Queen's University Press . 2015 . 978-0-7735-4595-3 . 258–259.
84. Book: Jackson . Robert J. . Canadian Government and Politics . Jackson . Doreen . Koop . Royce . Broadview Press . 2020 . 978-1-4604-0696-0 . 7th . 186.
85. Book: Tennyson, Brian Douglas . Canada's Great War, 1914–1918: How Canada Helped Save the British Empire and Became a North American Nation . Scarecrow Press . 2014 . 978-0-8108-8860-9 . 4.
86. Book: Morton, Desmond . A military history of Canada . . 1999 . 978-0-7710-6514-9 . 4th . 130–158, 173, 203–233, 258.
87. Book: Granatstein, J. L. . Canada's Army: Waging War and Keeping the Peace . University of Toronto Press . 2004 . 978-0-8020-8696-9 . 144.
88. Book: McGonigal, Richard Morton . The Conscription Crisis in Quebec – 1917: a Study in Canadian Dualism . . 1962 . Intro.
89. Book: Morton, Frederick Lee . Law, Politics and the Judicial Process in Canada . University of Calgary Press . 2002 . 978-1-55238-046-8 . 63.
90. Book: Bryce, Robert B. . Maturing in Hard Times: Canada's Department of Finance through the Great Depression . 1986 . . 978-0-7735-0555-1 . 41 . registration.
91. Mulvale . James P . July 11, 2008 . Basic Income and the Canadian Welfare State: Exploring the Realms of Possibility . Basic Income Studies . 3 . 1 . 10.2202/1932-0183.1084.
92. Book: Humphreys, Edward . Great Canadian Battles: Heroism and Courage Through the Years . Arcturus Publishing . 2013 . 978-1-78404-098-7 . 151.
93. Book: Goddard, Lance . Canada and the Liberation of the Netherlands . . 2005 . 978-1-55002-547-7 . 225–232.
94. Book: Bothwell, Robert . Alliance and illusion: Canada and the world, 1945–1984 . UBC Press . 2007 . 978-0-7748-1368-6 . 11, 31.
95. Book: Alfred Buckner, Phillip . Canada and the British Empire . Oxford University Press . 2008 . 978-0-19-927164-1 . 135–138.
96. Book: Boyer, J. Patrick . Direct Democracy in Canada: The History and Future of Referendums . Dundurn Press . 1996 . 978-1-4597-1884-5 . 119.
97. Book: Mackey, Eva . The house of difference: cultural politics and national identity in Canada . University of Toronto Press . 2002 . 978-0-8020-8481-1 . 57.
98. Landry . Rodrigue . Forgues . Éric . May 2007 . Official language minorities in Canada: an introduction . International Journal of the Sociology of Language . 185 . 1–9 . 10.1515/IJSL.2007.022 .
99. Esses . Victoria M . Gardner . RC . July 1996 . Multiculturalism in Canada: Context and current status . . 28 . 3 . 145–152 . 10.1037/h0084934.
100. Web site: Sarrouh . Elissar . January 22, 2002 . Social Policies in Canada: A Model for Development . https://web.archive.org/web/20100717075406/http://www.escwa.un.org/information/publications/edit/upload/sd-01-09.pdf . July 17, 2010 . Social Policy Series, No. 1 . United Nations . 14–16, 22–37.
101. Web site: May 5, 2014 . Proclamation of the Constitution Act, 1982 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20170211083245/http://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/politics-government/proclamation-constitution-act-1982/Pages/proclamation-constitution-act-1982.aspx . February 11, 2017 . Government of Canada.
102. News: March 17, 2009 . A statute worth 75 cheers . . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20170211081156/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/a-statute-worth-75-cheers/article1329730/ . February 11, 2017.
103. News: Couture . Christa . January 1, 2017 . Canada is celebrating 150 years of... what, exactly? . Canadian Broadcasting Corporation . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20170210001343/http://www.cbc.ca/2017/canada-is-celebrating-150-years-of-what-exactly-1.3883315 . February 10, 2017.
104. Web site: Trepanier . Peter . 2004 . Some Visual Aspects of the Monarchical Tradition . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20160304002130/http://www.revparl.ca/27/2/27n2_04e_trepanier.pdf . March 4, 2016 . February 10, 2017 . Canadian Parliamentary Review.
105. Book: Canadian Politics . . 2004 . 978-1-55111-595-5 . Bickerton . James . 4th . 250–254, 344–347 . Gagnon . Alain.
106. Légaré . André . 2008 . Canada's Experiment with Aboriginal Self-Determination in Nunavut: From Vision to Illusion . International Journal on Minority and Group Rights . 15 . 2–3 . 335–367 . 10.1163/157181108X332659 . 24674996.
107. Book: Roberts . Lance W. . Recent Social Trends in Canada, 1960–2000 . Clifton . Rodney A. . Ferguson . Barry . McGill-Queen's University Press . 2005 . 978-0-7735-7314-7 . 415.
108. Munroe . HD . 2009 . The October Crisis Revisited: Counterterrorism as Strategic Choice, Political Result, and Organizational Practice . Terrorism and Political Violence . 21 . 2 . 288–305 . 10.1080/09546550902765623 .
109. Sorens . J . December 2004 . Globalization, secessionism, and autonomy . Electoral Studies . 23 . 4 . 727–752 . 10.1016/j.electstud.2003.10.003.
110. News: Leblanc . Daniel . August 13, 2010 . A brief history of the Bloc Québécois . The Globe and Mail . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20100901151147/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/a-brief-history-of-the-bloc-qubcois/article1672831/ . September 1, 2010.
111. Book: Betz . Hans-Georg . The New Politics of the Right: Neo-Populist Parties and Movements in Established Democracies . Immerfall . Stefan . . 1998 . 978-0-312-21134-9 . 173.
112. Book: Schmid, Carol L. . The Politics of Language: Conflict, Identity, and Cultural Pluralism in Comparative Perspective: Conflict, Identity, and Cultural Pluralism in Comparative Perspective . Oxford University Press . 2001 . 978-0-19-803150-5 . 112.
113. Web site: Commission of Inquiry into the Investigation of the Bombing of Air India Flight 182 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080622063429/http://www.majorcomm.ca/en/termsofreference/ . June 22, 2008 . May 23, 2011 . Government of Canada.
114. Web site: Sourour . Teresa K . 1991 . Report of Coroner's Investigation . https://web.archive.org/web/20161228182645/http://www.diarmani.com/Montreal_Coroners_Report.pdf . December 28, 2016 . March 8, 2017.
115. News: 2000 . The Oka Crisis . Canadian Broadcasting Corporation . May 23, 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110804233458/http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/civil_unrest/topics/99/ . August 4, 2011.
116. Book: Roach, Kent . September 11: consequences for Canada . McGill-Queen's University Press . 2003 . 978-0-7735-2584-9 . 15, 59–61, 194.
117. Web site: Defence . National . Canadian Armed Forces operations in Bosnia-Herzegovina . Canada.ca . Jul 25, 2016 . March 23, 2024 . March 23, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240323054357/https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/services/operations/military-operations/recently-completed/canadian-armed-forces-operations-bosnia-herzegovina.html . live.
118. Web site: Canadian Peacekeepers in Somalia . 2 August 2019 . Foot . Richard . thecanadianencyclopedia.ca . Historica Canada . 26 February 2024 . 12 March 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240312044307/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/canadian-peacekeepers-in-somalia . live.
119. Book: Cohen, S.A. . Israel's Armed Forces in Comparative Perspective . Taylor & Francis . BESA studies in international security . 2010 . 978-1-135-16956-5 . 2024-02-27 . 160 . 2024-03-04 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240304062940/https://books.google.com/books?id=0yiMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA160 . live.
120. Web site: Canada and the War in Afghanistan . The Canadian Encyclopedia . Sep 11, 2001 . March 25, 2024 . In total, 165 Canadians died during the war in Afghanistan (158 soldiers, 7 civilians). More than 2,000 members of the CAF were wounded or injured during the war.. January 29, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240129023800/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/international-campaign-against-terrorism-in-afghanistan . live.
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123. Web site: Juneau . Thomas . 2015 . Canada's Policy to Confront the Islamic State . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20151211070017/http://www.cgai.ca/canadas_policy_to_confront_the_islamic_state . December 11, 2015 . December 10, 2015 . Canadian Global Affairs Institute.
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125. Web site: June 25, 2021 . Catholic group to release all records from Marievel, Kamloops residential schools . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20210625180324/https://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/catholic-group-to-release-all-records-from-marievel-kamloops-residential-schools-1.5485691 . June 25, 2021 . CTV News.
126. Book: Brescia . Michael M. . North America: An Introduction . Super . John C. . University of Toronto Press . 2009 . 978-0-8020-9675-3 . 38.
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135. Web site: December 5, 2012 . Physical Components of Watersheds . https://web.archive.org/web/20121205125542/http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/environment/hydrology/watershed1/1 . December 5, 2012 . The Atlas of Canada.
136. Book: Sandford, Robert William . Cold Matters: The State and Fate of Canada's Fresh Water . Biogeoscience Institute at the University of Calgary . 2012 . 978-1-927330-20-3 . 11.
137. Book: Etkin . David . An Assessment of Natural Hazards and Disasters in Canada . Haque . CE . Brooks . Gregory R . April 30, 2003 . . 978-1-4020-1179-5 . 569, 582, 583.
138. Web site: Statistics, Regina SK . https://web.archive.org/web/20090105062344/http://www.theweathernetwork.com/statistics/C02072/CASK0261?CASK0261 . January 5, 2009 . January 18, 2010 . The Weather Network.
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140. Web site: Bush . E. . Lemmen . D.S. . 2019 . Canada's Changing Climate Report . Government of Canada . 84 . April 22, 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190422235552/https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/energy/Climate-change/pdf/CCCR_FULLREPORT-EN-FINAL.pdf . live.
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142. Book: Boyd, David R . Unnatural Law: Rethinking Canadian Environmental Law and Policy . UBC Press . 2011 . 978-0-7748-4063-7 . 67–69.
143. Web site: Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions Climate Watch . www.climatewatchdata.org . 29 March 2022 . March 21, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220321170958/https://www.climatewatchdata.org/ghg-emissions . live.
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146. Web site: Wild Species 2015: The General Status of Species in Canada . National General Status Working Group: 1 . Canadian Endangered Species Conservation Council . 2016 . The new estimate indicates that there are about 80,000 known species in Canada, excluding viruses and bacteria . 2 . January 27, 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210127203149/https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/virtual_sara/files/reports/Wild%20Species%202015.pdf . live.
147. Web site: Canada: Main Details . Convention on Biological Diversity . August 10, 2022 . August 10, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220810215710/https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/?country=ca . live.
148. Web site: COSEWIC Annual Report . Species at Risk Public Registry . 2019 . March 5, 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210305111710/https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/species-risk-public-registry/cosewic-annual-reports/2019-2020.html . live.
149. Web site: Wild Species 2000: The General Status of Species in Canada . 2001 . Conservation Council . October 16, 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211016214436/https://www.sararegistry.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=17F0CBCE-1#s1i . live.
150. Web site: State of Canada's Biodiversity Highlighted in New Government Report . October 22, 2010 . January 22, 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210122031530/https://naturecanada.ca/news/archived/state-of-canadas-biodiversity-highlighted-in-new-government-report/ . live.
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152. Book: National Atlas of Canada . . 2005 . 978-0-7705-1198-2 . 1.
153. Book: Luckert . Martin K. . Policies for Sustainably Managing Canada's Forests: Tenure, Stumpage Fees, and Forest Practices . Haley . David . Hoberg . George . UBC Press . 2012 . 978-0-7748-2069-1 . 1.
154. Web site: Canada's conserved areas . Environment and Climate Canada . 2020 . April 2, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220402184441/https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/environmental-indicators/conserved-areas.html . live.
155. Web site: The Mountain Guide – Banff National Park . https://web.archive.org/web/20060615122147/http://www.pc.gc.ca/docs/v-g/pm-mp/guidem-mguide/sec15/gm-mg15_e.pdf . June 15, 2006 . Parks Canada . 2006.
156. Book: Price, Martin F. . Mountain Area Research and Management: Integrated Approaches . 2013 . Earthscan . 978-1-84977-201-3 . 217–218.
157. Web site: Algonquin Provincial Park Management Plan . 1998 . Queen's Printer for Ontario . February 9, 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210209143502/https://www.ontario.ca/page/algonquin-provincial-park-management-plan . live.
158. Web site: Spotlight on Marine Protected Areas in Canada . Fisheries and Oceans Canada . December 13, 2017 . April 13, 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210413193502/https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/mpaspotlight-pleinsfeuxzpm/index-eng.html . live.
159. Web site: Scott Islands Marine National Widllife Area . September 25, 2020 . Protected Planet.
160. Web site: Proposed Scott Islands Marine National Wildlife Area: regulatory strategy . Environment and Climate Change Canada . February 7, 2013 . January 23, 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210123182613/https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/national-wildlife-areas/locations/scott-islands-marine/regulatory-strategy.html . live.
161. Web site: 2021 . 2021 Democracy Index . Economist Intelligence Unit . December 20, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221220221533/https://pages.eiu.com/rs/753-RIQ-438/images/eiu-democracy-index-2021.pdf?mkt_tok=NzUzLVJJUS00MzgAAAGI0GGHOJ2F2YyVeWTMPBvGitE1QlEWRD5yPY_rnJ7yECNSo-bJC-UDL28b-Jbo7b3rOFkdk4UXgoR60SFZUwf1xCQFR_IZjXHkR6eeaGzObViC1Q . live.
162. Book: Westhues . Anne . Canadian Social Policy: Issues and Perspectives . Wharf . Brian . Wilfrid Laurier University Press . 2014 . 978-1-55458-409-3 . 10–11.
163. Book: Bickerton . James . Canadian Politics . Gagnon . Alain . University of Toronto Press . 2009 . 978-1-4426-0121-5 . 56.
164. Book: Johnson, David . Thinking Government: Public Administration and Politics in Canada . University of Toronto Press . 2016 . 978-1-4426-3521-0 . 4th . 13–23.
165. Book: McQuaig, L. . Holding the Bully's Coat: Canada and the U.S. Empire . Doubleday Canada . 2010 . 978-0-385-67297-9 . 14.
166. Book: Fierlbeck, Katherine . Political Thought in Canada: An Intellectual History . University of Toronto Press . 2006 . 978-1-55111-711-9 . 87.
167. Book: Dixon . John . Social Welfare in Developed Market Countries . P. Scheurell . Robert . March 17, 2016 . Routledge . 978-1-317-36677-5 . 48.
168. Book: Boughey, Janina . Human Rights and Judicial Review in Australia and Canada: The Newest Despotism? . Bloomsbury Publishing . 2017 . 978-1-5099-0788-5 . 105.
169. Book: Bittner . Amanda . Parties, Elections, and the Future of Canadian Politics . Koop . Royce . March 1, 2013 . UBC Press . 978-0-7748-2411-8 . 300.
170. Web site: Johnston . Richard . The baffling history of Canada's party system . Policy Options . April 13, 2021 . December 9, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221209225002/https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/october-2017/the-baffling-history-of-canadas-party-system/ . live.
171. Gill . Jessica K. . Unpacking the Role of Neoliberalism on the Politics of Poverty Reduction Policies in Ontario, Canada: A Descriptive Case Study and Critical Analysis . Social Sciences . MDPI AG . 10 . 12 . December 20, 2021. 10.3390/socsci10120485 . 485 . free.
172. Book: Evans . Geoffrey . Political Choice Matters: Explaining the Strength of Class and Religious Cleavages in Cross-National Perspective . de Graaf . Nan Dirk . Oxford University Press . 2013 . 978-0-19-966399-6 . 166–167.
173. Book: Johnston, Richard . The Canadian Party System: An Analytic History . UBC Press . 2017 . 978-0-7748-3610-4.
174. News: Election 2015 roundup . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20151022233012/http://www.cbc.ca/news2/interactives/results-2015/ . October 22, 2015 . Canadian Broadcasting Corporation.
175. Ambrose . Emma . Mudde . Cas . 2015 . Canadian Multiculturalism and the Absence of the Far Right . Nationalism and Ethnic Politics . 21 . 2 . 213–236 . 10.1080/13537113.2015.1032033 .
176. News: Taub . Amanda . June 27, 2017 . Canada's Secret to Resisting the West's Populist Wave . . live . September 25, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170627090321/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/27/world/canada/canadas-secret-to-resisting-the-wests-populist-wave.html . June 27, 2017.
177. Web site: Geddes . John . What's actually standing in the way of right-wing populism in Canada? . Macleans.ca . February 8, 2022 . October 31, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221031024415/https://www.macleans.ca/politics/ottawa/whats-actually-standing-in-the-way-of-right-wing-populism-in-canada/ . live.
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179. Web site: March 29, 1867 . Constitution Act, 1867: Preamble . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20100203024121/http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/ca_1867.html . February 3, 2010 . Queen's Printer.
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181. Book: MacLeod, Kevin S . A Crown of Maples . Queen's Printer for Canada . 2012 . 978-0-662-46012-1 . 2nd . 16 . Kevin S. MacLeod . March 8, 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160105160848/http://canadiancrown.gc.ca/DAMAssetPub/DAM-CRN-jblDmt-dmdJbl/STAGING/texte-text/crnMpls_1336157759317_eng.pdf?WT.contentAuthority=4.4.4 . January 5, 2016.
182. Book: Johnson, David . Battle Royal: Monarchists vs. Republicans and the Crown of Canada . 2018 . Dundurn Press . 978-1-4597-4015-0 . 196.
183. Web site: The Governor General of Canada: Roles and Responsibilities . May 23, 2011 . Queen's Printer . September 15, 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180915122338/http://gg.ca/document.aspx?id=3 . live.
184. Book: Commonwealth public administration reform 2004 . Commonwealth Secretariat . 2004 . 978-0-11-703249-1 . 54–55.
185. Book: Forsey, Eugene . How Canadians Govern Themselves . Queen's Printer . 2005 . 978-0-662-39689-5 . 6th . 1, 16, 26 . Eugene Forsey . May 23, 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20091229155255/http://www2.parl.gc.ca/Sites/LOP/AboutParliament/Forsey/PDFs/How_Canadians_Govern_Themselves-6ed.pdf . December 29, 2009.
186. Web site: Marleau . Robert . Montpetit . Camille . House of Commons Procedure and Practice: Parliamentary Institutions . https://web.archive.org/web/20110828112251/http://www.parl.gc.ca/MarleauMontpetit/DocumentViewer.aspx?DocId=1001&Lang=E&Print=2&Sec=Ch01&Seq=5 . August 28, 2011 . May 23, 2011 . Queen's Printer.
187. Web site: Edwards . Peter . November 4, 2015 . 'A cabinet that looks like Canada:' Justin Trudeau pledges government built on trust . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20170128075156/https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2015/11/04/new-government-to-be-sworn-in-today.html . January 28, 2017 . Toronto Star.
188. Book: Johnson, David . Thinking government: public sector management in Canada . University of Toronto Press . 2006 . 978-1-55111-779-9 . 2nd . 134–135, 149.
189. Web site: The Opposition in a Parliamentary System . https://web.archive.org/web/20101125122354/http://www2.parl.gc.ca/content/lop/researchpublications/bp47-e.htm . November 25, 2010 . May 23, 2011 . Library of Parliament.
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191. Web site: About Elections and Ridings . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20161224103929/http://www.lop.parl.gc.ca/parlinfo/Compilations/ElectionsAndRidings.aspx . December 24, 2016 . September 3, 2016 . Library of Parliament.
192. Web site: O'Neal . Brian . Bédard . Michel . Spano . Sebastian . April 11, 2011 . Government and Canada's 41st Parliament: Questions and Answers . https://web.archive.org/web/20110522071714/http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublications/2011-37-e.htm . May 22, 2011 . Library of Parliament.
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194. Web site: 2010 . Difference between Canadian Provinces and Territories . https://web.archive.org/web/20151201135354/http://pco-bcp.gc.ca/aia/index.asp?lang=eng&page=provterr&doc=difference-eng.htm . December 1, 2015 . November 23, 2015 . Intergovernmental Affairs Canada.
195. Web site: 2008 . Differences from Provincial Governments . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20140203044824/http://www.assembly.gov.nt.ca/visitors/what-consensus/differences-provincial-governments . February 3, 2014 . January 30, 2014 . Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories.
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197. Book: Olive, Andrea . The Canadian Environment in Political Context . 2015 . University of Toronto Press . 978-1-4426-0871-9 . 41–42.
198. Book: Bhagwan . Vishnoo . World Constitutions . Vidya . Bhushan . Sterling Publishers . 2004 . 978-81-207-1937-8 . 549–550.
199. Book: Bakan . Joel . Canadian Constitutional Law . Elliot . Robin M . Emond Montgomery Publications . 2003 . 978-1-55239-085-6 . 3–8, 683–687, 699.
200. Web site: December 18, 2017 . Current and Former Chief Justices . live . https://archive.today/20180116062534/http://www.scc-csc.ca/judges-juges/cfcju-jucp-eng.aspx . January 16, 2018 . Supreme Court of Canada.
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203. Book: Hermida, Julian . Criminal Law in Canada . May 9, 2018 . Kluwer Law International B.V. . 978-90-411-9627-9 . 10–.
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208. Aboriginal roundtable on Kelowna Accord: Aboriginal policy negotiations 2004–2006 . Patterson . Lisa Lynne . Parliamentary Information and Research Service, Library of Parliament . 3 . October 23, 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20141126203243/http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection-R/LoPBdP/PRB-e/PRB0604-e.pdf . 1 . 2004 . live . November 26, 2014.
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211. Book: Doern . G. Bruce . Canadian Public Budgeting in the Age of Crises: Shifting Budgetary Domains and Temporal Budgeting . Maslove . Allan M. . Prince . Michael J. . McGill-Queen's University Press . 2013 . 978-0-7735-8853-0 . 1.
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214. Book: Oliver . Peter . The Oxford Handbook of the Canadian Constitution . Macklem . Patrick . Des Rosiers . Nathalie . Oxford University Press . 2017 . 978-0-19-066482-4 . 498–499.
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216. Book: Nicholson, Norman L. . The boundaries of the Canadian Confederation . McGill-Queen's University Press . 1979 . 978-0-7705-1742-7 . 174–175.
217. Book: Chapnick, Adam . The Middle Power Project: Canada and the Founding of the United Nations . UBC Press . 2011 . 978-0-7748-4049-1 . 2–5.
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219. Book: Sens . Allen . Global Politics . Stoett . Peter . Nelson Education . 2013 . 978-0-17-648249-7 . 5th . 6.
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226. Book: Carment . D. . Sands . C. . Canada–US Relations: Sovereignty or Shared Institutions? . Springer International Publishing . Canada and International Affairs . 2019 . 978-3-030-05036-8 . 3–10.
227. Haglung . David G . Autumn 2003 . North American Cooperation in an Era of Homeland Security . . 47 . 4 . 675–691 . 10.1016/S0030-4387(03)00072-3.
228. Morrison . Katherine L. . The Only Canadians: Canada's French and the British Connection . International Journal of Canadian Studies . Consortium Erudit . 37 . 2008 . 10.7202/040800ar . 177 . fr . free.
229. Book: James, Patrick . Handbook of Canadian Foreign Policy . Lexington Books . 2006 . 978-0-7391-1493-3 . Michaud . Nelson . 213–214, 349–362 . O'Reilly . Marc J.
230. Web site: 2013 . International Organizations and Forums . https://web.archive.org/web/20140227153935/http://www.international.gc.ca/cip-pic/organisations.aspx?lang=eng . February 27, 2014 . March 3, 2014 . Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development Canada.
231. Book: Wilson, G.A.A. . NORAD and the Soviet Nuclear Threat: Canada's Secret Electronic Air War . Dundurn Press . 2012 . 978-1-4597-0412-1 . 10.
232. Book: McKenna, Peter . Canada Looks South: In Search of an Americas Policy . University of Toronto Press . 2012 . 978-1-4426-1108-5 . 91.
233. Book: Canada Intelligence, Security Activities and Operations Handbook Volume 1 Intelligence Service Organizations, Regulations, Activities . 2015 . International Business Publications . 978-0-7397-1615-1 . 27.
234. Web site: Heritage . Canadian . Human rights treaties . Canada.ca . October 23, 2017 . March 15, 2024. March 15, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240315141714/https://www.canada.ca/en/canadian-heritage/services/canada-united-nations-system/treaties.html . live.
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237. Web site: Canadian Armed Forces 101 . March 11, 2021 . National Defence . October 30, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221030051937/https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/corporate/reports-publications/transition-materials/defence-101/2020/03/defence-101/caf-101.html . live.
238. Web site: April 2023 . Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2022 . 29 April 2023 . Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. April 23, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230423231601/https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2023-04/2304_fs_milex_2022.pdf . live.
239. Book: Sorenson . David S. . The Politics of Peacekeeping in the Post-cold War Era . Wood . Pia Christina . Psychology Press . 2005 . 978-0-7146-8488-8 . 158.
240. Book: Sobel . Richard . International Public Opinion and the Bosnia Crisis . Shiraev . Eric . Shapiro . Robert . Lexington Books . 2002 . 978-0-7391-0480-4 . 21.
241. Book: Gutiérrez-Haces, Maria Teresa . Identity and Otherness in Canadian Foreign Policy . Collection internationale d'Études canadiennes | International Canadian Studies Series . Nov 6, 2018 . 231–250 . University of Ottawa Press . 978-0-7766-2722-9 . March 4, 2024 . March 4, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240304065237/https://books.openedition.org/uop/1488?lang=en . live.
242. Carroll . Michael K . Peacekeeping: Canada's past, but not its present and future? . International Journal . [Sage Publications, Ltd., Canadian International Council] . 71 . 1 . 2016 . 44631172 . 167–176 . 10.1177/0020702015619857 . February 28, 2024 . February 28, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240228173148/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44631172 . live.
243. Web site: Canada's Current Role in World . Environics Institute for Survey Research . 2024-03-04 . 2024-03-04 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240304065232/https://www.environicsinstitute.org/docs/default-source/project-documents/canada-s-world-survey/canada%27s-current-role-in-world.pdf?sfvrsn=d5590018_4 . live.
244. Book: Mingst . K. . Karns . M.P. . The United Nations In The Post-cold War Era, Second Edition . Taylor & Francis . 2019 . 978-1-000-30674-3 . 63.
245. Massie . Justin . Why Canada Goes to War: Explaining Combat Participation in US-led Coalitions . Canadian Journal of Political Science . Cambridge University Press (CUP) . 52 . 3 . 2019-04-30 . 10.1017/s0008423919000040 . 575–594.
246. Book: Lauri . Johnson . Reva . Joshee . Multicultural education policies in Canada and the United States . 2007 . UBC Press . 978-0-7748-1325-9 . 23.
247. Book: McQuaig, Linda . Holding the Bully's Coat: Canada and the U.S. Empire . 2010 . Random House Digital . 978-0-385-67297-9 . 50.
248. Book: James . P. . Michaud . N. . O'Reilly . M. . Handbook of Canadian Foreign Policy . Lexington Books . 2006 . 978-0-7391-5580-6 . 177.
249. Book: Hall . Peter A. . Soskice . David . 2001 . Varieties of Capitalism: The Institutional Foundations of Comparative Advantage . . 570 . 9780191647703.
250. Encyclopedia: Capitalism in Canada . Peter . Diekmeyer . . June 11, 2020 . October 16, 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211016165252/https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/capitalism-in-canada#:~:text=Canada%20has%20a%20%E2%80%9Cmixed%E2%80%9D%20economy . live.
251. Web site: April 2, 2019 . World Economic Outlook Database . . September 22, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220922140957/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/April/weo-report?c=156,&s=NGDP_RPCH,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPRPPPPC,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2015&ey=2026&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 . live.
252. Web site: Evolution of the world's 25 top trading nations – Share of global exports of goods (%), 1978–2020 . . July 15, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220715130020/https://unctad.org/topic/trade-analysis/chart-10-may-2021 . live.
253. 2021 . U.S.-Canada Trade Facts . live . Canada's State of Trade . 20 . Global Affairs Canada . https://web.archive.org/web/20220417130737/https://ustr.gov/countries-regions/americas/canada . April 17, 2022. PDF version. .
254. Web site: Monthly Reports . World Federation of Exchanges . February 18, 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200218202537/https://www.world-exchanges.org/our-work/statistics . live.
255. Book: Watts, George S. . Bank of Canada/La Banque du Canada: Origines et premieres annees/Origins and Early History . McGill-Queen's University Press . 1993 . 978-0-88629-182-2 . j.ctt9qf36m .
256. Web site: 2014 . About . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20150115144515/http://statcan.gc.ca/about-apercu/mandate-mandat-eng.htm . January 15, 2015 . March 8, 2017 . Statistics Canada.
257. Book: Kobrak . Christopher . From Wall Street to Bay Street: The Origins and Evolution of American and Canadian Finance . Martin . Joe . University of Toronto Press . 2018 . 978-1-4426-1625-7 . 220.
258. Web site: Corruption Perceptions Index (latest) . January 31, 2023 . . July 24, 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130724013412/http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2012/results/ . live.
259. Book: Rotberg . Robert I. . Canada's Corruption at Home and Abroad . Carment . David . Taylor & Francis . 2018 . 978-1-351-57924-7 . 12.
260. Web site: The Global Competitiveness Report 2019 . October 21, 2022 . October 9, 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20191009004538/http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TheGlobalCompetitivenessReport2019.pdf . live.
261. Book: Global Innovation Index 2023, 15th Edition . October 17, 2023 . WIPO . 10.34667/tind.46596 . October 22, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231022042128/https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2023/index.html . live . Dutta . Soumitra . Lanvin . Bruno . Wunsch-Vincent . Sacha . León . Lorena Rivera . World Intellectual Property Organization . April 29, 2024 . 978-92-805-3432-0.
262. Web site: 2020 . Index of Economic Freedom . May 8, 2021 . . April 20, 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210420111447/https://www.heritage.org/index/country/canada . live.
263. Web site: Global Wealth Report . . October 2018 . Anthony . Shorrocks . Jim . Davies . Rodrigo . Lluberas . July 18, 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170718173830/https://www.credit-suisse.com/corporate/en/research/research-institute/global-wealth-report.html . live.
264. News: Canada . OECD Better Life Index . 2021 . March 5, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220305123737/https://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/canada/#:~:text=In%20Canada%2C%20the%20average%20household%20net%20adjusted%20disposable%20income%20per,average%20of%20USD%2030%20490. . live.
265. Web site: Prices - Housing prices . OECD . August 14, 2022 . August 11, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220811142758/https://data.oecd.org/price/housing-prices.htm . live.
266. View of 2020 Tax Competitiveness Report: Canada's Investment Challenge . 2021 . 10.11575/sppp.v14i1.72311 . Mintz . Jack . Bazel . Philip . The School of Public Policy Publications . 14 . 1.
267. Web site: 'Worst in the world': Here are all the rankings in which Canada is now last . National Post . August 11, 2022 . November 30, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231130234013/https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/worst-in-the-world-here-are-all-the-rankings-in-which-canada-is-now-last . live.
268. Book: Harris . R. Cole . Historical Atlas of Canada: Addressing the Twentieth Century, 1891–1961 . Matthews . Geoffrey J. . University of Toronto Press . 1987 . 978-0-8020-3448-9 . 2 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180320150918/https://books.google.com/books?id=pD7vTXLqkugC&pg=PA2 . March 20, 2018 . live.
269. Web site: January 8, 2009 . Employment by Industry . https://web.archive.org/web/20110524063742/http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/econ40-eng.htm . May 24, 2011 . Statistics Canada.
270. Book: Sueyoshi . Toshiyuki . Environmental Assessment on Energy and Sustainability by Data Envelopment Analysis . Goto . Mika . Wiley . 2018 . 978-1-118-97933-4 . 496.
271. Web site: Vodden . K . Cunsolo . A. . 2021 . Rural and Remote Communities; Chapter 3 . Canada in a Changing Climate: National Issues Report . F.J. . Warren . N. . Lulham . Government of Canada. December 9, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231209174936/https://natural-resources.canada.ca/sites/nrcan/files/pdf/National_Issues_Report_Final_EN.pdf . live.
272. Book: Mosler . David . The American Challenge: The World Resists US Liberalism . Catley . Bob . . 2013 . 978-1-4094-9852-0 . 38.
273. Book: The Oxford Companion to Politics of the World . Oxford University Press . 2001 . 978-0-19-511739-4 . Krieger . Joel . 2nd . 569.
274. Web site: Expand globally with Canada's free trade agreements . Trade Commissioner . December 3, 2020 . March 6, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230306015044/https://www.tradecommissioner.gc.ca/fta-ale-canada.aspx?lang=eng . live.
275. Book: Brown, Charles E . World Energy Resources . Springer . 2002 . 978-3-540-42634-9 . 323, 378–389.
276. Web site: CER – Market Snapshot: 25 Years of Atlantic Canada Offshore Oil & Natural Gas Production . Canada Energy Regulator . January 29, 2021 . November 28, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221128010325/https://www.cer-rec.gc.ca/en/data-analysis/energy-markets/market-snapshots/2017/market-snapshot-25-years-atlantic-canada-offshore-oil-natural-gas-production.html . live.
277. Web site: Monga . Vipal . One of the World's Dirtiest Oil Patches Is Pumping More Than Ever . Wall Street Journal . January 13, 2022 . June 1, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230601095803/https://www.wsj.com/articles/oil-sands-canada-dirty-carbon-environment-11642085980 . live.
278. Book: Lopez-Vallejo, Marcela . Reconfiguring Global Climate Governance in North America: A Transregional Approach . Routledge . 2016 . 978-1-317-07042-9 . 82.
279. Web site: 2017 . Trade Ranking Report: Agriculture . FCC . October 3, 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20191003070556/https://www.fcc-fac.ca/fcc/knowledge/ag-economist/trade-ranking-report-agriculture-e.pdf . live.
280. Web site: Canada (CAN) Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners . The Observatory of Economic Complexity . May 20, 2023 . January 12, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220112011418/https://oec.world/en/profile/country/can . live.
281. Web site: The Atlas of Economic Complexity by @HarvardGrwthLab . The Atlas of Economic Complexity . May 20, 2023 . May 20, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230520150209/https://atlas.cid.harvard.edu/countries/39 . live.
282. Web site: January 22, 2015 . Mapping Canada's Top Manufacturing Industries . Industry Insider.
283. Web site: Canada's oceans and the economic contribution of marine sectors . Statistics Canada . July 19, 2021 . September 15, 2023.
284. Gross domestic expenditures on research and development, 2020 (final), 2021 (preliminary) and 2022 (intentions) . Statistics Canada . January 27, 2023.
285. Web site: Canadian Nobel Prize in Science Laureates . December 19, 2020 . Science.ca.
286. Web site: 2022 tables: Countries/territories 2022 tables Countries/territories . Nature Index. June 10, 2023.
287. Web site: Top Technology Companies in Canada . World Top 25,000 Companies by market cap as on Dec 2022 . January 1, 2020 .
288. News: Access to the Internet in Canada, 2020 . Statistics Canada . May 31, 2021.
289. Web site: Lew Urry . Science.ca.
290. Book: Fruton, Joseph . Proteins, Enzymes, Genes: The Interplay of Chemistry and Biology . Yale University Press . 95–96 . 1999 . 978-0-300-15359-0 .
291. Web site: Leone N. Farrell . Science.ca.
292. Web site: Leon Katz . Science.ca.
293. News: Strauss . Evelyn . 2005 . 2005 Albert Lasker Basic Medical Research Award . . live . November 23, 2008 . https://web.archive.org/web/20100716192333/http://www.laskerfoundation.org/awards/2005_b_description.htm . July 16, 2010.
294. Web site: 2015 . Top ten Canadian scientific achievements . GCS Research Society.
295. Web site: James Hillier . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20130808192011/http://web.mit.edu/Invent/iow/hillier.html . August 8, 2013 . November 20, 2008 . Inventor of the Week . Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
296. News: Pearce . Jeremy . January 22, 2007 . James Hillier, 91, Dies; Co-Developed Electron Microscope . The New York Times . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20140325113042/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/22/science/22hillier.html . March 25, 2014.
297. Bolton . C. T. . 1972 . Identification of Cygnus X-1 with HDE 226868 . . 235 . 2 . 271–273 . 10.1038/235271b0 . 1972Natur.235..271B .
298. Strathdee . C.A. . H. . Gavish . W. . Shannon . Buchwald, M. . 1992 . Cloning of cDNAs for Fanconi's anemia by functional complementation . . 356 . 6372 . 763–767 . 1992Natur.356..763S . 10.1038/356763a0 . 1574115.
299. Web site: 2016 . Canadian Space Milestones . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20091008060654/http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/about/milestones.asp . October 8, 2009 . Canadian Space Agency.
300. Book: Angelo, Joseph A. . Encyclopedia of Space and Astronomy . Infobase Publishing . 2009 . 978-1-4381-1018-9 . 22.
301. Book: Bidaud . Philippe . Field Robotics: Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Climbing and Walking Robots and the Support Technologies for Mobile Machines . Dupuis . Erick . . 2012 . 978-981-4374-27-9 . 35–37 . An overview of Canadian space robotics activities . https://books.google.com/books?id=TSlqDQAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA35.
302. Web site: March 11, 2010 . The Canadian Aerospace Industry praises the federal government for recognizing Space as a strategic capability for Canada . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20110609224813/http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/March2010/11/c9200.html . June 9, 2011 . Newswire.
303. Book: Godefroy, Andrew B. . The Canadian Space Program: From Black Brant to the International Space Station . Springer . 2017 . 978-3-319-40105-8 . 41.
304. Web site: Zimonjic . Peter . February 9, 2022 . Despite pandemic, Canada's population grows at fastest rate in G7: census . CBC News.
305. Web site: Canada's population reaches 40million . Statistics Canada . June 16, 2023 . September 7, 2023.
306. Book: Edmonston . Barry . The Changing Canadian Population . Fong . Eric . McGill-Queen's University Press . 2011 . 978-0-7735-3793-4 . 181.
307. Book: Zimmerman, Karla . Canada . . 2008 . 978-1-74104-571-0 . 10th . 51.
308. Book: Hollifield . James . Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective . Martin . Philip . Orrenius . Pia . . 2014 . 978-0-8047-8627-0 . 3rd . 11.
309. Book: Beaujot . Roderic P. . The Changing Face of Canada: Essential Readings in Population . Kerr . Donald W. . Canadian Scholars' Press . 2007 . 978-1-55130-322-2 . 178.
310. News: Sangani . Priyanka . February 15, 2022 . Canada to take in 1.3million immigrants in 2022–24 . . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20220215120744/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/canada-to-take-in-1-3-million-immigrants-in-2022-24/articleshow/89593324.cms?from=mdr . February 15, 2022.
311. Web site: Kim . Soo-Jung . UNHCR calls for concerted action as forced displacement hits new record in 2022 . UNHCR Canada . 2023-06-14 . 2024-07-04.
312. Book: Grubel, Herbert G. . The Effects of Mass Immigration on Canadian Living Standards and Society . Fraser Institute . 2009 . 978-0-88975-246-7 . 5.
313. Book: Custred, Glynn . Immigration policy and the terrorist threat in Canada and the United States . Fraser Institute . 2008 . 978-0-88975-235-1 . Moens . Alexander . 96 . Security Threats on America's Borders . https://books.google.com/books?id=HmiqBgnkAXYC&pg=PA96.
314. Web site: World Bank Open Data . World Bank Open Data . la . August 15, 2023.
315. Book: McMurry . Peter H. . Particulate Matter Science for Policy Makers: A NARSTO Assessment . Shepherd . Marjorie F. . Vickery . James S. . Cambridge University Press . 2004 . 978-0-521-84287-7 . 391.
316. Book: OECD Environmental Performance Reviews OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Canada 2004 . OECD . 2014 . 978-92-64-10778-6 . 142–.
317. Web site: Statistics Canada . February 9, 2022 . Profile table, Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population – Canada [Country] ].
318. Web site: October 26, 2022 . The Canadian census: A rich portrait of the country's religious and ethnocultural diversity . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20231227102217/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/221026/dq221026b-eng.htm . 27 December 2023 . Statistics Canada.
319. Web site: Statistics Canada . October 26, 2022 . Ethnic or cultural origin by gender and age: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts .
320. Web site: Statistics Canada . October 26, 2022 . Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Profile table Canada [Country] Total – Ethnic or cultural origin for the population in private households – 25% sample data ].
321. Web site: The Daily — Indigenous population continues to grow and is much younger than the non-Indigenous population, although the pace of growth has slowed . Statistics Canada . September 21, 2022 .
322. Encyclopedia: Visible Minority . The Canadian Encyclopedia . October 27, 2022 .
323. Web site: The Daily — The Canadian census: A rich portrait of the country's religious and ethnocultural diversity . Statistics Canada . October 26, 2022 .
324. Web site: February 8, 2017 . Census Profile, 2016 Census . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20171015095154/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=Canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1 . October 15, 2017 . Statistics Canada.
325. Web site: Pendakur . Krishna . Visible Minorities and Aboriginal Peoples in Vancouver's Labour Market . https://web.archive.org/web/20110516021011/http://www.rhdcc-hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/labour/equality/racism/racism_free_init/pendakur.shtml . May 16, 2011 . June 30, 2014 . Simon Fraser University.
326. Web site: The Daily — Immigrants make up the largest share of the population in over 150 years and continue to shape who we are as Canadians . Statistics Canada . October 26, 2022 .
327. Web site: 2021 Annual Report to Parliament on Immigration . March 15, 2022 . Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada.
328. Web site: June 16, 2009 . Official Languages and You . . September 10, 2011 . October 27, 2009 . https://web.archive.org/web/20091027121057/http://www.ocol-clo.gc.ca/html/faq1_e.php . dead.
329. Bourhis . Richard Y . Montaruli . Elisa . Amiot . Catherine E . May 2007 . Language planning and French-English bilingual communication: Montreal field studies from 1977 to 1997 . . 185 . 187–224 . 10.1515/IJSL.2007.031.
330. Book: Webber, Jeremy . The Constitution of Canada: A Contextual Analysis . . 2015 . 978-1-78225-631-1 . 214.
331. Book: Auer, Peter . Language and Space: An International Handbook of Linguistic Variation. Theories and methods . . 2010 . 978-3-11-018002-2 . 387.
332. Book: Hayday, Matthew . Bilingual Today, United Tomorrow: Official Languages in Education and Canadian Federalism . McGill-Queen's University Press . 2005 . 978-0-7735-2960-1 . 49.
333. Book: Heller, Monica . Crosswords: Language, Education and Ethnicity in French Ontario . . 2003 . 978-3-11-017687-2 . 72, 74.
334. Web site: Aboriginal languages . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20110429005405/https://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-589-x/4067801-eng.htm . April 29, 2011 . October 5, 2009 . Statistics Canada.
335. Book: Fettes . Mark . Aboriginal education: fulfilling the promise . Norton . Ruth . UBC Press . 2001 . 978-0-7748-0783-8 . Castellano . Marlene Brant . 39 . Voices of Winter: Aboriginal Languages and Public Policy in Canada . Davis . Lynne . Lahache . Louise.
336. Book: Russell, Peter H . Unfinished constitutional business?: rethinking indigenous self-determination . . 2005 . 978-0-85575-466-2 . Hocking . Barbara . 180 . Indigenous Self-Determination: Is Canada as Good as it Gets? . https://books.google.com/books?id=mxreMX_cf4EC&pg=PA180.
337. Web site: 2015 . Sign languages . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20170730163508/http://cad.ca/issues-positions/language/ . July 30, 2017 . Canadian Association of the Deaf – Association des Sourds du Canada.
338. Book: Jepsen . Julie Bakken . Sign Languages of the World: A Comparative Handbook . De Clerck . Goedele . Lutalo-Kiingi . Sam . De Gruyter . 2015 . 978-1-61451-817-4 . 702.
339. Book: Bailey . Carole Sue . The Canadian Dictionary of ASL Canadian Cultural Society of the Dead . Dolby . Kathy . Campbell . Hilda Marian . University of Alberta . 2002 . 978-0-88864-300-1 . 11.
340. Book: Moon, Richard . Law and Religious Pluralism in Canada . UBC Press . 2008 . 978-0-7748-1497-3 . 1–4.
341. Book: Scott, Jamie S. . The Religions of Canadians . University of Toronto Press . 2012 . 978-1-4426-0516-9 . 345.
342. Web site: Cornelissen . Louis . Religiosity in Canada and its evolution from 1985 to 2019 . Statistics Canada . October 28, 2021 .
343. Book: Roberts, Lance W. . Recent Social Trends in Canada, 1960–2000 . 2005 . McGill-Queen's Press . 978-0-7735-2955-7 . 359.
344. Book: Paul . Bramadat . David . Seljak . Religion and Ethnicity in Canada . 2009 . University of Toronto Press . 978-1-4426-1018-7 . 3.
345. Book: Bowen, Kurt . Christians in a Secular World: The Canadian Experience . 2004 . McGill-Queen's Press . 978-0-7735-7194-5 . 174.
346. Book: Derek . Gregory . Ron . Johnston . Geraldine . Pratt . Michael . Watts . Sarah . Whatmore . The Dictionary of Human Geography . 2009 . John Wiley & Sons . 978-1-4443-1056-6 . 672.
347. Book: Punnett, Betty Jane . International Perspectives on Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management . 2015 . Routledge . 978-1-317-46745-8 . 116.
348. Book: Haskell (Wilfrid Laurier University), David M. . Through a Lens Darkly: How the News Media Perceive and Portray Evangelicals . 2009 . Clements Publishing Group . 978-1-894667-92-0 . 50.
349. Book: Kevin . Boyle . Juliet . Sheen . Freedom of Religion and Belief: A World Report . 2013 . University of Essex – Routledge . 978-1-134-72229-7 . 219.
350. Web site: Religions in Canada—Census 2011 . May 8, 2013 . Statistics Canada.
351. Web site: Statistics Canada . October 26, 2022 . Religion by visible minority and generation status: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts .
352. Web site: Sikh Heritage Month Act . laws.justice.gc.ca . January 14, 2020.
353. Book: Aase . Karina . Researching Quality in Care Transitions: International Perspectives . Waring . Justin . Schibevaag . Lene . Springer . 2017 . 978-3-319-62346-7 . 128–129.
354. News: December 1, 2006 . Public vs. private health care . CBC News.
355. Book: Bégin, Monique . Medicare: Canada's Right to Health . Optimum Pub. International . 1988 . 978-0-88890-219-1 . Intro.
356. Book: Leatt . Peggy . Government Relations in the Health Care Industry . Mapa . Joseph . Greenwood Publishing Group . 2003 . 978-1-56720-513-8 . 81.
357. The Health of Canadians – The Federal Role . Parliament of Canada . January 5, 2017 . http://www.parl.gc.ca/content/sen/committee/372/soci/rep/repoct02vol6part7-e.htm . 17.2 Universality . January 17, 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170117231017/http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/SEN/Committee/372/soci/rep/repoct02vol6part7-e.htm.
358. Book: Kroll, David J. . Capitalism Revisited: How to Apply Capitalism in Your Life . Dorrance Publishing . 2012 . 978-1-4349-1768-3 . 126.
359. Book: Chen, Tsai-Jyh . An International Comparison of Financial Consumer Protection . Springer . 2018 . 978-981-10-8441-6 . 93.
360. Web site: Weiss . Thomas G. . Thomas G. Weiss . 2017 . Canadian Male and Female Life Expectancy Rates by Province and Territory . Disabled World.
361. Web site: 2016 . Health Status of Canadians – How healthy are we? – Perceived health . Report of the Chief Public Health Officer . Public Health Agency of Canada.
362. Book: Gregory . David . Fundamentals: Perspectives on the Art and Science of Canadian Nursing . Stephens . Tracey . Raymond-Seniuk . Christy . Patrick . Linda . Wolters Kluwer Health . 2019 . 978-1-4963-9850-5 . 75.
363. Web site: 2017 . How Healthy are Canadians? . Public Health Agency of Canada.
364. Web site: 2019 . Health at a Glance 2019 . OECD.
365. Web site: 2022 . National Health Expenditure Trends . August 23, 2022 . Canadian Institute for Health Information.
366. Web site: Health resources - Health spending . theOECD . August 31, 2023.
367. Web site: 2017 . Health at a Glance 2017 . OECD.
368. Web site: 2017 . Health at a Glance: OECD Indicators by country . OECD.
369. Mirror, Mirror 2021: Reflecting Poorly . August 4, 2021 . commonwealthfund.org . 10.26099/01dv-h208 . Schneider . Eric C. . Shah . Arnav . Doty . Michelle M. . Roosa . Tikkanen . Fields . Katharine . Williams . Reginald D. II.
370. Duong . Diana . Vogel . Lauren . Overworked health workers are 'past the point of exhaustion' . Canadian Medical Association Journal . 195 . 8 . February 26, 2023 . 9970629 . 10.1503/cmaj.1096042 . E309–E310 . 36849179.
371. Web site: Taking the pulse: A snapshot of Canadian health care, 2023 . . August 2, 2023 . February 15, 2024.
372. Web site: Scholey . Lucy . April 21, 2015 . 2015 federal budget 'disappointing' for post-secondary students: CFS . https://web.archive.org/web/20150603103455/http://metronews.ca/news/canada/1347155/2015-federal-budget-disappointing-for-post-secondary-students-cfs/ . June 3, 2015.
373. Book: Canada 1956 the Official Handbook of Present Conditions and Recent Progress . Canada Year Book Section Information Services Division Dominion Bureau of Statistics . 1959.
374. Book: Montesinos . Vicente . Innovations in Governmental Accounting . Manuel Vela . José . Springer Science & Business Media . 2013 . 978-1-4757-5504-6 . 305.
375. Book: Epstein, Irving . The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Children's Issues Worldwide . . 2008 . 978-0-313-33617-1 . 73.
376. Book: Shanahan . Theresa . The Handbook of Canadian Higher Education . Nilson . Michelle . Broshko . Li Jeen . McGill-Queen's University Press . 2016 . 978-1-55339-506-5 . 59.
377. Book: Blake . Raymond B. . Conflict and Compromise: Pre-Confederation Canada . Keshen . Jeffrey A. . Knowles . Norman J. . Messamore . Barbara J. . University of Toronto Press . 2017 . 978-1-4426-3555-5 . 249.
378. Web site: QS World University Rankings . QS Quacquarelli Symonds Limited . May 4, 2024.
379. Book: Richards, Larry Wayne . University of Toronto: An Architectural Tour (The Campus Guide) . Princeton Architectural Press . 2019 . 978-1-61689-824-3 . 2nd . 11.
380. Web site: The Daily — Canada leads the G7 for the most educated workforce, thanks to immigrants, young adults and a strong college sector, but is experiencing significant losses in apprenticeship certificate holders in key trades . Statistics Canada . November 30, 2022 . March 8, 2024.
381. Web site: Key facts about Canada's competitiveness for foreign direct investment . GAC . January 17, 2022 . March 9, 2024. Raw data OECD
382. Web site: Education . Level Of . Canada . Education GPS . March 8, 2024.
383. Web site: Canada Education spending, percent of GDP . TheGlobalEconomy.com . December 31, 1971 . March 9, 2024.
384. Web site: 2011 . Financial and human resources invested in Education . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20140308202848/http://www.oecd.org/education/skills-beyond-school/48630868.pdf . March 8, 2014 . July 4, 2014 . OECD.
385. Web site: Education at a Glance . OECD . September 12, 2023 . March 8, 2024.
386. Web site: Overview of Education in Canada . https://web.archive.org/web/20100214200211/http://www.educationau-incanada.ca/index.aspx?action=educationsystem-systemeeducation&lang=eng . February 14, 2010 . October 20, 2010 . Council of Ministers of Education, Canada.
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388. Web site: 2015 . PISA – Results in Focus . OECD . 5.
389. Web site: Canada – Student performance (PISA 2015) . December 18, 2020 . OECD.
390. Book: LaSelva, Samuel Victor . The Moral Foundations of Canadian Federalism: Paradoxes, Achievements, and Tragedies of Nationhood . McGill-Queen's University Press . 1996 . 978-0-7735-1422-5 . 86.
391. Book: Dyck, Rand . Canadian Politics . . 2011 . 978-0-17-650343-7 . 88.
392. Book: Newman, Stephen L. . Constitutional Politics in Canada and the United States . 2012 . . 978-0-7914-8584-2 . 203.
393. Conway . Shannon . From Britishness to Multiculturalism: Official Canadian Identity in the 1960s . Études canadiennes / Canadian Studies . 84 . June 2018 . 10.4000/eccs.1118 . 9–30 . free.
394. Book: McQuaig, Linda . June 4, 2010 . Holding the Bully's Coat: Canada and the U.S. Empire . Doubleday Canada . 14 . 978-0-385-67297-9 .
395. Book: Guo . Shibao . Revisiting Multiculturalism in Canada: Theories, Policies and Debates . Wong . Lloyd . University of Calgary . 2015 . 978-94-6300-208-0 . 317.
396. Book: Sikka, Sonia . Multiculturalism and Religious Identity: Canada and India . McGill-Queen's University Press . 2014 . 978-0-7735-9220-9 . 237.
397. Book: Johnson . Azeezat . The Fire Now: Anti-Racist Scholarship in Times of Explicit Racial Violence . Joseph-Salisbury . Remi . Kamunge . Beth . 2018 . Zed Books . 978-1-78699-382-3 . 148.
398. Book: Caplow, Theodore . Leviathan Transformed: Seven National States in the New Century . McGill-Queen's University Press . 2001 . 978-0-7735-2304-3 . 146.
399. Book: Franklin . Daniel P . Political Culture and Constitutionalism: A Comparative Approach . Baun . Michael J . Sharpe . 1995 . 978-1-56324-416-2 . 61.
400. Web site: Meister . Daniel R. . Racial Mosaic, The . McGill-Queen's University Press . 234.
401. Garcea . Joseph . Kirova . Anna . Wong . Lloyd . January 2009 . Multiculturalism Discourses in Canada . Canadian Ethnic Studies . 40 . 1 . 1–10 . 10.1353/ces.0.0069.
402. Web site: Cultural Diversity in Canada: The Social Construction of Racial Difference . Ministère de la Justice . February 24, 2003 . December 17, 2023.
403. Ambrosea . Emma . Muddea . Cas . 2015 . Canadian Multiculturalism and the Absence of the Far Right – Nationalism and Ethnic Politics . Nationalism and Ethnic Politics . 21 . 2 . 213–236 . 10.1080/13537113.2015.1032033.
404. Book: Hollifield . James . Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective . Martin . Philip L. . Orrenius . Pia . Stanford University Press . 2014 . 978-0-8047-8735-2 . 3rd . 103.
405. Book: Bricker . Darrell . What Canadians Think About Almost Everything . Wright . John . Doubleday Canada . 2005 . 978-0-385-65985-7 . 8–28.
406. Web site: October 2016 . Exploring Canadian values . https://web.archive.org/web/20170405113447/http://nanosresearch.com/sites/default/files/POLNAT-S15-T705.pdf . April 5, 2017 . February 1, 2017 . Nanos Research.
407. Web site: 2011 . A literature review of Public Opinion Research on Canadian attitudes towards multiculturalism and immigration, 2006–2009 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20151222133226/http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/research/por-multi-imm/sec02-1.asp . December 22, 2015 . December 18, 2015 . Government of Canada.
408. Web site: 2010 . Focus Canada (Final Report) . https://web.archive.org/web/20160204231952/http://www.queensu.ca/cora/_files/fc2010report.pdf . February 4, 2016 . December 12, 2015 . Queen's University . 4 (PDF page 8) . The Environics Institute.
409. Book: Magocsi, Paul R . Aboriginal Peoples of Canada: a short introduction . University of Toronto Press . 2002 . 978-0-8020-3630-8 . 3–6.
410. Book: Tettey . Wisdom . The African Diaspora in Canada: Negotiating Identity & Belonging . Puplampu . Korbla P. . University of Calgary . 2005 . 978-1-55238-175-5 . 100.
411. Web site: Canada in the Making: Pioneers and Immigrants . The History Channel . August 25, 2005.
412. Book: Cormier, Jeffrey . 2004 . The Canadianization Movement: Emergence, Survival, and Success . 10.3138/9781442680616 . University of Toronto Press . 9781442680616.
413. News: Maple Leaf Tartan becomes official symbol . . March 9, 2011.
414. Book: Gough, Barry M. . Historical Dictionary of Canada . 2010 . Scarecrow Press . 978-0-8108-7504-3 . 71.
415. Book: Nischik, Reingard M. . History of Literature in Canada: English-Canadian and French-Canadian . Camden House . 2008 . 978-1-57113-359-5 . 113–114.
416. Book: Symbols of Canada . Canadian Government Publishing . 2002 . 978-0-660-18615-3.
417. Book: Sociology in Action . Nelson Education-McGraw-Hill Education . 978-0-17-672841-0 . 2nd Canadian . 92.
418. Book: Hutchins . Donna . The Maple Leaf Forever: A Celebration of Canadian Symbols . Hutchins . Nigel . The Boston Mills Press . 2006 . 978-1-55046-474-0 . iix.
419. Book: Berman, Allen G . Warman's Coins And Paper Money: Identification and Price Guide . Krause Publications . 2008 . 978-1-4402-1915-3 . 137.
420. Book: Keith, W. J. . Canadian Literature in English . . 2006 . 978-0-88984-283-0 . 19.
421. Book: R.G. Moyles . September 28, 1994 . Improved by Cultivation: English-Canadian Prose to 1914 . Broadview Press . 15 . 978-1-55111-049-3 .
422. Book: New, William H. . Encyclopedia of Literature in Canada . University of Toronto Press . 2002 . 978-0-8020-0761-2 . 259–261.
423. Book: December 28, 2021 . Crabtracks: Progress and Process in Teaching the New Literatures in English. Essays in Honour of Dieter Riemenschneider . BRILL . 388–391 . 978-90-04-48650-8 .
424. Book: Dominic, K. V. . Studies in Contemporary Canadian Literature . Pinnacle Technology . 2010 . 978-1-61820-640-4 . 8–9.
425. Book: New, William H. . Encyclopedia of Literature in Canada . University of Toronto Press . 2012 . 978-0-8020-0761-2 . 55.
426. Book: Nischik, Reingard M. . Margaret Atwood: Works and Impact . Camden House . 2000 . 978-1-57113-139-3 . 46.
427. Book: Broadview Anthology of British Literature . Broadview Press . 2006 . Concise . B . 1459 . GGKEY:1TFFGS4YFLT.
428. Book: Giddings . Robert . From Page To Screen: Adaptations of the Classic Novel . Sheen . Erica . Manchester University Press . 2000 . 978-0-7190-5231-6 . 197.
429. Book: L. M. . Montgomery . August . Nemo . 2021 . Essential Novelists – L. M. Montgomery: Anne of Green Gables . Tacet Books . 978-3-9855100-5-4 .
430. Fry . H . 2017 . Disruption: Change and churning in Canada's media landscape . Standing Committee on Canadian Heritage . February 21, 2022.
431. Web site: Freedom of expression and media freedom . GAC . February 17, 2020 .
432. Book: Bannerman, Sara . May 20, 2020 . Canadian Communication Policy and Law . Canadian Scholars . 199 . 978-1-77338-172-5 .
433. Book: Vipond, Mary . The Mass Media in Canada . James Lorimer Company . 2011 . 978-1-55277-658-2 . 4th . 57.
434. Book: Edwardson, Ryan . Canadian Content: Culture and the Quest for Nationhood . University of Toronto Press . 2008 . 978-0-8020-9519-0 . 59 . registration.
435. Book: David . Taras . Maria . Bakardjieva . Frits . Pannekoek . 2007 . How Canadians Communicate II: Media, Globalization, and Identity . University of Calgary Press . 87 . 978-1-55238-224-0 .
436. Book: David . Taras . Maria . Bakardjieva . Frits . Pannekoek . 2007 . How Canadians Communicate II: Media, Globalization, and Identity . University of Calgary Press . 86 . 978-1-55238-224-0 .
437. Book: Steven . Globerman . Institute for Research on Public Policy . Cultural Regulation in Canada . 1983 . 978-0-920380-81-9 . 18.
438. Book: Steven, Peter . 2011 . About Canada: Media . Fernwood . 111 . 978-1-55266-447-6.
439. Book: Bart . Beaty . Rebecca . Sullivan . 2006 . Canadian Television Today . University of Calgary Press . 37 . 978-1-55238-222-6 .
440. Book: Krikorian, Jacqueline . 2012 . International Trade Law and Domestic Policy: Canada, the United States, and the WTO . UBC Press . 188 . 978-0-7748-2306-7 .
441. Book: Mullen, Carol A. . 2020 . Canadian Indigenous Literature and Art: Decolonizing Education, Culture, and Society . Brill Sense . Introduction . 978-90-04-41426-6.
442. Cook . Ramsay . Landscape Painting and National Sentiment in Canada . Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques . 1 . 2 . 1974 . 41298655 . 263–283.
443. Book: Mark J. . Kasoff . Patrick . James . 2013 . Canadian Studies in the New Millennium . 2 . University of Toronto Press . 198–204 . 978-1-4426-6538-5 .
444. as, for instance, in the following example of a show funded by the Government of Canada at the Peel Art Gallery Museum + Archives, Brampton:Web site: Putting a spotlight on Canada's Artistic Heritage . January 14, 2020 . Government of Canada.
445. Book: Devin . Beauregard . Jonathan . Paquette . July 28, 2021 . Canadian Cultural Policy in Transition . Routledge . 978-1-00-041721-0 .
446. Book: McKay, Marylin J. . Picturing the Land: Narrating Territories in Canadian Landscape Art, 1500–1950 . McGill-Queen's University Press . 2011 . 978-0-7735-3817-7 . 229.
447. Book: Hill, Charles C . The Group of Seven – Art for a Nation . National Gallery of Canada . 1995 . 978-0-7710-6716-7 . 15–21, 195.
448. Book: Newlands, Anne . Emily Carr . Firefly Books . 1996 . 978-1-55209-046-6 . 8–9.
449. Book: Shane . Homan . January 13, 2022 . The Bloomsbury Handbook of Popular Music Policy . Bloomsbury Publishing USA . 179 . 978-1-5013-4534-0 .
450. Web site: The history of broadcasting in Canada . The Canadian Communications Foundation . October 28, 2009 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120309132436/http://www.broadcasting-history.ca/timeline/CCFTimeline.html . March 9, 2012.
451. Book: Shane . Homan . Martin . Cloonan . Jen . Cattermole . 2017 . Popular Music and Cultural Policy . Routledge . 978-1-317-65952-5 .
452. Web site: IFPI Global Music Report 2023 . 10 . April 19, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230325055720/https://www.ifpi.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Global_Music_Report_2023_State_of_the_Industry.pdf . March 25, 2023 . live.
453. Book: Hull . Geoffrey P. . The Music Business and Recording Industry: Delivering Music in the 21st Century . Hutchison . Thomas William . Strasser . Richard . . 2011 . 978-0-415-87560-8 . 304.
454. Book: Acheson . Archibald Lloyd Keith . Much Ado about Culture: North American Trade Disputes . Maule . Christopher John . University of Michigan Press . 2009 . 978-0-472-02241-0 . 181.
455. Book: Edwardson, Ryan . Canadian Content: Culture and the Quest for Nationhood . University of Toronto Press . 2008 . 978-0-8020-9759-0 . 127 . registration.
456. Book: Hoffmann, Frank . Encyclopedia of Recorded Sound . Routledge . 2004 . 978-1-135-94950-1 . 324.
457. Book: Jortner, Adam . The Gods of Prophetstown: The Battle of Tippecanoe and the Holy War for the American Frontier . Oxford University Press . 2011 . 978-0-19-976529-4 . 217.
458. Web site: Maple Cottage, Leslieville, Toronto . Institute for Canadian Music . https://web.archive.org/web/20090331095214/http://www.utoronto.ca/icm/0101b.html . March 31, 2009.
459. Web site: Kallmann . Helmut . Helmut Kallmann . Potvin . Gilles . February 7, 2018 . O Canada . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20131203021353/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/o-canada/ . December 3, 2013 . Encyclopedia of Music in Canada.
460. Web site: November 5, 2015 . National Sports of Canada Act . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20151124142348/http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/n-16.7/page-1.html . November 24, 2015 . Government of Canada.
461. Encyclopedia: Canadian Sports History . The Canadian Encyclopedia . September 30, 2016 . West . J. Thomas . Lindsay . Peter.
462. Web site: 2013 . Canadian sport participation – Most frequently played sports in Canada (2010) . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20170110193033/http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2013/pc-ch/CH24-1-2012-eng.pdf . January 10, 2017 . January 27, 2017 . Government of Canada . 34.
463. Book: Danilov, Victor J. . Hall of fame museums: a reference guide . 1997 . Greenwood Publishing Group . 978-0-313-30000-4 . 24.
464. Book: Butenko . Sergiy . Optimal Strategies in Sports Economics and Management . Gil-Lafuente . Jaime . Pardalos . Panos M. . Springer Science & Business Media . 2010 . 978-3-642-13205-6 . 42–44.
465. Book: Morrow . Don . Sport in Canada: A History . Wamsley . Kevin B. . Oxford University Press . 2016 . 978-0-19-902157-4 . xxi – intro.
466. Book: Mallon . Bill . Historical Dictionary of the Olympic Movement . Heijmans . Jeroen . Scarecrow Press . 2011 . 978-0-8108-7522-7 . 71.
467. Book: Howell, Paul Charles . Montreal Olympics: An Insider's View of Organizing a Self-financing Games . McGill-Queen's University Press . 2009 . 978-0-7735-7656-8 . 3.
468. Book: Horne . John . Understanding the Olympics . Whannel . Garry . Routledge . 2016 . 978-1-317-49519-2 . 157.
469. Book: United States Senate Subcommittee on Trade, Tourism and Economic Development . The Economic Impact of the 2010 Vancouver, Canada, Winter Olympics on Oregon and the Pacific Northwest: hearing before the Subcommittee on Trade, Tourism, and Economic Development of the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, first session, August 5, 2005 . January 2006 . US GPO . 978-0-16-076789-0.
470. Book: Fromm, Zuzana . Economic Issues of Vancouver-Whistler 2010 Olympics . Pearson Prentice Hall . 2006 . 978-0-13-197843-0.
471. Book: Temporary Importations Using the FIFA Women's World Cup Canada 2015 Remission Order . Canada Border Services Agency . 2015.
472. News: Peterson . David . July 10, 2014 . Why Toronto should get excited about the Pan Am Games . . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20200925011444/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/why-toronto-should-get-excited-about-the-pan-am-games/article19543736/ . September 25, 2020.
473. News: June 13, 2018 . World Cup 2026: Canada, US & Mexico joint bid wins right to host tournament . BBC Sport . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20210114150230/https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/44464913 . January 14, 2021.