Camel Explained

A camel (from Latin: camelus and Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: κάμηλος from Ancient Semitic: gāmāl[1] [2]) is an even-toed ungulate in the genus Camelus that bears distinctive fatty deposits known as "humps" on its back. Camels have long been domesticated and, as livestock, they provide food (camel milk and meat) and textiles (fiber and felt from camel hair). Camels are working animals especially suited to their desert habitat and are a vital means of transport for passengers and cargo. There are three surviving species of camel. The one-humped dromedary makes up 94% of the world's camel population, and the two-humped Bactrian camel makes up 6%. The wild Bactrian camel is a distinct species that is not ancestral to the domestic Bactrian camel, and is now critically endangered, with fewer than 1,000 individuals.

The word camel is also used informally in a wider sense, where the more correct term is "camelid", to include all seven species of the family Camelidae: the true camels (the above three species), along with the "New World" camelids: the llama, the alpaca, the guanaco, and the vicuña, which belong to the separate tribe Lamini.[3] Camelids originated in North America during the Eocene, with the ancestor of modern camels, Paracamelus, migrating across the Bering land bridge into Asia during the late Miocene, around 6 million years ago.

Taxonomy

Extant species

Three species are extant:[4] [5]

Biology

The average life expectancy of a camel is 40 to 50 years.[6] A full-grown adult dromedary camel stands 1.85m (06.07feet) at the shoulder and 2.15m (07.05feet) at the hump.[7] Bactrian camels can be a foot taller. Camels can run at up to 650NaN0 in short bursts and sustain speeds of up to 400NaN0.[8] Bactrian camels weigh 300to and dromedaries 300to. The widening toes on a camel's hoof provide supplemental grip for varying soil sediments.[9]

The male dromedary camel has an organ called a dulla in his throat, a large, inflatable sac that he extrudes from his mouth when in rut to assert dominance and attract females. It resembles a long, swollen, pink tongue hanging out of the side of the camel's mouth.[10] Camels mate by having both male and female sitting on the ground, with the male mounting from behind.[11] The male usually ejaculates three or four times within a single mating session. Camelids are the only ungulates to mate in a sitting position.[12]

Ecological and behavioral adaptations

Camels do not directly store water in their humps; they are reservoirs of fatty tissue. When this tissue is metabolized, it yields a greater mass of water than that of the fat processed. This fat metabolization, while releasing energy, causes water to evaporate from the lungs during respiration (as oxygen is required for the metabolic process): overall, there is a net decrease in water.[13] [14]

Camels have a series of physiological adaptations that allow them to withstand long periods of time without any external source of water.[15] The dromedary camel can drink as seldom as once every 10 days even under very hot conditions, and can lose up to 30% of its body mass due to dehydration.[16] Unlike other mammals, camels' red blood cells are oval rather than circular in shape. This facilitates the flow of red blood cells during dehydration[17] and makes them better at withstanding high osmotic variation without rupturing when drinking large amounts of water: a 600kg (1,300lb) camel can drink 200L of water in three minutes.[18] [19]

Camels are able to withstand changes in body temperature and water consumption that would kill most other mammals. Their temperature ranges from 340NaN0 at dawn and steadily increases to 400NaN0 by sunset, before they cool off at night again. In general, to compare between camels and the other livestock, camels lose only 1.3 liters of fluid intake every day while the other livestock lose 20 to 40 liters per day.[20] Maintaining the brain temperature within certain limits is critical for animals; to assist this, camels have a rete mirabile, a complex of arteries and veins lying very close to each other which utilizes countercurrent blood flow to cool blood flowing to the brain.[21] Camels rarely sweat, even when ambient temperatures reach 490NaN0.[22] Any sweat that does occur evaporates at the skin level rather than at the surface of their coat; the heat of vaporization therefore comes from body heat rather than ambient heat. Camels can withstand losing 25% of their body weight in water, whereas most other mammals can withstand only about 12–14% dehydration before cardiac failure results from circulatory disturbance.[19]

When the camel exhales, water vapor becomes trapped in their nostrils and is reabsorbed into the body as a means to conserve water.[23] Camels eating green herbage can ingest sufficient moisture in milder conditions to maintain their bodies' hydrated state without the need for drinking.[24]

The camel's thick coat insulates it from the intense heat radiated from desert sand; a shorn camel must sweat 50% more to avoid overheating.[25] During the summer the coat becomes lighter in color, reflecting light as well as helping avoid sunburn. The camel's long legs help by keeping its body farther from the ground, which can heat up to 700NaN0.[26] [27] Dromedaries have a pad of thick tissue over the sternum called the pedestal. When the animal lies down in a sternal recumbent position, the pedestal raises the body from the hot surface and allows cooling air to pass under the body.

Camels' mouths have a thick leathery lining, allowing them to chew thorny desert plants. Long eyelashes and ear hairs, together with nostrils that can close, form a barrier against sand. If sand gets lodged in their eyes, they can dislodge it using their translucent third eyelid (also known as the nictitating membrane). The camels' gait and widened feet help them move without sinking into the sand.[28]

The kidneys and intestines of a camel are very efficient at reabsorbing water. Camels' kidneys have a 1:4 cortex to medulla ratio.[29] Thus, the medullary part of a camel's kidney occupies twice as much area as a cow's kidney. Secondly, renal corpuscles have a smaller diameter, which reduces surface area for filtration. These two major anatomical characteristics enable camels to conserve water and limit the volume of urine in extreme desert conditions.[30] Camel urine comes out as a thick syrup, and camel faeces are so dry that they do not require drying when used to fuel fires.[31] [32]

The camel immune system differs from those of other mammals. Normally, the Y-shaped antibody molecules consist of two heavy (or long) chains along the length of the Y, and two light (or short) chains at each tip of the Y. Camels, in addition to these, also have antibodies made of only two heavy chains, a trait that makes them smaller and more durable. These "heavy-chain-only" antibodies, discovered in 1993, are thought to have developed 50 million years ago, after camelids split from ruminants and pigs.[33] Camels suffer from surra caused by Trypanosoma evansi wherever camels are domesticated in the world,[34] and resultantly camels have evolved trypanolytic antibodies as with many mammals. In the future, nanobody/single-domain antibody therapy will surpass natural camel antibodies by reaching locations currently unreachable due to natural antibodies' larger size. Such therapies may also be suitable for other mammals.[35] Tran et al. 2009 provides a new reference test for surra (T. evansi) of camel. They use recombinant (rISG75, an Invariant Surface Glycoprotein) and ELISA. The Tran test has high test specificity and appears likely to work just as well for T. evansi in other hosts, and for a pan-Trypanozoon test, which would also be useful for T. b. brucei, T. b. gambiense, T. b. rhodesiense, and T. equiperdum.

Genetics

The karyotypes of different camelid species have been studied earlier by many groups,[36] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] but no agreement on chromosome nomenclature of camelids has been reached. A 2007 study flow sorted camel chromosomes, building on the fact that camels have 37 pairs of chromosomes (2n=74), and found that the karyotype consisted of one metacentric, three submetacentric, and 32 acrocentric autosomes. The Y is a small metacentric chromosome, while the X is a large metacentric chromosome.[42] The hybrid camel, a hybrid between Bactrian and dromedary camels, has one hump, though it has an indentation 4– deep that divides the front from the back. The hybrid is 2.15m (07.05feet) at the shoulder and 2.32m (07.61feet) tall at the hump. It weighs an average of 650kg (1,430lb) and can carry around 400to, which is more than either the dromedary or Bactrian can.[43]

According to molecular data, the wild Bactrian camel (C. ferus) separated from the domestic Bactrian camel (C. bactrianus) about 1 million years ago.[44] [45] New World and Old World camelids diverged about 11 million years ago.[46] In spite of this, these species can hybridize and produce viable offspring.[47] The cama is a camel-llama hybrid bred by scientists to see how closely related the parent species are.[48] Scientists collected semen from a camel via an artificial vagina and inseminated a llama after stimulating ovulation with gonadotrophin injections.[49] The cama is halfway in size between a camel and a llama and lacks a hump. It has ears intermediate between those of camels and llamas, longer legs than the llama, and partially cloven hooves.[50] [51] Like the mule, camas are sterile, despite both parents having the same number of chromosomes.[49]

Evolution

The earliest known camel, called Protylopus, lived in North America 40 to 50 million years ago (during the Eocene). It was about the size of a rabbit and lived in the open woodlands of what is now South Dakota.[52] [53] By 35 million years ago, the Poebrotherium was the size of a goat and had many more traits similar to camels and llamas.[54] [55] The hoofed Stenomylus, which walked on the tips of its toes, also existed around this time, and the long-necked Aepycamelus evolved in the Miocene.[56] The split between the tribes Camelini, which contains modern camels and Lamini, modern llamas, alpacas, vicuñas, and guanacos, is estimated to have occurred over 16 million years ago.[57]

The ancestor of modern camels, Paracamelus, migrated into Eurasia from North America via Beringia during the late Miocene, between 7.5 and 6.5 million years ago.[58] [59] [60] During the Pleistocene, around 3 to 1 million years ago, the North American Camelidae spread to South America as part of the Great American Interchange via the newly formed Isthmus of Panama, where they gave rise to guanacos and related animals.[52] [53] Populations of Paracamelus continued to exist in the North American Arctic into the Early Pleistocene.[61] [62] This creature is estimated to have stood around 9abbr=offNaNabbr=off tall. The Bactrian camel diverged from the dromedary about 1 million years ago, according to the fossil record.[63]

The last camel native to North America was Camelops hesternus, which vanished along with horses, short-faced bears, mammoths and mastodons, ground sloths, sabertooth cats, and many other megafauna as part of the Quaternary extinction event, coinciding with the migration of humans from Asia at the end of the Pleistocene, around 13–11,000 years ago.[64] [65]

An extinct giant camel species, Camelus knoblochi roamed Asia during the Late Pleistocene, before becoming extinct around 20,000 years ago.[66]

Domestication

Like horses, camels originated in North America and eventually spread across Beringia to Asia. They survived in the Old World, and eventually humans domesticated them and spread them globally. Along with many other megafauna in North America, the original wild camels were wiped out during the spread of the first indigenous peoples of the Americas from Asia into North America, 10 to 12,000 years ago; although fossils have never been associated with definitive evidence of hunting.

Most camels surviving today are domesticated.[67] [68] Although feral populations exist in Australia, India and Kazakhstan, wild camels survive only in the wild Bactrian camel population of the Gobi Desert.

History

When humans first domesticated camels is disputed. Dromedaries may have first been domesticated by humans in Somalia or South Arabia sometime during the 3rd millennium BC, the Bactrian in central Asia around 2,500 BC,[69] [70] [71] [72] as at Shar-i Sokhta (also known as the Burnt City), Iran.[73] A study from 2016, which genotyped and used world-wide sequencing of modern and ancient mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), suggested that they were initially domesticated in the southeast Arabian Peninsula,[74] with the Bactrian type later being domesticated around Central Asia.[75]

Martin Heide's 2010 work on the domestication of the camel tentatively concludes that humans had domesticated the Bactrian camel by at least the middle of the third millennium somewhere east of the Zagros Mountains, with the practice then moving into Mesopotamia. Heide suggests that mentions of camels "in the patriarchal narratives may refer, at least in some places, to the Bactrian camel", while noting that the camel is not mentioned in relationship to Canaan.[76] Heide and Joris Peters reasserted that conclusion in their 2021 study on the subject.[77]

In 2009-2013, excavations in the Timna Valley by Lidar Sapir-Hen and Erez Ben-Yosef discovered what may be the earliest domestic camel bones yet found in Israel or even outside the Arabian Peninsula, dating to around 930 BC. This garnered considerable media coverage, as it is strong evidence that the stories of Abraham, Jacob, Esau, and Joseph were written after this time.[78] [79]

The existence of camels in Mesopotamia—but not in the eastern Mediterranean lands—is not a new idea. The historian Richard Bulliet did not think that the occasional mention of camels in the Bible meant that the domestic camels were common in the Holy Land at that time.[80] The archaeologist William F. Albright, writing even earlier, saw camels in the Bible as an anachronism.[81]

The official report by Sapir-Hen and Ben-Joseph says:

The introduction of the dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) as a pack animal to the southern Levant ... substantially facilitated trade across the vast deserts of Arabia, promoting both economic and social change (e.g., Kohler 1984; Borowski 1998: 112–116; Jasmin 2005). This ... has generated extensive discussion regarding the date of the earliest domestic camel in the southern Levant (and beyond) (e.g., Albright 1949: 207; Epstein 1971: 558–584; Bulliet 1975; Zarins 1989; Köhler-Rollefson 1993; Uerpmann and Uerpmann 2002; Jasmin 2005; 2006; Heide 2010; Rosen and Saidel 2010; Grigson 2012). Most scholars today agree that the dromedary was exploited as a pack animal sometime in the early Iron Age (not before the 12th century [BC])

and concludes:

Current data from copper smelting sites of the Aravah Valley enable us to pinpoint the introduction of domestic camels to the southern Levant more precisely based on stratigraphic contexts associated with an extensive suite of radiocarbon dates. The data indicate that this event occurred not earlier than the last third of the 10th century [BC] and most probably during this time. The coincidence of this event with a major reorganization of the copper industry of the region—attributed to the results of the campaign of Pharaoh Shoshenq I—raises the possibility that the two were connected, and that camels were introduced as part of the efforts to improve efficiency by facilitating trade.[79]

Textiles

See main article: Camel hair.

Desert tribes and Mongolian nomads use camel hair for tents, yurts, clothing, bedding and accessories. Camels have outer guard hairs and soft inner down, and the fibers may also be sorted by color and age of the animal. The guard hairs can be felted for use as waterproof coats for the herdsmen, while the softer hair is used for premium goods.[82] The fiber can be spun for use in weaving or made into yarns for hand knitting or crochet. Pure camel hair is recorded as being used for western garments from the 17th century onwards, and from the 19th century a mixture of wool and camel hair was used.[83]

Military uses

See main article: Camel cavalry.

By at least 1200 BC the first camel saddles had appeared, and Bactrian camels could be ridden. The first saddle was positioned to the back of the camel, and control of the Bactrian camel was exercised by means of a stick. However, between 500 and 100 BC, Bactrian camels came into military use. New saddles, which were inflexible and bent, were put over the humps and divided the rider's weight over the animal. In the seventh century BC the military Arabian saddle evolved, which again improved the saddle design slightly.[84] [85]

Military forces have used camel cavalries in wars throughout Africa, the Middle East, and into the modern-day Border Security Force (BSF) of India (though as of July 2012, the BSF planned the replacement of camels with ATVs). The first documented use of camel cavalries occurred in the Battle of Qarqar in 853 BC.[86] [87] [88] Armies have also used camels as freight animals instead of horses and mules.[89] [90]

The East Roman Empire used auxiliary forces known as dromedarii, whom the Romans recruited in desert provinces.[91] [92] The camels were used mostly in combat because of their ability to scare off horses at close range (horses are afraid of the camels' scent), a quality famously employed by the Achaemenid Persians when fighting Lydia in the Battle of Thymbra (547 BC).[43] [93] [94]

19th and 20th centuries

The United States Army established the U.S. Camel Corps, stationed in California, in the 19th century. One may still see stables at the Benicia Arsenal in Benicia, California, where they nowadays serve as the Benicia Historical Museum.[95] Though the experimental use of camels was seen as a success (John B. Floyd, Secretary of War in 1858, recommended that funds be allocated towards obtaining a thousand more camels), the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 saw the end of the Camel Corps: Texas became part of the Confederacy, and most of the camels were left to wander away into the desert.

France created a méhariste camel corps in 1912 as part of the Armée d'Afrique in the Sahara[96] in order to exercise greater control over the camel-riding Tuareg and Arab insurgents, as previous efforts to defeat them on foot had failed.[97] The Free French Camel Corps fought during World War II, and camel-mounted units remained in service until the end of French rule over Algeria in 1962.[98]

In 1916, the British created the Imperial Camel Corps. It was originally used to fight the Senussi, but was later used in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign in World War I. The Imperial Camel Corps comprised infantrymen mounted on camels for movement across desert, though they dismounted at battle sites and fought on foot. After July 1918, the Corps began to become run down, receiving no new reinforcements, and was formally disbanded in 1919.[99]

In World War I, the British Army also created the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps, which consisted of a group of Egyptian camel drivers and their camels. The Corps supported British war operations in Sinai, Palestine, and Syria by transporting supplies to the troops.[100] [101] [102]

The Somaliland Camel Corps was created by colonial authorities in British Somaliland in 1912; it was disbanded in 1944.[103]

Bactrian camels were used by Romanian forces during World War II in the Caucasian region.[104] At the same period the Soviet units operating around Astrakhan in 1942 adopted local camels as draft animals due to shortage of trucks and horses, and kept them even after moving out of the area. Despite severe losses, some of these camels ended up as far west as to Berlin itself.[105]

The Bikaner Camel Corps of British India fought alongside the British Indian Army in World Wars I and II.[106]

The Tropas Nómadas (Nomad Troops) were an auxiliary regiment of Sahrawi tribesmen serving in the colonial army in Spanish Sahara (today Western Sahara). Operational from the 1930s until the end of the Spanish presence in the territory in 1975, the Tropas Nómadas were equipped with small arms and led by Spanish officers. The unit guarded outposts and sometimes conducted patrols on camelback.[107] [108]

21st century competition

The annual King Abdulaziz Camel Festival is held in Saudi Arabia. In addition to camel racing and camel milk tasting, the festival holds a camel "beauty pageant" with prize money of $57m (£40m). In 2018, 12 camels were disqualified from the beauty contest after their owners were found to have injected them with botox.[109] In a similar incident in 2021, over 40 camels were disqualified.[110]

Food uses

Camel meat and milk are foods that are found in many cuisines, typically in Middle Eastern, North African and some Australian cuisines.[111] [112] [113] [114]

Dairy

See main article: Camel milk.

Camel milk is a staple food of desert nomad tribes and is sometimes considered a meal itself; a nomad can live on only camel milk for almost a month.[115] [116]

Camel milk can readily be made into yogurt, but can only be made into butter if it is soured first, churned, and a clarifying agent is then added. Until recently, camel milk could not be made into camel cheese because rennet was unable to coagulate the milk proteins to allow the collection of curds.[117] Developing less wasteful uses of the milk, the FAO commissioned Professor J.P. Ramet of the École Nationale Supérieure d'Agronomie et des Industries Alimentaires, who was able to produce curdling by the addition of calcium phosphate and vegetable rennet in the 1990s.[118] The cheese produced from this process has low levels of cholesterol and is easy to digest, even for the lactose intolerant.[119] [120]

Camel milk can also be made into ice cream.[121] [122]

Meat

Camels provide food in the form of meat and milk.[123] Approximately 3.3 million camels and camelids are slaughtered each year for meat worldwide.[124] A camel carcass can provide a substantial amount of meat. The male dromedary carcass can weigh 300–, while the carcass of a male Bactrian can weigh up to 650kg (1,430lb). The carcass of a female dromedary weighs less than the male, ranging between 250and. The brisket, ribs and loin are among the preferred parts, and the hump is considered a delicacy.[125] The hump contains "white and sickly fat", which can be used to make the khli (preserved meat) of mutton, beef, or camel.[126] On the other hand, camel milk and meat are rich in protein, vitamins, glycogen, and other nutrients making them essential in the diet of many people. From chemical composition to meat quality, the dromedary camel is the preferred breed for meat production. It does well even in arid areas due to its unusual physiological behaviors and characteristics, which include tolerance to extreme temperatures, radiation from the sun, water paucity, rugged landscape and low vegetation.[127] Camel meat is reported to taste like coarse beef, but older camels can prove to be very tough, although camel meat becomes tenderer the more it is cooked.[128]

Camel is one of the animals that can be ritually slaughtered and divided into three portions (one for the home, one for extended family/social networks, and one for those who cannot afford to slaughter an animal themselves) for the qurban of Eid al-Adha.[129] [130]

The Abu Dhabi Officers' Club serves a camel burger mixed with beef or lamb fat in order to improve the texture and taste.[131] In Karachi, Pakistan, some restaurants prepare nihari from camel meat.[132] Specialist camel butchers provide expert cuts, with the hump considered the most popular.[133]

Camel meat has been eaten for centuries. It has been recorded by ancient Greek writers as an available dish at banquets in ancient Persia, usually roasted whole. The Roman emperor Heliogabalus enjoyed camel's heel.[134] Camel meat is mainly eaten in certain regions, including Eritrea, Somalia, Djibouti, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Syria, Libya, Sudan, Ethiopia, Kazakhstan, and other arid regions where alternative forms of protein may be limited or where camel meat has had a long cultural history. Camel blood is also consumable, as is the case among pastoralists in northern Kenya, where camel blood is drunk with milk and acts as a key source of iron, vitamin D, salts and minerals.[135]

A 2005 report issued jointly by the Saudi Ministry of Health and the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention details four cases of human bubonic plague resulting from the ingestion of raw camel liver.[136]

Camel meat is also occasionally found in Australian cuisine: for example, a camel lasagna is available in Alice Springs.[137] Australia has exported camel meat, primarily to the Middle East but also to Europe and the US, for many years.[138] The meat is very popular among East African Australians, such as Somalis, and other Australians have also been buying it. The feral nature of the animals means they produce a different type of meat to farmed camels in other parts of the world,[139] and it is sought after because it is disease-free, and a unique genetic group. Demand is outstripping supply, and governments are being urged not to cull the camels, but redirect the cost of the cull into developing the market. Australia has seven camel dairies, which produce milk, cheese and skincare products in addition to meat.[140]

Religion

Islam

See main article: Animals in Islam. Muslims consider camel meat halal (Arabic: حلال, 'allowed'). However, according to some Islamic schools of thought, a state of impurity is brought on by the consumption of it. Consequently, these schools hold that Muslims must perform wudhu (ablution) before the next time they pray after eating camel meat.[141] Also, some Islamic schools of thought consider it haram (Arabic: حرام, 'forbidden') for a Muslim to perform Salat in places where camels lie, as it is said to be a dwelling place of the Shaytan (Arabic: شيطان, 'Devil').[141] According to Abu Yusuf (d.798), the urine of camel may be used for medical treatment if necessary, but according to Abū Ḥanīfah, the drinking of camel urine is discouraged.[142]

Islamic texts contain several stories featuring camels. In the story of the people of Thamud, the prophet Salih miraculously brings forth a naqat (Arabic: ناقة, 'milch-camel') out of a rock. After Muhammad migrated from Mecca to Medina (the Hijrah), he allowed his she-camel to roam there; the location where the camel stopped to rest determined the location where he would build his house in Medina.[143]

Judaism

See also: Food and drink prohibitions.

According to Jewish tradition, camel meat and milk are not kosher.[144] Camels possess only one of the two kosher criteria; although they chew their cud, they do not have cloven hooves: "But these you shall not eat among those that bring up the cud and those that have a cloven hoof: the camel, because it brings up its cud, but does not have a [completely] cloven hoof; it is unclean for you."[145]

The Palestinian Muslim Makhamara clan in Yatta, who claim descent from Jews, reportedly avoid eating camel meat, a practice cited as evidence of their Jewish origins.[146] [147]

Cultural depictions

What may be the oldest carvings of camels were discovered in 2018 in Saudi Arabia. They were analysed by researchers from several scientific disciplines and, in 2021, were estimated to be 7,000 to 8,000 years old.[148] The dating of rock art is made difficult by the lack of organic material in the carvings that may be tested, so the researchers attempting to date them tested animal bones found associated with the carvings, assessed erosion patterns, and analysed tool marks in order to determine a correct date for the creation of the sculptures. This Neolithic dating would make the carvings significantly older than Stonehenge (5,000 years old) and the Egyptian pyramids at Giza (4,500 years old) and it predates estimates for the domestication of camels.

Distribution and numbers

There are approximately 14 million camels alive, with 90% being dromedaries. Dromedaries alive today are domesticated animals (mostly living in the Horn of Africa, the Sahel, Maghreb, Middle East and South Asia). The Horn region alone has the largest concentration of camels in the world,[149] where the dromedaries constitute an important part of local nomadic life. They provide nomadic people in Somalia and Ethiopia with milk, food, and transportation.[150] [151] [152]

Over one million dromedary camels are estimated to be feral in Australia, descended from those introduced as a method of transport in the 19th and early 20th centuries.[153] This population is growing about 8% per year;[154] it was estimated at around 700,000 in 2008.[155] Representatives of the Australian government have culled more than 100,000 of the animals in part because the camels use too much of the limited resources needed by sheep farmers.[156]

A small population of introduced camels, dromedaries and Bactrians, wandered through Southwestern United States after having been imported in the 19th century as part of the U.S. Camel Corps experiment. When the project ended, they were used as draft animals in mines and escaped or were released. Twenty-five U.S. camels were bought and exported to Canada during the Cariboo Gold Rush.[90]

The Bactrian camel is,, reduced to an estimated 1.4 million animals, most of which are domesticated.[67] [157] [158] The Wild Bactrian camel is the only truly wild (as opposed to feral) camel in the world. It is a distinct species that is not ancestral to the domestic Bactrian camel. The wild camels are critically endangered and number approximately 950, inhabiting the Gobi and Taklamakan Deserts in China and Mongolia.[159]

See also

References

Notes

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

Notes and References

  1. Encyclopedia: 2005 . camel . The New Oxford American Dictionary . Oxford University Press, Inc . 2nd.
  2. Web site: Herper . Douglas . camel . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20130927090522/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=camel . 27 September 2013 . 28 November 2012 . Online Etymology Dictionary.
  3. 10.1186/1751-0147-52-S1-S17 . 1751-0147 . 52 . Suppl 1 . S17 . Bornstein . Set . Important ectoparasites of Alpaca (Vicugna pacos) . Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica . 2010 . 2994293 . free .
  4. Burger . P. A. . Ciani . E. . Faye . B. . Old World camels in a modern world – a balancing act between conservation and genetic improvement . . 50 . 6 . 598–612 . 10.1111/age.12858 . 31532019 . 6899786 . 2019-09-18 .
  5. Chuluunbat . B. . Charruau . P. . Silbermayr . K. . Khorloojav . T. . Burger . P. A. . 2014 . Genetic diversity and population structure of Mongolian domestic Bactrian camels (Camelus bactrianus) . . 45 . 4 . 550–558 . 10.1111/age.12158 . 4171754 . 24749721.
  6. Web site: Bactrian Camel: Camelus bactrianus . National Geographic . 10 May 2011 . 28 November 2012 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20121104103313/http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/bactrian-camel . 4 November 2012 .
  7. Web site: Camello Safari . The amazing characteristics of the camels . 26 November 2012 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20121107134110/http://www.camellosafari.com/?page_id=251 . 7 November 2012.
  8. Web site: How Fast Can Camels Run and How Long Can They Run For? . Big Site of Amazing Facts . 17 April 2010 . 29 November 2012 .
  9. Fayed, R. H. "Adaptation of the Camel to Desert environment." Proceedings of the ESARF 11th Annual Conference. Available at:< http://esarf2. tripod. com/conf2001proc. htm>,(accessed on November 18, 2010). 2001.
  10. Injury . 43 . 9 . 1617–1620 . Camel bite injuries in United Arab Emirates: A 6 year prospective study . Fikri M. . Abu-Zidana . Hani O. . Eida . Ashraf F. . Hefnya . Masoud O. . Bashira . Frank . Branickia . 10.1016/j.injury.2011.10.039 . 22186231 . 18 December 2011 . The male mature camel has a specialized inflatable diverticulum of the soft palate called the "Dulla". and During rutting the Dulla enlarges on filling with air from the trachea until it hangs out of the mouth of the camel and comes to resemble a pink ball. This occurs in only the one-humped camel. Copious saliva turns to foam covering the mouth as the male gurgles and makes metallic sounds. [6 cites to 5 references omitted].
  11. Two Male Camels Fighting Over One Female. Youtube.com. 2016-01-08. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20151219060529/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mqxQbUMV8zQ. 2015-12-19.
  12. Web site: San Diego Zoo Global Library . Bactrian & Dromedary Camels . Factsheets . 4 December 2012 . March 2009 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120922092103/http://library.sandiegozoo.org/factsheets/camel/camel.htm . 22 September 2012 .
  13. Web site: What secrets lie within the camel's hump?. Kerstin. Vann Jones. Lund University. Sweden. 7 January 2008. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20090523104134/http://www.djur.cob.lu.se/Djurartiklar/Kamel.html. 23 May 2009.
  14. Book: Rastogi, S. C. . . 9788122412796 . Essentials Of Animal Physiology . 1971. 180–181.
  15. Book: Roberts, Michael Bliss Vaughan. Biology: A Functional Approach. Nelson Thornes. 1986. 9780174480198. 234–235, 241.
  16. Web site: The Camel from Tradition To Modern Times . https://web.archive.org/web/20151109175143/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002240/224033e.pdf . 2015-11-09 . live. .
  17. Eitan . A . Aloni . B . Livne . A . Unique properties of the camel erythrocyte membraneII. Organization of membrane proteins . . 426 . 4 . 647–58 . 1976 . 10.1016/0005-2736(76)90129-2. 816376 .
  18. Web site: Dromedary. https://web.archive.org/web/20051025001139/http://www.zoo-hannover.de/zoo-hannover/en/zoo_v3/tiere_attraktionen/tiere_az/tiere_detail_726.html. 25 October 2005. Hannover Zoo. 8 January 2008.
  19. Book: Halpern, E. Anette. University of Oklahoma Press. 9780806131467. Mares. Michael A.. Deserts. 1999. Camel. 96–97. https://books.google.com/books?id=g3CbqZtaF4oC&pg=PA96. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20160429083434/https://books.google.com/books?id=g3CbqZtaF4oC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA96. 2016-04-29.
  20. Breulmann, M., Böer, B., Wernery, U., Wernery, R., El Shaer, H., Alhadrami, G., ... Norton, J. (2007). "The Camel From Tradition to Modern Times" (PDF). UNESCO DOHA OFFICE.
  21. [Inside Nature's Giants]
  22. Web site: Arabian (Dromedary) Camel. 25 November 2012. National Geographic Society. National Geographic. 10 May 2011. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20121119062839/http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/dromedary-camel. 19 November 2012.
  23. News: A Pilgrimage To A Mystic's Hermitage In Algeria . . 12 July 1981 . 7 March 2009 . Paul . Lewis . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20090804093505/http://www.nytimes.com/1981/07/12/travel/a-pilgrimage-to-a-mystic-s-hermitage-in-algeria.html . 4 August 2009 .
  24. Book: http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0690e/t0690e09.htm. A manual for primary animal health care worker. Camels, llamas and alpacas. 1994. 1020-5187. FAO Animal Health Manual. FAO Agriculture and Consumer Protection. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20080727212250/http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0690e/t0690e09.htm. 2008-07-27.
  25. Book: Schmidt-Nielsen, K.. 1964. Desert Animals: Physiological Problems of Heat and Water. New York. Oxford University Press (OUP). Cited in Web site: Coat of fur on the camel. https://web.archive.org/web/20030225103329/http://www.bio.davidson.edu/Courses/anphys/1999/Blackwell/Fur.htm. February 25, 2003. Davidson College.
  26. Web site: Bronx Zoo. Camel Adaptations . 29 November 2012 . . Flash . https://web.archive.org/web/20120626071454/http://www.bronxzoo.com/files/engage.html . 26 June 2012.
  27. Book: Cambridge University Press (CUP) . 9780521021418 . Rundel . Philip Wilson . Arthur C.. Gibson . Ecological Communities And Processes in a Mojave Desert Ecosystem: Rock Valley, Nevada . 30 September 2005. Adaptations of Mojave Desert Animals . 130 .
  28. Book: Twenty-First Century Books . 9780822534341 . Silverstein . Alvin . Virginia B . Silverstein . Virginia . Silverstein . Laura . Silverstein Nunn . Adaptation . 2008 . 42–43 .
  29. Web site: Morphometric analysis of heart, kidneys and adrenal glands in dromedary camel calves (PDF Download Available). ResearchGate. en. 2017-03-03. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20170304040835/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249746665_Morphometric_analysis_of_heart_kidneys_and_adrenal_glands_in_dromedary_camel_calves. 2017-03-04.
  30. Rehan S and AS Qureshi, 2006. Microscopic evaluation of the heart, kidneys and adrenal glands of one-humped camel calves (Camelus dromedarius) using semi automated image analysis system. J Camel Pract Res. 13(2): 123
  31. Web site: Kidneys and Concentrated Urine . Davidson College . Temperature and Water Relations in Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedarius). https://web.archive.org/web/20030225104431/http://www.bio.davidson.edu/Courses/anphys/1999/Blackwell/Kidney.htm. February 25, 2003.
  32. Web site: Fun facts about the Camel . The Jungle Store . 3 December 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20121117070148/http://www.thejunglestore.com/Camels . 17 November 2012 .
  33. Koenig . R. . Veterinary Medicine . 'Camelized' Antibodies Make Waves . . 318 . 5855 . 1373 . 2007 . 18048665 . 10.1126/science.318.5855.1373 . 71028674.
  34. Sazmand . Alireza . Joachim . Anja . Parasitic diseases of camels in Iran (1931–2017) – a literature review . . . 24 . 2017 . 1776-1042 . 10.1051/parasite/2017024 . 1–15 . 13783061 . 28617666 . 5479402 . Article Number 21.
  35. Muyldermans . Serge . Nanobodies: Natural Single-Domain Antibodies . . . 82 . 1 . 2013-06-02 . 0066-4154 . 10.1146/annurev-biochem-063011-092449 . 775–797. 23495938 .
  36. Taylor . K.M. . Hungerford . D.A. . Snyder . R.L. . Ulmer Jr. . F.A. . Uniformity of karyotypes in the Camelidae . Cytogenetic and Genome Research . 7 . 1 . 8–15 . 1968 . 10.1159/000129967 . 5659175.
  37. Koulischer . L . Tijskens . J . Mortelmans . J . Mammalian cytogenetics. IV. The chromosomes of two male Camelidae: Camelus bactrianus and Lama vicugna. . Acta Zoologica et Pathologica Antverpiensia . 52 . 89–92 . 1971 . 5163286.
  38. Bianchi . N. O. . Larramendy . M. L. . Bianchi . M. S. . Cortés . L. . Karyological conservatism in South American camelids . Experientia . 42 . 6 . 622–4 . 1986 . 10.1007/BF01955563. 23440910 .
  39. Thomas D. . Bunch . Warren C. . Foote . Alma . Maciulis . 1985 . Chromosome banding pattern homologies and NORs for the Bactrian camel, guanaco, and llama . Journal of Heredity . 76 . 2 . 115–8 . 10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a110034 .
  40. Book: Stephen J. . O'Brien . Joan C. . Menninger . William G. . Nash . 2006 . Atlas of Mammalian Chromosomes . limited . New York . Wiley-Liss . 978-0-471-35015-6 . 547.
  41. Di Berardino . D. . Nicodemo . D. . Coppola . G. . King . A.W. . Ramunno . L. . Cosenza . G.F. . Iannuzzi . L. . Di Meo . G.P. . Balmus . G. . 8. Cytogenetic characterization of alpaca (Lama pacos, fam. Camelidae) prometaphase chromosomes . Cytogenetic and Genome Research . 115 . 2 . 138–44 . 2006 . 17065795 . 10.1159/000095234. 21378633 .
  42. Balmus . Gabriel . Trifonov . Vladimir A. . Biltueva . Larisa S. . O'Brien . Patricia C.M. . Alkalaeva . Elena S. . Fu . Beiyuan . Skidmore . Julian A. . Allen . Twink . Graphodatsky . Alexander S. . 8. Cross-species chromosome painting among camel, cattle, pig and human: further insights into the putative Cetartiodactyla ancestral karyotype . Chromosome Research . 15 . 4 . 499–515 . 2007 . 17671843 . 10.1007/s10577-007-1154-x. 23226488 .
  43. Bactrian Camels and Bactrian-Dromedary Hybrids. Potts. Danel. Silkroad. 3. 1. https://web.archive.org/web/20160623020952/http://www.silkroadfoundation.org/newsletter/vol3num1/7_bactrian.php. 2016-06-23. 2012-11-29.
  44. Mohandesan. Elmira. Fitak. Robert R.. Corander. Jukka. Yadamsuren. Adiya. Chuluunbat. Battsetseg. Abdelhadi. Omer. Raziq. Abdul. Nagy. Peter. Stalder. Gabrielle. 30 August 2017. Mitogenome Sequencing in the Genus Camelus Reveals Evidence for Purifying Selection and Long-term Divergence between Wild and Domestic Bactrian Camels. Scientific Reports. En. 7. 1. 9970. 10.1038/s41598-017-08995-8. 28855525. 2045-2322. 5577142. 2017NatSR...7.9970M.
  45. Ji. R. Cui. P. Ding. F. Geng. J. Gao. H. Zhang. H. Yu. J. Hu. S. Meng. H. August 2009. Monophyletic origin of domestic bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) and its evolutionary relationship with the extant wild camel (Camelus bactrianus ferus). Animal Genetics. 40. 4. 377–382. 10.1111/j.1365-2052.2008.01848.x. 0268-9146. 2721964. 19292708.
  46. Stanley . H. F. . Kadwell . M. . Wheeler . J. C. . Molecular Evolution of the Family Camelidae: A Mitochondrial DNA Study . Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences . 256 . 1345 . 1–6 . 1994 . 10.1098/rspb.1994.0041. 8008753 . 1994RSPSB.256....1S . 40857282 .
  47. Skidmore . J. A. . Billah . M. . Binns . M. . Short . R. V. . Allen . W. R. . Hybridizing Old and New World camelids: Camelus dromedarius x Lama guanicoe . Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences . 266 . 1420 . 649–56 . 1999 . 10.1098/rspb.1999.0685 . 10331286 . 1689826.
  48. News: Meet Rama the cama ... . BBC . 29 November 2012 . 21 January 1998 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20121023042733/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/49301.stm . 23 October 2012 .
  49. Web site: 'Cama' camel/llama hybrids born in UAE research centre . Miral . Fahmy . 21 March 2002 . 28 November 2012 . Science in the News . The Royal Society of New Zealand . https://web.archive.org/web/20130927105152/http://www.royalsociety.org.nz/2002/03/21/emirates-cama/ . 27 September 2013 .
  50. News: Bad karma for cross llama without a hump . The Guardian . Duncan . Campbell . 15 July 2002 . 2 March 2009 . London . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20130826054716/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/jul/15/highereducation.science . 26 August 2013 .
  51. Web site: Joy for world's first camel and llama cross . Metro UK . 29 November 2012 . 6 April 2008 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20121125032426/http://www.metro.co.uk/news/136134-joy-for-world-s-first-camel-and-llama-cross . 25 November 2012 .
  52. Web site: Harington . C. R. . Ice Age Yukon and Alaskan Camels . Yukon Beringia Interpretive Centre . 3 December 2012 . June 1997 . Government of Yukon, Department of Tourism and Culture, Museums Unit . https://web.archive.org/web/20130126013451/http://www.beringia.com/research/camels.html . 26 January 2013 .
  53. Book: Bernstein, William J. . Grove Press . 9780802144164 . A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World . 6 May 2009 . 54–55 .
  54. Web site: North Dakota Industrial Commission Department of Mineral Resources . Poebrotherium . 3 December 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120725092634/https://www.dmr.nd.gov/ndfossil/Poster/PDF/Poebrotherium.pdf . 25 July 2012.
  55. Web site: Science Museum of Minnesota . Fossil camel skull (Poebrotherium sp.) . Science Buzz . 3 December 2012 . January 2004 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20121014130040/http://www.sciencebuzz.org/museum/object/2004_01_fossil_camel_skull_poebrotherium . 14 October 2012 .
  56. Encyclopedia: Penguin . 9780756682415 . Kindersley . Dorling . Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Life . Camels . 266–7 . 2 June 2008 .
  57. Lynch . Sinéad . Sánchez-Villagra . Marcelo R. . Balcarcel . Ana . December 2020 . Description of a fossil camelid from the Pleistocene of Argentina, and a cladistic analysis of the Camelinae . Swiss Journal of Palaeontology . en . 139 . 1 . 5 . 10.1186/s13358-020-00208-6 . 1664-2376 . 7590954 . 33133011 . 2020SwJP..139....8L . free .
  58. Heintzman. Peter D.. Zazula. Grant D.. Cahill. James A.. Reyes. Alberto V.. MacPhee. Ross D.E.. Shapiro. Beth. September 2015. Genomic Data from Extinct North American Camelops Revise Camel Evolutionary History. Molecular Biology and Evolution. en. 32. 9. 2433–2440. 10.1093/molbev/msv128. 26037535. 0737-4038.
  59. Rybczynski. Natalia. Gosse. John C.. Richard Harington. C.. Wogelius. Roy A.. Hidy. Alan J.. Buckley. Mike. June 2013. Mid-Pliocene warm-period deposits in the High Arctic yield insight into camel evolution. Nature Communications. en. 4. 1. 1550. 10.1038/ncomms2516. 2041-1723. 3615376. 23462993. 2013NatCo...4.1550R.
  60. Book: 8th revised . Rastogi Publications . 9788171336395 . Singh . Tomar . Evolutionary Biology . New Delhi . 334.
  61. Rybczynski . Natalia . John C. . Gosse . C. Richard . Harington . Roy A. . Wogelius . Alan J. . Hidy . Mike . Buckley . Mid-Pliocene warm-period deposits in the High Arctic yield insight into camel evolution . . March 5, 2013 . 10.1038/ncomms2516 . 4 . 3 . 1550 . 23462993 . 3615376 . 2013NatCo...4.1550R .
  62. Buckley. Michael. Lawless. Craig. Rybczynski. Natalia. March 2019. Collagen sequence analysis of fossil camels, Camelops and c.f. Paracamelus, from the Arctic and sub-Arctic of Plio-Pleistocene North America. Journal of Proteomics. en. 194. 218–225. 10.1016/j.jprot.2018.11.014. 30468917. 53713960.
  63. Geraads. Denis. Didier. Gilles. Barr. Andrew. Reed. Denne. Laurin. Michel. April 2020. The fossil record of camelids demonstrates a late divergence between Bactrian camel and dromedary=Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. en. 65. 2. 251–260. 10.4202/app.00727.2020. 0567-7920. 1732-2421. free.
  64. Book: Earthscan . 9781844076048 . Worboys . Graeme L. . Wendy L.. Francis. Michael . Lockwood . Connectivity Conservation Management: A Global Guide . 30 March 2010 . 142.
  65. Book: Springer . 9780306460920 . MacPhee . Ross D. E. . Hans-Dieter . Sues . Extinctions in Near Time: Causes, Contexts, and Consequences . 30 June 1999 . 18, 20, 26.
  66. Yuan . Junxia . Hu . Jiaming . Liu . Wenhui . Chen . Shungang . Zhang . Fengli . Wang . Siren . Zhang . Zhen . Wang . Linying . Xiao . Bo . Li . Fuqiang . Hofreiter . Michael . Lai . Xulong . Westbury . Michael V. . Sheng . Guilian . May 2024 . Camelus knoblochi genome reveals the complex evolutionary history of Old World camels . Current Biology . 34 . 11 . 2502–2508.e5 . en . 10.1016/j.cub.2024.04.050. 38754423 .
  67. Web site: Fedewa . Jennifer L. . Camelus bactrianus . Animal Diversity Web . 4 December 2012 . 2000 . University of Michigan Museum of Zoology . https://web.archive.org/web/20130526101843/http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Camelus_bactrianus/ . 26 May 2013 .
  68. News: Walker . Matt . Wild camels 'genetically unique' . Earth News . BBC . 4 December 2012 . 22 July 2009 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20110811102443/http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8151000/8151804.stm . 11 August 2011 .
  69. Book: Mukasa-Mugerwa, E. . International Livestock Centre for Africa . 5 . The Camel (Camelus Dromedarius): A Bibliographical Review . Ethiopia . International Livestock Centre for Africa Monograph . 1981 . 1, 3, 20–21, 65, 67–68.
  70. Book: Scarre, Chris. Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World. 15 September 1993. 978-1-56458-305-5. 176. Both the dromedary (the seven-humped camel of Arabia) and the Bactrian camel (the two-humped camel of Central Asia) had been domesticated since before 2000 BC.. D. Kindersley. London.
  71. Book: Bulliet, Richard . The Camel and the Wheel. Morningside Book Series . Columbia University Press . 20 May 1990 . 1975 . 183 . 978-0-231-07235-9. As has already been mentioned, this type of utilization [camels pulling wagons] goes back to the earliest known period of two-humped camel domestication in the third millennium B.C.. —Note that Bulliet has many more references to early use of camels
  72. Book: Near Eastern Archaeology: A Reader . 9781575060835 . 2016-01-08. Richard . Suzanne . 2003 . Eisenbrauns .
  73. Web site: Hirst. K. Kris. Camels. About.com Archaeology. 6 February 2014. 5 January 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140105002229/http://archaeology.about.com/od/cterms/g/camels.htm.
  74. Almathen . Faisal . Charruau . Pauline . Mohandesan . Elmira . Mwacharo . Joram M. . Orozco-terWengel . Pablo . Pitt . Daniel . Abdussamad . Abdussamad M. . Uerpmann . Margarethe . Uerpmann . Hans-Peter . De Cupere . Bea . Magee . Peter . Alnaqeeb . Majed A. . Salim . Bashir . Raziq . Abdul . Dessie . Tadelle . 2016-06-14 . Ancient and modern DNA reveal dynamics of domestication and cross-continental dispersal of the dromedary . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . en . 113 . 24 . 6707–6712 . 10.1073/pnas.1519508113 . 0027-8424 . 4914195 . 27162355 . 2016PNAS..113.6707A . free .
  75. Ming . Liang . Yuan . Liyun . Yi . Li . Ding . Guohui . Hasi . Surong . Chen . Gangliang . Jambl . Tuyatsetseg . Hedayat-Evright . Nemat . Batmunkh . Mijiddorj . Badmaevna . Garyaeva Khongr . Gan-Erdene . Tudeviin . Ts . Batsukh . Zhang . Wenbin . Zulipikaer . Azhati . Hosblig . 2020-01-07 . Whole-genome sequencing of 128 camels across Asia reveals origin and migration of domestic Bactrian camels . Communications Biology . en . 3 . 1 . 1–9 . 10.1038/s42003-019-0734-6 . 31925316 . 6946651 . 2399-3642. free .
  76. Heide . Martin . 2011 . The Domestication of the Camel: Biological, Archaeological and Inscriptional Evidence from Mesopotamia, Egypt, Israel and Arabia, and Literary Evidence from the Hebrew Bible . Ugarit-Forschungen . 42 . 367–68 . 10.13140/2.1.2090.8161 .
  77. Book: Camels in the Biblical World . Heide . Martin . Penn State Press . 2021 . 978-1-64602-169-7 . 302 . Peters . Joris.
  78. News: Hasson. Nir. Hump stump solved: Camels arrived in region much later than biblical reference. 30 January 2014. Haaretz. Jan 17, 2014. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20140130113055/http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/week-s-end/.premium-1.569091. 30 January 2014.
  79. Sapir-Hen. Lidar. Erez Ben-Yosef. The Introduction of Domestic Camels to the Southern Levant: Evidence from the Aravah Valley. Tel Aviv. 2013. 40. 2. 277–285. 16 February 2014. 10.1179/033443513x13753505864089. 44282748. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20140223011636/http://archaeology.tau.ac.il/ben-yosef/pub/Pub_PDFs/Sapir-Hen%26Ben-Yosef13_CamelAravah_TelAviv.pdf. 23 February 2014.
  80. News: Dias. Elizabeth. The Mystery of the Bible's Phantom Camels. 22 February 2014. Time. Feb 11, 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140215013057/http://world.time.com/2014/02/11/the-mystery-of-the-bibles-phantom-camels/. 15 February 2014.
  81. Heide . Martin . 2011 . The Domestication of the Camel: Biological, Archaeological and Inscriptional Evidence from Mesopotamia, Egypt, Israel and Arabia, and Literary Evidence from the Hebrew Bible . Ugarit-Forschungen . 42 . 368 .
  82. Book: Petrie, OJ. Harvesting of textile animal fibres. FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No. 122. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 1995. 978-92-5-103759-1. 14 March 2017. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20170315085646/http://www.fao.org/docrep/v9384e/v9384e05.htm. 15 March 2017.
  83. Book: Cumming, Valerie . Cunnington, CW . Cunnington, PE . The Dictionary of Fashion History. 2010. Bloomsbury. Oxford . 9781847887382.
  84. Book: Fagan. Brian M. Brian M. Fagan. 2004. The Seventy Great Inventions of the Ancient World. Transportation. London. Thames & Hudson. 150–152. 978-0-500-05130-6. https://archive.org/details/seventygreatinve0000unse/page/150.
  85. Baum . Doug . 1 November 2018. The Art of Saddling a Camel. Saudi Aramco World. 10 December 2018.
  86. Book: Gabriel, Richard A. . Greenwood Publishing Group . 9780313333484 . Soldiers' Lives Through History: The Ancient World . 2007 . xvi .
  87. News: Bhatia . Vimal . BSF to ditch camels to ride sand scooters . The Times of India . 4 December 2012 . 23 July 2012 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20120723172835/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/BSF-to-ditch-camels-to-ride-sand-scooters/articleshow/15099086.cms . 23 July 2012 .
  88. Book: University Press of America . 9780761815204 . Gann . Lewis Henry . Peter . Duignan . Africa and the World: An Introduction to the History of Sub-Saharan Africa from Antiquity to 1840 . 1972 . 156 . The camel was acclimatized in Egypt long before the time of Christ and was subsequently adopted by the Berbers of the desert, who used camel cavalry to fight the Romans. The Berbers spread the use of the camel across the Sahara. .
  89. News: 0161-7370 . 74 . 8 . Bonnier Corporation . Walter L. . Fleming . Jefferson Davis's Camel Experiment . The Popular Science Monthly . February 1909 . 150 . Other trials of the camel were made in 1859 by Major D. H. Vinton, who used twenty-four of them in carrying burdens for a surveying party...All in all, he concluded, the camel was much superior to the mule. . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20160504180151/https://books.google.com/books?id=DyADAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA150 . 2016-05-04 .
  90. Book: Mantz, John . Heritage House Publishing Co . 9781894384018 . 51–54 . Garnet . Basque . Frontier Days in British Columbia . Camels in the Cariboo . 20 April 2006 . https://books.google.com/books?id=fecJGyNKtwoC&pg=PA51 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20160624015054/https://books.google.com/books?id=fecJGyNKtwoC&pg=PA51 . 24 June 2016 .
  91. Book: Southern, Pat . Oxford University Press . 9780195328783 . The Roman Army: A Social and Institutional History . 1 October 2007 . 123 .
  92. Book: Nicolle, David . illustrated, reprint . Osprey Publishing . 9781855321663 . 5 . The Desert Frontier . Rome's Enemies . 26 March 1991 . 4 . Nevertheless the military prowess of desert peoples impressed the Romans, who recruited large numbers as auxiliary cavalry and archers. In addition to providing the Roman Army with its best archers, the Easterners (largely Arabs but generally known as 'Syrians') served as Rome's most effective dromedarii or camel-mounted troops..
  93. Book: Herodotus . 440 . Rawlinson . George . The Internet Classics Archive . The History of Herodotus . 4 December 2012 . He collected together all the camels that had come in the train of his army to carry the provisions and the baggage, and taking off their loads, he mounted riders upon them accoutred as horsemen. These he commanded to advance in front of his other troops against the Lydian horse; behind them were to follow the foot soldiers, and last of all the cavalry. When his arrangements were complete, he gave his troops orders to slay all the other Lydians who came in their way without mercy, but to spare Croesus and not kill him, even if he should be seized and offer resistance. The reason why Cyrus opposed his camels to the enemy's horse was because the horse has a natural dread of the camel, and cannot abide either the sight or the smell of that animal. By this stratagem he hoped to make Croesus's horse useless to him, the horse being what he chiefly depended on for victory. The two armies then joined battle, and immediately the Lydian war-horses, seeing and smelling the camels, turned round and galloped off; and so it came to pass that all Croesus's hopes withered away. . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20121201230133/http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.html . 1 December 2012 .
  94. Web site: History Group of the New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage . Cameliers and camels at war . New Zealand History online . 5 December 2012 . 30 August 2009 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120316110701/http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/camel-corps . 16 March 2012 .
  95. Web site: The California State Military Museum . The Posts at Benicia . 4 December 2012 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20120928195539/http://www.militarymuseum.org/Benicia.html . 28 September 2012 .
  96. Web site: Musée de l'infanterie . Vitrine N° 108 (partie droite): LES PELOTONS MEHARISTES . 5 December 2012 . fr . https://web.archive.org/web/20130526202745/http://www.musee-infanterie.com/vitrine/114-vitrine-n-108-partie-droite--les-pelotons-meharistes . 26 May 2013 . dmy-all .
  97. Book: Hall, Bruce S. . Cambridge University Press . 9781107002876 . A History of Race in Muslim West Africa, 1600–1960 . limited . 6 June 2011 . 143.
  98. News: Guillaume . Philippe . L'incroyable épopée des méharistes français . The incredible epic of the French méharistes . BDSphère . 5 December 2012 . 16 June 2012 . fr . https://web.archive.org/web/20130522103746/http://www.bdsphere.fr/2012/06/16/lincroyable-epopee-des-meharistes-francais/ . 22 May 2013 .
  99. Web site: History Group of the New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage . Cameliers and camels at war . New Zealand History online . 5 December 2012 . 30 August 2009 . 1, 2, 4, 5 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120316110701/http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/camel-corps . 16 March 2012 .
  100. Book: Woodward, David R. . University Press of Kentucky . 9780813123837 . Hell in the Holy Land: World War I in the Middle East . limited . 2006 . 36, 39, 43, 56, 133.
  101. Book: Murray, Archibald James . J.M. Dent . Sir Archibald Murray's despatches (June 1916 – June 1917) . 1920 . 123 . A great deal of the work of supplying the troops on both fronts has been done by the Camel Transport Corps .
  102. Book: McGregor, Andrew James . Greenwood Publishing Group . 9780275986018 . A Military History of Modern Egypt: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War . 30 May 2006 . 215 .
  103. Book: 3rd. Kessinger Publishing. 9781419147999. Federal Research Division. Somalia a Country Study. Area handbook series. 30 June 2004 . 230–231.
  104. Web site: Romanian troops using camels. WWII in Color. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054749/http://www.ww2incolor.com/Romanian+Forces/F_32844_l.html. 2013-09-21.
  105. Web site: Наш советский верблюд покарает!. March 2, 2020. WARHEAD.SU. March 4, 2020. March 19, 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200319171527/https://warhead.su/2020/03/02/nash-sovetskiy-verblyud-pokaraet. dead.
  106. News:
  107. Shelley. Toby. Sons of the Clouds. Red Pepper. 6 December 2012. December 2007. Location. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20130520202141/http://www.redpepper.org.uk/sons-of-the-clouds/. 20 May 2013.
  108. Web site: Hermandad de Veteranos Tropas Nómadas del Sáhara . Historia: Agrupación de Tropas Nómadas . Los Medios . The Means . 6 December 2012 . es . https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055249/http://hermandadtropasnomadas.com/historia2-11.html . 21 September 2013 .
  109. Web site: Camels banned from Saudi beauty contest over Botox . BBC News . 24 January 2018 . 26 August 2021 .
  110. News: Adams . Abigail . Over 40 Camels Disqualified From Beauty Contest in Saudi Arabia For Receiving Botox Injections . PEOPLE.com . 9 December 2021 . en.
  111. Web site: Wild Camel – Windy Hills .
  112. News: Australians urged to develop taste for camel meat . ABC News . 6 August 2015 .
  113. Web site: Australia's Growing Camel Meat Trade Reveals a Hidden History of Early Muslim Migrants . 16 May 2019 .
  114. Web site: SAMEX : Australian Meat Exporters .
  115. Book: Bulliet, Richard W. . Columbia University Press . 9780231072359 . The Camel and the Wheel . registration . 1975 . 23, 25, 28, 35–36, 38–40.
  116. Web site: FAO's Animal Production and Health Division. Camel Milk. Milk & Dairy Products. 6 December 2012. 25 September 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20121101015011/http://www.fao.org/AG/AGAInfo/themes/en/dairy/camel.html. 1 November 2012.
  117. Book: Ramet. Camel milk and cheese making. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20120624013724/http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/t0755e/t0755e02.htm. 2012-06-24.
  118. Web site: Fresh from your local drome'dairy'?. Food and Agriculture Organization. 6 July 2001. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20120126122946/http://www.fao.org/english/newsroom/highlights/2001/010701-e.htm. 26 January 2012.
  119. Book: Ramet. Methods of processing camel milk into cheese. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20120624013729/http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/t0755e/t0755e04.htm. 2012-06-24.
  120. Web site: Young. Philippa. In Mongolian the Word 'Gobi' Means 'Desert'. 6 December 2012. As evening approaches we are offered camel meat boats, dumplings stuffed with a finely chopped mixture of meat and vegetables, followed by camel milk tea and finally, warm fresh camel's milk to aid digestion and help us sleep.. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20130303111456/http://philippayoung.com/?tag=camelcheese&page=2. 3 March 2013.
  121. News: Netherlands' 'crazy' camel farmer . BBC . 5 November 2011 . 7 November 2011 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20111106232703/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/in-pictures-15589766 . 6 November 2011 .
  122. Web site: Al Ain Dairy launches camel-milk ice cream. The National. 26 March 2015. en. 2019-02-22.
  123. Tariq, M., Rabia, R., Jamil, A., Sakhwat, A., Aadil, A., & Muhammad S., 2010. Minerals and Nutritional Composition of Camel (Camelus Dromedarius) Meat in Pakistan. Journal- Chemical Society of Pakistan, Vol 33(6).
  124. Web site: FAOSTAT. www.fao.org. 2019-10-25.
  125. Book: Yagil. Camels Products Other Than Milk. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20110220185807/http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/X6528E/X6528E06.htm. 2011-02-20.
  126. Book: Traditional Moroccan Cooking: Recipes from Fez. Madame Guinaudeau. Serif. London. 2003. 978-1-897959-43-5.
  127. Aleme, A., D., 2013. A Review of Camel Meat as a Precious Source of Nutrition in some part of Ethiopia. Agricultural Science, Engineering and Technology Research. Vol. 1, No. 4, December 2013, PP: 40–43. Available online at Web site: Agricultural Science, Engineering and Technology Research . 2016-12-03 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20161203133425/http://asetr.org/ . 2016-12-03. .
  128. News: Rubenstein. Dustin. How to Cook Camel. The New York Times. 7 December 2012. 23 July 2010. He cut the pieces very small and cooked them for a long time. I decided to try something a bit different the following night and cut the pieces a bit bigger and cooked them for less time, as I like my meat rarer than he does. This was a bad idea. It seems that the more you cook camel, the more tender it becomes. So we had what amounted to two pounds or more of rubber for dinner that night.. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20121019192428/http://scientistatwork.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/07/23/how-to-cook-camel/. 19 October 2012.
  129. Web site: 2017-09-01 . Eid al-Adha: More than just slaughtering animals . 2022-10-04 . Daily Sabah.
  130. Web site: Qurbani Meat Distribution Rules . 2022-10-04 . Muslim Aid . en.
  131. News: Arthur. Rick. The Instant Expert: camels, the ships of the desert. The National. 4 January 2012 . UAE. Abu Dhabi Media. As the meat can be dry, however, the Abu Dhabi Officer's Club, for one, serves camel burger with beef or lamb fat mixed in, improving texture and taste..
  132. Book: The Camel Applied Research and Development Network. Jasra. Abdel Wahid. G. B.. Isani. Camel Applied Research and Development Network. Socio-economics of camel herders in Pakistan. 2000. 164. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20160610122525/https://books.google.com/books?id=aRRJAAAAYAAJ&q=nihari+camel+pakistan&dq=nihari+camel+pakistan. 2016-06-10.
  133. https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2013/apr/16/camel-meat-one-hump-two Anyone for camel meat? One hump or two?
  134. Book: 2nd. Oxford University Press, US. 978-0192806819. Davidson. Alan. Jane. Davidson. Tom . Jaine. The Oxford Companion to Food. 15 October 2006 . 68, 129, 266, 762.
  135. News: Webster. George. Dubai diners flock to eat new 'camel burger'. CNN World. 7 December 2012. 9 February 2010. CNN. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20130929093119/http://www.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/meast/02/09/camel.burgers.dubai/index.html. 29 September 2013.
  136. Abdulaziz A. . Bin Saeed . Nasser A. . Al-Hamdan . Robert E. . Fontaine . Plague from eating raw camel liver. 16229781 . 2005 . 1456–7 . 9 . 11 . Emerging Infectious Diseases . 3310619 . 10.3201/eid1109.050081.
  137. News: Sherwood. Andy. Camel burgers in Abu Dhabi. Time Out Abu Dhabi. 7 December 2012. 17 September 2012. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20130927194204/http://www.timeoutabudhabi.com/restaurants/features/35060-camel-burgers-in-abu-dhabi/page/2#.UMIy67ZjyFA. 27 September 2013.
  138. Web site: McBride . Louise . SA hits world camel meat supply hump . Stock Journal . 14 June 2010 . 27 April 2020.
  139. News: Burin . Margaret . Australians urged to develop taste for camel meat . ABC News . 7 August 2015 . 27 April 2020.
  140. News: Halina . Bazckowski . The beasts that beat the drought: Camels sought after for meat, milk and cheese . ABC News . 22 March 2020 . 27 April 2020.
  141. Web site: Book 1, Number 0184. https://web.archive.org/web/20110716145540/http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/hadith/abudawud/001.sat.html#001.0184. 16 July 2011. Partial Translation of Sunan Abu-Dawud, Book 1. Purification (Kitab al-Taharah). Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement. Narrated Al-Bara' ibn Azib: The Messenger of Allah (peace_be_upon_him) was asked about performing ablution after eating the flesh of the camel. He replied: Perform ablution, after eating it. He was asked about performing ablution after eating meat. He replied: Do not perform ablution after eating it. He was asked about saying prayer in places where the camels lie down. He replied: Do not offer prayer in places where the camels lie down. These are the places of Satan. He was asked about saying prayer in the sheepfolds. He replied: You may offer prayer in such places; these are the places of blessing..
  142. Book: Williams, John Alden. The Word of Islam. 25 October 2016. 1994. University of Texas Press. 978-0-292-79076-6. 98. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20170408182755/https://books.google.com/books?id=rAj-DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA98. 8 April 2017.
  143. Campo, Juan Eduardo (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. Infobase Publishing. p. 128.
  144. Web site: Heinemann. Moshe. Star-K. Cholov Yisroel: Does a Neshama Good. Kashrus Kurrents. 4 May 2017. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20170430215725/http://www.star-k.org/articles/articles/1179/cholov-yisroel-does-a-neshama-good/. 30 April 2017. 2013-08-20.
  145. http://www.chabad.org/library/bible_cdo/aid/9912#v=41
  146. Book: Ben-Zvi, Itzhak . שאר ישוב: מאמרים ופרקים בדברי ימי הישוב העברי בא"י ובחקר המולדת . none . 1967 . תל אביב תרפ"ז . 407–413 . Hebrew . She'ar Yeshuv . Yitzhak Ben-Zvi.
  147. Web site: Sar-Avi . Doron . 2019 . מניין באו הערבים 'היהודים'? . 2024-02-18 . Segula Magazine.
  148. Saudi Arabia camel carvings dated to prehistoric era , BBC, September 15, 2021
  149. Book: Bernstein, William J.. A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World. Grove Press. 2009. 56. 9780802144164.
  150. Book: Abokor, Axmed Cali. Nordic Africa Institute. 9789171062697. The Camel in Somali Oral Tradition. 1987 . 7, 10–11.
  151. Web site: Drought threatening Somali nomads, UN humanitarian office says. UN News Centre. 7 December 2012. 14 November 2003. A four-year drought is threatening the lives of Somali nomads, and those of the camel herds on which they depend for transportation and milk. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20111119005808/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=8894&Cr=somalia&Cr1=. 19 November 2011.
  152. 6. 1. 45–55. Farah. K. O.. D. M. . Nyariki. R. K. . Ngugi. I. M.. Noor. A. Y.. Guliye. The Somali and the Camel: Ecology, Management and Economics. Anthropologist. 2004. Somali pastoralists are a camel community...There is no other community in the world where the camel plays such a pivotal role in the local economy and culture as in the Somali community. According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 1979) estimates, there are approximately 15 million dromedary camels in the world. 10.1080/09720073.2004.11890828. 4980638. Plain text version.
  153. Web site: Feral camel. 17 August 2015. 10 March 2022. Northern Territory government.
  154. Pople . A. R. . McLeod . S. R. . 10.1071/RJ09053 . Demography of feral camels in central Australia and its relevance to population control . The Rangeland Journal . 32 . 11 . 2010 . 83822347 . DAF eResearch Archive . free . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20240329050756/https://era.daf.qld.gov.au/id/eprint/1736/ . Mar 29, 2024 .
  155. Book: Saalfeld . W.K. . Edwards . GP . 1832-6684 . 2008 . Managing the impacts of feral camels in Australia: a new way of doing business . Ecology of feral camels in Australia . Report 47 . Desert Knowledge Cooperative Research Centre . Alice Springs . 978-1-74158-094-5 . http://www.desertknowledgecrc.com.au/resource/DKCRC-Report-47-Managing-the-impacts-of-feral-camels-in-Australia_A-new-way-of-doing-business.pdf . https://web.archive.org/web/20120329053749/http://www.desertknowledgecrc.com.au/resource/DKCRC-Report-47-Managing-the-impacts-of-feral-camels-in-Australia_A-new-way-of-doing-business.pdf . 2012-03-29 . 2011-12-25 .
  156. Web site: Tsai . Vivian . https://web.archive.org/web/20121011072811/http://www.ibtimes.com/australia-culls-100000-feral-camels-limit-environmental-damage-many-more-will-be-killed-789326 . 11 October 2012 . Australia Culls 100,000 Feral Camels To Limit Environmental Damage, Many More Will Be Killed . 14 September 2012 . . 1 November 2012 . live .
  157. Book: Dolby, Karen. Random House Digital, Inc. 9780307716255. You Must Remember This: Easy Tricks & Proven Tips to Never Forget Anything, Ever Again. 10 August 2010 . 170.
  158. Web site: Denver Zoo . Bactrian Camel . 7 December 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130512074950/http://www.denverzoo.org/downloads/dzoo_bactrian_camel.pdf . 12 May 2013 .
  159. Jemmett . Anna M. . Groombridge . Jim J. . Hare . John . Yadamsuren . Adiya . Burger . Pamela A. . Ewen . John G. . March 2023 . What's in a name? Common name misuse potentially confounds the conservation of the wild camel Camelus ferus . Oryx . en . 57 . 2 . 175–179 . 10.1017/S0030605322000114 . 0030-6053.

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Camel".

Except where otherwise indicated, Everything.Explained.Today is © Copyright 2009-2024, A B Cryer, All Rights Reserved. Cookie policy.