Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from human activities intensify the greenhouse effect. This contributes to climate change. Carbon dioxide, from burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, is one of the most important factors in causing climate change. The largest emitters are China followed by the United States. The United States has higher emissions per capita. The main producers fueling the emissions globally are large oil and gas companies. Emissions from human activities have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide by about 50% over pre-industrial levels. The growing levels of emissions have varied, but have been consistent among all greenhouse gases. Emissions in the 2010s averaged 56 billion tons a year, higher than any decade before.[1] Total cumulative emissions from 1870 to 2022 were 703 (2575), of which 484±20 (1773±73) from fossil fuels and industry, and 219±60 (802±220) from land use change. Land-use change, such as deforestation, caused about 31% of cumulative emissions over 1870–2022, coal 32%, oil 24%, and gas 10%.[2] [3]
Carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas resulting from human activities. It accounts for more than half of warming. Methane (CH4) emissions have almost the same short-term impact. Nitrous oxide (N2O) and fluorinated gases (F-gases) play a lesser role in comparison. Emissions of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide in 2023 were all higher than ever before.[4]
Electricity generation, heat and transport are major emitters; overall energy is responsible for around 73% of emissions.[5] Deforestation and other changes in land use also emit carbon dioxide and methane. The largest source of anthropogenic methane emissions is agriculture, closely followed by gas venting and fugitive emissions from the fossil-fuel industry. The largest agricultural methane source is livestock. Agricultural soils emit nitrous oxide partly due to fertilizers. Similarly, fluorinated gases from refrigerants play an outsized role in total human emissions.
The current -equivalent emission rates averaging 6.6 tonnes per person per year,[6] are well over twice the estimated rate 2.3 tons[7] [8] required to stay within the 2030 Paris Agreement increase of 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) over pre-industrial levels.[9] Annual per capita emissions in the industrialized countries are typically as much as ten times the average in developing countries.
The carbon footprint (or greenhouse gas footprint) serves as an indicator to compare the amount of greenhouse gases emitted over the entire life cycle from the production of a good or service along the supply chain to its final consumption.[10] [11] Carbon accounting (or greenhouse gas accounting) is a framework of methods to measure and track how much greenhouse gas an organization emits.[12]
See also: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere and Atmospheric methane. The major anthropogenic (human origin) sources of greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane and three groups of fluorinated gases (sulfur hexafluoride, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs, sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), and nitrogen trifluoride (NF3))).[13] Though the greenhouse effect is heavily driven by water vapor,[14] human emissions of water vapor are not a significant contributor to warming.
Although CFCs are greenhouse gases, they are regulated by the Montreal Protocol which was motivated by CFCs' contribution to ozone depletion rather than by their contribution to global warming. Ozone depletion has only a minor role in greenhouse warming, though the two processes are sometimes confused in the media. In 2016, negotiators from over 170 nations meeting at the summit of the United Nations Environment Programme reached a legally binding accord to phase out hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) in the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol.[15] [16] [17] The use of CFC-12 (except some essential uses) has been phased out due to its ozone depleting properties. The phasing-out of less active HCFC-compounds will be completed in 2030.[18]
Starting about 1750, industrial activity powered by fossil fuels began to significantly increase the concentration of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. Emissions have grown rapidly since about 1950 with ongoing expansions in global population and economic activity following World War II. As of 2021, measured atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide were almost 50% higher than pre-industrial levels.[19]
The main sources of greenhouse gases due to human activity (also called carbon sources) are:
See also: Arctic methane emissions and Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands. Global greenhouse gas emissions are about 50 Gt per year[29] and for 2019 have been estimated at 57 Gt eq including 5 Gt due to land use change.[30] In 2019, approximately 34% [20 Gt{{CO2}}-eq] of total net anthropogenic GHG emissions came from the energy supply sector, 24% [14 Gt{{CO2}}-eq] from industry, 22% [13 Gt{{CO2}}-eq]from agriculture, forestry and other land use (AFOLU), 15% [8.7 Gt{{CO2}}-eq] from transport and 6% [3.3 Gt{{CO2}}-eq] from buildings.[31]
The current -equivalent emission rates averaging 6.6 tonnes per person per year, are well over twice the estimated rate 2.3 tons required to stay within the 2030 Paris Agreement increase of 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) over pre-industrial levels.
While cities are sometimes considered to be disproportionate contributors to emissions, per-capita emissions tend to be lower for cities than the averages in their countries.[32]
A 2017 survey of corporations responsible for global emissions found that 100 companies were responsible for 71% of global direct and indirect emissions, and that state-owned companies were responsible for 59% of their emissions.[33] [34]
China is, by a significant margin, Asia's and the world's largest emitter: it emits nearly 10 billion tonnes each year, more than one-quarter of global emissions. Other countries with fast growing emissions are South Korea, Iran, and Australia (which apart from the oil rich Persian Gulf states, now has the highest per capita emission rate in the world). On the other hand, annual per capita emissions of the EU-15 and the US are gradually decreasing over time. Emissions in Russia and Ukraine have decreased fastest since 1990 due to economic restructuring in these countries.[35]
2015 was the first year to see both total global economic growth and a reduction of carbon emissions.[36]
Annual per capita emissions in the industrialized countries are typically as much as ten times the average in developing countries. Due to China's fast economic development, its annual per capita emissions are quickly approaching the levels of those in the Annex I group of the Kyoto Protocol (i.e., the developed countries excluding the US).[37]
Africa and South America are both fairly small emitters, accounting for 3-4% of global emissions each. Both have emissions almost equal to international aviation and shipping.
There are several ways of measuring greenhouse gas emissions. Some variables that have been reported include:[38]
These measures are sometimes used by countries to assert various policy/ethical positions on climate change.[40] The use of different measures leads to a lack of comparability, which is problematic when monitoring progress towards targets. There are arguments for the adoption of a common measurement tool, or at least the development of communication between different tools.
Emissions may be tracked over long time periods, known as historical or cumulative emissions measurements. Cumulative emissions provide some indicators of what is responsible for greenhouse gas atmospheric concentration build-up.[41]
See also: Carbon leakage.
The national accounts balance tracks emissions based on the difference between a country's exports and imports. For many richer nations, the balance is negative because more goods are imported than they are exported. This result is mostly due to the fact that it is cheaper to produce goods outside of developed countries, leading developed countries to become increasingly dependent on services and not goods. A positive account balance would mean that more production was occurring within a country, so more operational factories would increase carbon emission levels.[42]
Emissions may also be measured across shorter time periods. Emissions changes may, for example, be measured against the base year of 1990. 1990 was used in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) as the base year for emissions, and is also used in the Kyoto Protocol (some gases are also measured from the year 1995).[43] A country's emissions may also be reported as a proportion of global emissions for a particular year.
Another measurement is of per capita emissions. This divides a country's total annual emissions by its mid-year population.[44] Per capita emissions may be based on historical or annual emissions.
See also: Embedded emissions.
One way of attributing greenhouse gas emissions is to measure the embedded emissions (also referred to as "embodied emissions") of goods that are being consumed. Emissions are usually measured according to production, rather than consumption.[45] For example, in the main international treaty on climate change (the UNFCCC), countries report on emissions produced within their borders, e.g., the emissions produced from burning fossil fuels.[46] Under a production-based accounting of emissions, embedded emissions on imported goods are attributed to the exporting, rather than the importing, country. Under a consumption-based accounting of emissions, embedded emissions on imported goods are attributed to the importing country, rather than the exporting, country.
A substantial proportion of emissions is traded internationally. The net effect of trade was to export emissions from China and other emerging markets to consumers in the US, Japan, and Western Europe.
Emission intensity is a ratio between greenhouse gas emissions and another metric, e.g., gross domestic product (GDP) or energy use. The terms "carbon intensity" and "emissions intensity" are also sometimes used.[47] Emission intensities may be calculated using market exchange rates (MER) or purchasing power parity (PPP). Calculations based on MER show large differences in intensities between developed and developing countries, whereas calculations based on PPP show smaller differences.
Carbon accounting (or greenhouse gas accounting) is a framework of methods to measure and track how much greenhouse gas an organization emits.
Cumulative anthropogenic (i.e., human-emitted) emissions of from fossil fuel use are a major cause of global warming,[48] and give some indication of which countries have contributed most to human-induced climate change. In particular, stays in the atmosphere for at least 150 years and up to 1000 years,[49] whilst methane disappears within a decade or so,[50] and nitrous oxides last about 100 years.[51] The graph gives some indication of which regions have contributed most to human-induced climate change.[52] [53] When these numbers are calculated per capita cumulative emissions based on then-current population the situation is shown even more clearly. The ratio in per capita emissions between industrialized countries and developing countries was estimated at more than 10 to 1.
Non-OECD countries accounted for 42% of cumulative energy-related emissions between 1890 and 2007. Over this time period, the US accounted for 28% of emissions; the EU, 23%; Japan, 4%; other OECD countries 5%; Russia, 11%; China, 9%; India, 3%; and the rest of the world, 18%..The European Commission adopted a set of legislative proposals targeting a reduction of the CO2 emissions by 55% by 2030.
Overall, developed countries accounted for 83.8% of industrial emissions over this time period, and 67.8% of total emissions. Developing countries accounted for industrial emissions of 16.2% over this time period, and 32.2% of total emissions.
However, what becomes clear when we look at emissions across the world today is that the countries with the highest emissions over history are not always the biggest emitters today. For example, in 2017, the UK accounted for just 1% of global emissions.
In comparison, humans have emitted more greenhouse gases than the Chicxulub meteorite impact event which caused the extinction of the dinosaurs.[54]
Transport, together with electricity generation, is the major source of greenhouse gas emissions in the EU. Greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector continue to rise, in contrast to power generation and nearly all other sectors. Since 1990, transportation emissions have increased by 30%. The transportation sector accounts for around 70% of these emissions. The majority of these emissions are caused by passenger vehicles and vans. Road travel is the first major source of greenhouse gas emissions from transportation, followed by aircraft and maritime.[55] [56] Waterborne transportation is still the least carbon-intensive mode of transportation on average, and it is an essential link in sustainable multimodal freight supply chains.[57]
Buildings, like industry, are directly responsible for around one-fifth of greenhouse gas emissions, primarily from space heating and hot water consumption. When combined with power consumption within buildings, this figure climbs to more than one-third.[58] [59] [60]
Within the EU, the agricultural sector presently accounts for roughly 10% of total greenhouse gas emissions, with methane from livestock accounting for slightly more than half of 10%.[61]
Estimates of total emissions do include biotic carbon emissions, mainly from deforestation. Including biotic emissions brings about the same controversy mentioned earlier regarding carbon sinks and land-use change. The actual calculation of net emissions is very complex, and is affected by how carbon sinks are allocated between regions and the dynamics of the climate system.
The graphic shows the logarithm of 1850–2019 fossil fuel emissions;[62] natural log on left, actual value of Gigatons per year on right. Although emissions increased during the 170-year period by about 3% per year overall, intervals of distinctly different growth rates (broken at 1913, 1945, and 1973) can be detected. The regression lines suggest that emissions can rapidly shift from one growth regime to another and then persist for long periods of time. The most recent drop in emissions growth - by almost 3 percentage points - was at about the time of the 1970s energy crisis. Percent changes per year were estimated by piecewise linear regression on the log data and are shown on the plot; the data are from The Integrated Carbon Observation system.[63]
See also: Greenhouse gas inventory.
The sharp acceleration in emissions since 2000 to more than a 3% increase per year (more than 2 ppm per year) from 1.1% per year during the 1990s is attributable to the lapse of formerly declining trends in carbon intensity of both developing and developed nations. China was responsible for most of global growth in emissions during this period. Localised plummeting emissions associated with the collapse of the Soviet Union have been followed by slow emissions growth in this region due to more efficient energy use, made necessary by the increasing proportion of it that is exported.[64] In comparison, methane has not increased appreciably, and by 0.25% y−1.
Using different base years for measuring emissions has an effect on estimates of national contributions to global warming.[65] This can be calculated by dividing a country's highest contribution to global warming starting from a particular base year, by that country's minimum contribution to global warming starting from a particular base year. Choosing between base years of 1750, 1900, 1950, and 1990 has a significant effect for most countries. Within the G8 group of countries, it is most significant for the UK, France and Germany. These countries have a long history of emissions (see the section on Cumulative and historical emissions).
The Global Carbon Project continuously releases data about emissions, budget and concentration.
| 2010 | 9.106 | 1.32 | 10.43 | 38.0 | |
| 2011 | 9.412 | 1.35 | 10.76 | 39.2 | |
| 2012 | 9.554 | 1.32 | 10.87 | 39.6 | |
| 2013 | 9.640 | 1.26 | 10.9 | 39.7 | |
| 2014 | 9.710 | 1.34 | 11.05 | 40.2 | |
| 2015 | 9.704 | 1.47 | 11.17 | 40.7 | |
| 2016 | 9.695 | 1.24 | 10.93 | 39.8 | |
| 2017 | 9.852 | 1.18 | 11.03 | 40.2 | |
| 2018 | 10.051 | 1.14 | 11.19 | 40.7 | |
| 2019 | 10.120 | 1.24 | 11.36 | 41.3 | |
| 2020 | 9.624 | 1.11 | 10.73 | 39.1 | |
| 2021 | 10.132 | 1.08 | 11.21 | 40.8 | |
| 2022(projection) | 10.2 | 1.08 | 11.28 | 41.3 |
See also: IPCC list of greenhouse gases.
Carbon dioxide is the dominant emitted greenhouse gas, while methane emissions almost have the same short-term impact.[67] Nitrous oxide (N2O) and fluorinated gases (F-gases) play a lesser role in comparison.
Greenhouse gas emissions are measured in equivalents determined by their global warming potential (GWP), which depends on their lifetime in the atmosphere. Estimations largely depend on the ability of oceans and land sinks to absorb these gases. Short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs) including methane, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), tropospheric ozone and black carbon persist in the atmosphere for a period ranging from days to 15 years; whereas carbon dioxide can remain in the atmosphere for millennia.[68] Reducing SLCP emissions can cut the ongoing rate of global warming by almost half and reduce the projected Arctic warming by two-thirds.[69]
Greenhouse gas emissions in 2019 were estimated at 57.4 Gte, while emissions alone made up 42.5 Gt including land-use change (LUC).[70]
While mitigation measures for decarbonization are essential on the longer term, they could result in weak near-term warming because sources of carbon emissions often also co-emit air pollution. Hence, pairing measures that target carbon dioxide with measures targeting non- pollutants – short-lived climate pollutants, which have faster effects on the climate, is essential for climate goals.[71]
See also: Methane emissions and Arctic methane emissions. Methane has a high immediate impact with a 5-year global warming potential of up to 100. Given this, the current 389 Mt of methane emissions has about the same short-term global warming effect as emissions, with a risk to trigger irreversible changes in climate and ecosystems. For methane, a reduction of about 30% below current emission levels would lead to a stabilization in its atmospheric concentration.
N2O has a high GWP and significant Ozone Depleting Potential. It is estimated that the global warming potential of N2O over 100 years is 265 times greater than .[75] For N2O, a reduction of more than 50% would be required for a stabilization.
Most emissions (56%) of nitrous oxide comes from agriculture, especially meat production: cattle (droppings on pasture), fertilizers, animal manure.Further contributions come from combustion of fossil fuels (18%) and biofuels[76] as well as industrial production of adipic acid and nitric acid.
Fluorinated gases include hydrofluorocarbons (HFC), perfluorocarbons (PFC), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), and nitrogen trifluoride (NF3). They are used by switchgear in the power sector, semiconductor manufacture, aluminum production and a largely unknown source of SF6. Continued phase down of manufacture and use of HFCs under the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol will help reduce HFC emissions and concurrently improve the energy efficiency of appliances that use HFCs like air conditioners, freezers and other refrigeration devices.
Hydrogen leakages contribute to indirect global warming.[77] When hydrogen is oxidized in the atmosphere, the result is an increase in concentrations of greenhouse gases in both the troposphere and the stratosphere.[78] Hydrogen can leak from hydrogen production facilities as well as any infrastructure in which hydrogen is transported, stored, or consumed.[79]
Black carbon is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuel, and biomass. It is not a greenhouse gas but a climate forcing agent. Black carbon can absorb sunlight and reduce albedo when deposited on snow and ice. Indirect heating can be caused by the interaction with clouds.[80] Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks.[81] Emissions may be mitigated by upgrading coke ovens, installing particulate filters on diesel-based engines, reducing routine flaring, and minimizing open burning of biomass.
Global greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to different sectors of the economy. This provides a picture of the varying contributions of different types of economic activity to climate change, and helps in understanding the changes required to mitigate climate change.
Greenhouse gas emissions can be divided into those that arise from the combustion of fuels to produce energy, and those generated by other processes. Around two thirds of greenhouse gas emissions arise from the combustion of fuels.[82]
Energy may be produced at the point of consumption, or by a generator for consumption by others. Thus emissions arising from energy production may be categorized according to where they are emitted, or where the resulting energy is consumed. If emissions are attributed at the point of production, then electricity generators contribute about 25% of global greenhouse gas emissions.[83] If these emissions are attributed to the final consumer then 24% of total emissions arise from manufacturing and construction, 17% from transportation, 11% from domestic consumers, and 7% from commercial consumers.[84] Around 4% of emissions arise from the energy consumed by the energy and fuel industry itself.
The remaining third of emissions arise from processes other than energy production. 12% of total emissions arise from agriculture, 7% from land use change and forestry, 6% from industrial processes, and 3% from waste.
See also: Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of energy sources. Coal-fired power stations are the single largest emitter, with over 20% of global greenhouse gas emissions in 2018.[85] Although much less polluting than coal plants, natural gas-fired power plants are also major emitters,[86] taking electricity generation as a whole over 25% in 2018.[87] Notably, just 5% of the world's power plants account for almost three-quarters of carbon emissions from electricity generation, based on an inventory of more than 29,000 fossil-fuel power plants across 221 countries.[88] In the 2022 IPCC report, it is noted that providing modern energy services universally would only increase greenhouse gas emissions by a few percent at most. This slight increase means that the additional energy demand that comes from supporting decent living standards for all would be far lower than current average energy consumption.[89]
In March 2024, the International Energy Agency (IEA) reported that in 2023, global CO2 emissions from energy sources increased by 1.1%, rising by 410 million tonnes to a record 37.4 billion tonnes, primarily due to coal. Drought-related decreases in hydropower contributed to a 170 million tonne rise in emissions, which would have otherwise led to a decrease in the electricity sector's emissions.[90] The implementation of clean energy technologies like solar, wind, nuclear, heat pumps, and electric vehicles since 2019 has significantly tempered emissions growth, which would have been threefold without these technologies.
See also: Methane emissions.
Deforestation is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions. A study shows annual carbon emissions (or carbon loss) from tropical deforestation have doubled during the last two decades and continue to increase. (0.97 ±0.16 PgC per year in 2001–2005 to 1.99 ±0.13 PgC per year in 2015–2019)[91]
See main article: Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. Land-use change, e.g., the clearing of forests for agricultural use, can affect the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere by altering how much carbon flows out of the atmosphere into carbon sinks. Accounting for land-use change can be understood as an attempt to measure "net" emissions, i.e., gross emissions from all sources minus the removal of emissions from the atmosphere by carbon sinks.
There are substantial uncertainties in the measurement of net carbon emissions.[92] Additionally, there is controversy over how carbon sinks should be allocated between different regions and over time. For instance, concentrating on more recent changes in carbon sinks is likely to favour those regions that have deforested earlier, e.g., Europe.
In 1997, human-caused Indonesian peat fires were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average annual global carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels.[93] [94] [95]
Transportation accounts for 15% of emissions worldwide.[96] Over a quarter of global transport emissions are from road freight,[97] so many countries are further restricting truck emissions to help limit climate change.[98]
Maritime transport accounts for 3.5% to 4% of all greenhouse gas emissions, primarily carbon dioxide.[99] [100] In 2022, the shipping industry's 3% of global greenhouse gas emissions made it "the sixth largest greenhouse gas emitter worldwide, ranking between Japan and Germany."[101] [102] [103]
Jet airliners contribute to climate change by emitting carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, contrails and particulates.In 2018, global commercial operations generated 2.4% of all emissions.[104]
In 2020, approximately 3.5% of the overall human impacts on climate are from the aviation sector. The impact of the sector on climate in the last 20 years had doubled, but the part of the contribution of the sector in comparison to other sectors did not change because other sectors grew as well.[105]
Some representative figures for average direct emissions (not accounting for high-altitude radiative effects) of airliners expressed as and equivalent per passenger kilometer:[106]
In 2018, manufacturing construction materials and maintaining buildings accounted for 39% of carbon dioxide emissions from energy and process-related emissions. Manufacture of glass, cement, and steel accounted for 11% of energy and process-related emissions.[107] Because building construction is a significant investment, more than two-thirds of buildings in existence will still exist in 2050. Retrofitting existing buildings to become more efficient will be necessary to meet the targets of the Paris Agreement; it will be insufficient to only apply low-emission standards to new construction.[108] Buildings that produce as much energy as they consume are called zero-energy buildings, while buildings that produce more than they consume are energy-plus. Low-energy buildings are designed to be highly efficient with low total energy consumption and carbon emissions - a popular type is the passive house.
The construction industry has seen marked advances in building performance and energy efficiency over recent decades.[109] Green building practices that avoid emissions or capture the carbon already present in the environment, allow for reduced footprint of the construction industry, for example, use of hempcrete, cellulose fiber insulation, and landscaping.[110]
In 2019, the building sector was responsible for 12 Gt-eq emissions. More than 95% of these emissions were carbon, and the remaining 5% were,, and halocarbon.[111]
The largest contributor to building sector emissions (49% of total) is the production of electricity for use in buildings.[112]
Of global building sector GHG emissions, 28% are produced during the manufacturing process of building materials such as steel, cement (a key component of concrete),[113] and glass. The conventional process inherently related to the production of steel and cement results in large amounts of CO2 emitted. For example, the production of steel in 2018 was responsible for 7 to 9% of the global CO2 emissions.[114]
The remaining 23% of global building sector GHG emissions are produced directly on site during building operations.
Embodied carbon emissions, or upfront carbon emissions (UCE), are the result of creating and maintaining the materials that form a building.[115] As of 2018, "Embodied carbon is responsible 11% of global greenhouse gas emissions and 28% of global building sector emissions ... Embodied carbon will be responsible for almost half of total new construction emissions between now and 2050."[116]
GHG emissions which are produced during the mining, processing, manufacturing, transportation and installation of building materials are referred to as the embodied carbon of a material.[117] The embodied carbon of a construction project can be reduced by using low-carbon materials for building structures and finishes, reducing demolition, and reusing buildings and construction materials whenever possible.
Secunda CTL is the world's largest single emitter, at 56.5 million tonnes a year.[118]
Flaring and venting of natural gas in oil wells is a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions. Its contribution to greenhouse gases has declined by three-quarters in absolute terms since a peak in the 1970s of approximately 110 million metric tons/year, and in 2004 accounted for about 1/2 of one percent of all anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions.[119]
The World Bank estimates that 134 billion cubic meters of natural gas are flared or vented annually (2010 datum), an amount equivalent to the combined annual gas consumption of Germany and France or enough to supply the entire world with gas for 16 days. This flaring is highly concentrated: 10 countries account for 70% of emissions, and twenty for 85%.[120]
Steel and aluminum are key economic sectors where CO2 is produced. According to a 2013 study, "in 2004, the steel industry along emits about 590M tons of, which accounts for 5.2% of the global anthropogenic GHG emissions. emitted from steel production primarily comes from energy consumption of fossil fuel as well as the use of limestone to purify iron oxides."[121]
Plastics are produced mainly from fossil fuels. It was estimated that between 3% and 4% of global GHG emissions are associated with plastics' life cycles.[122] The EPA estimates[123] as many as five mass units of carbon dioxide are emitted for each mass unit of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) produced—the type of plastic most commonly used for beverage bottles,[124] the transportation produce greenhouse gases also.[125] Plastic waste emits carbon dioxide when it degrades. In 2018 research claimed that some of the most common plastics in the environment release the greenhouse gases methane and ethylene when exposed to sunlight in an amount that can affect the earth climate.[126] [127]
Due to the lightness of plastic versus glass or metal, plastic may reduce energy consumption. For example, packaging beverages in PET plastic rather than glass or metal is estimated to save 52% in transportation energy, if the glass or metal package is single-use, of course.
In 2019 a new report "Plastic and Climate" was published. According to the report, the production and incineration of plastics will contribute in the equivalent of 850 million tonnes of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere in 2019. With the current trend, annual life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of plastics will grow to 1.34 billion tonnes by 2030. By 2050, the life cycle emissions of plastics could reach 56 billion tonnes, as much as 14 percent of the Earth's remaining carbon budget.[128] The report says that only solutions which involve a reduction in consumption can solve the problem, while others like biodegradable plastic, ocean cleanup, using renewable energy in plastic industry can do little, and in some cases may even worsen it.[129]
The global print and paper industry accounts for about 1% of global carbon dioxide emissions.[130] Greenhouse gas emissions from the pulp and paper industry are generated from the combustion of fossil fuels required for raw material production and transportation, wastewater treatment facilities, purchased power, paper transportation, printed product transportation, disposal and recycling.
In 2020, data centers (excluding cryptocurrency mining) and data transmission each used about 1% of world electricity.[131] The digital sector produces between 2% and 4% of global GHG emissions,[132] a large part of which is from chipmaking.[133] However the sector reduces emissions from other sectors which have a larger global share, such as transport of people,[134] and possibly buildings and industry.[135]
Mining for proof-of-work cryptocurrencies requires enormous amounts of electricity and consequently comes with a large carbon footprint.[136] Proof-of-work blockchains such as Bitcoin, Ethereum, Litecoin, and Monero were estimated to have added between 3 million and 15 million tonnes of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere in the period from 1 January 2016 to 30 June 2017.[137] By the end of 2021, Bitcoin was estimated to produce 65.4 million tonnes of, as much as Greece,[138] and consume between 91 and 177 terawatt-hours annually. Bitcoin is the least energy-efficient cryptocurrency, using 707.6 kilowatt-hours of electricity per transaction.[139] [140] [141]
A study in 2015 investigated the global electricity usage that can be ascribed to Communication Technology (CT) between 2010 and 2030. Electricity usage from CT was divided into four principle categories: (i) consumer devices, including personal computers, mobile phones, TVs and home entertainment systems; (ii) network infrastructure; (iii) data center computation and storage; and lastly (iv) production of the above categories. The study estimated for the worst-case scenario, that CT electricity usage could contribute up to 23% of the globally released greenhouse gas emissions in 2030.[142]
The healthcare sector produces 4.4–4.6% of global greenhouse gas emissions.[143]
Based on the 2013 life cycle emissions in the health care sector, it is estimated that the GHG emissions associated with US health care activities may cause an additional 123,000 to 381,000 DALYs annually.[144]
According to UNEP, global tourism is a significant contributor to the increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.[145]
The responsibility for anthropogenic climate change differs substantially among individuals, e.g. between groups or cohorts.
Fueled by the consumptive lifestyle of wealthy people, the wealthiest 5% of the global population has been responsible for 37% of the absolute increase in greenhouse gas emissions worldwide. It can be seen that there is a strong relationship between income and per capita carbon dioxide emissions.[146] Almost half of the increase in absolute global emissions has been caused by the richest 10% of the population.[147] In the newest report from the IPCC 2022, it states that the lifestyle consumptions of the poor and middle class in emerging economies produce approximately 5–50 times less the amount that the high class in already developed high-income countries.[148] [149] Variations in regional, and national per capita emissions partly reflect different development stages, but they also vary widely at similar income levels. The 10% of households with the highest per capita emissions contribute a disproportionately large share of global household greenhouse gas emissions.
Studies find that the most affluent citizens of the world are responsible for most environmental impacts, and robust action by them is necessary for prospects of moving towards safer environmental conditions.[150] [151]
According to a 2020 report by Oxfam and the Stockholm Environment Institute,[152] [153] the richest 1% of the global population have caused twice as much carbon emissions as the poorest 50% over the 25 years from 1990 to 2015.[154] [155] [156] This was, respectively, during that period, 15% of cumulative emissions compared to 7%.[157] The bottom half of the population is directly responsible for less than 20% of energy footprints and consume less than the top 5% in terms of trade-corrected energy. The largest disproportionality was identified to be in the domain of transport, where e.g. the top 10% consume 56% of vehicle fuel and conduct 70% of vehicle purchases.[158] However, wealthy individuals are also often shareholders and typically have more influence[159] and, especially in the case of billionaires, may also direct lobbying efforts, direct financial decisions, and/or control companies.
Based on a study in 32 developed countries, researchers found that "seniors in the United States and Australia have the highest per capita footprint, twice the Western average. The trend is mainly due to changes in expenditure patterns of seniors".[160]
Governments have taken action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to mitigate climate change. Countries and regions listed in Annex I of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (i.e., the OECD and former planned economies of the Soviet Union) are required to submit periodic assessments to the UNFCCC of actions they are taking to address climate change.[161] Policies implemented by governments include for example national and regional targets to reduce emissions, promoting energy efficiency, and support for an energy transition.
See also: Carbon budget and Climate change scenario. In October 2023, the US Energy Information Administration (EIA) released a series of projections out to 2050 based on current ascertainable policy interventions.[162] [163] [164] Unlike many integrated systems models in this field, emissions are allowed to float rather than be pinned to netzero in 2050. Asensitivity analysis varied key parameters, primarily future GDP growth (2.6%pa as reference, variously 1.8% and 3.4%) and secondarily technological learning rates, future crude oil prices, and similar exogenous inputs. The model results are far from encouraging. In no case did aggregate energy-related carbon emissions ever dip below 2022 levels (see figure3 plot). The IEO2023 exploration provides a benchmark and suggests that far stronger action is needed.
See also: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions, List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita, List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions and List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita. In 2019, China, the United States, India, the EU27+UK, Russia, and Japan - the world's largest emitters - together accounted for 51% of the population, 62.5% of global gross domestic product, 62% of total global fossil fuel consumption and emitted 67% of total global fossil . Emissions from these five countries and the EU28 show different changes in 2019 compared to 2018: the largest relative increase is found for China (+3.4%), followed by India (+1.6%). On the contrary, the EU27+UK (-3.8%), the United States (-2.6%), Japan (-2.1%) and Russia (-0.8%) reduced their fossil emissions.
| Global Total | 38,016.57 | 100.00 | 4.93 | 0.29 | |
| 11,535.20 | 30.34 | 8.12 | 0.51 | ||
| 5,107.26 | 13.43 | 15.52 | 0.25 | ||
| EU27+UK | 3,303.97 | 8.69 | 6.47 | 0.14 | |
| 2,597.36 | 6.83 | 1.90 | 0.28 | ||
| 1,792.02 | 4.71 | 12.45 | 0.45 | ||
| 1,153.72 | 3.03 | 9.09 | 0.22 | ||
| International Shipping | 730.26 | 1.92 | - | - | |
| 702.60 | 1.85 | 8.52 | 0.16 | ||
| 701.99 | 1.85 | 8.48 | 0.68 | ||
| 651.87 | 1.71 | 12.70 | 0.30 | ||
| International Aviation | 627.48 | 1.65 | - | - | |
| 625.66 | 1.65 | 2.32 | 0.20 | ||
| 614.61 | 1.62 | 18.00 | 0.38 | ||
| 584.85 | 1.54 | 15.69 | 0.32 | ||
| 494.86 | 1.30 | 8.52 | 0.68 | ||
| 485.00 | 1.28 | 3.67 | 0.19 | ||
| 478.15 | 1.26 | 2.25 | 0.15 | ||
| 433.38 | 1.14 | 17.27 | 0.34 | ||
| 415.78 | 1.09 | 5.01 | 0.18 | ||
| 364.91 | 0.96 | 5.45 | 0.12 | ||
 Italy,  San Marino and the Holy See | 331.56 | 0.87 | 5.60 | 0.13 | |
| 317.65 | 0.84 | 8.35 | 0.25 | ||
| 314.74 | 0.83 | 4.81 | 0.10 | ||
| 305.25 | 0.80 | 3.13 | 0.39 | ||
| 277.36 | 0.73 | 14.92 | 0.57 | ||
| 276.78 | 0.73 | 11.65 | 0.23 | ||
| 275.06 | 0.72 | 3.97 | 0.21 | ||
 Spain and Andorra | 259.31 | 0.68 | 5.58 | 0.13 | |
| 255.37 | 0.67 | 2.52 | 0.22 | ||
| 248.83 | 0.65 | 7.67 | 0.27 | ||
| 223.63 | 0.59 | 1.09 | 0.22 | ||
| 222.61 | 0.59 | 22.99 | 0.34 | ||
| 199.41 | 0.52 | 4.42 | 0.20 | ||
| 197.61 | 0.52 | 4.89 | 0.46 | ||
| 196.40 | 0.52 | 4.48 | 0.36 | ||
| 180.57 | 0.47 | 4.23 | 0.37 | ||
| 156.41 | 0.41 | 9.13 | 0.16 | ||
| 150.64 | 0.40 | 1.39 | 0.16 | ||
| 110.16 | 0.29 | 0.66 | 0.14 | ||
| 110.06 | 0.29 | 3.36 | 0.39 | ||
| 106.53 | 0.28 | 38.82 | 0.41 | ||
| 105.69 | 0.28 | 9.94 | 0.25 | ||
| 104.41 | 0.27 | 9.03 | 0.18 | ||
| 100.22 | 0.26 | 0.50 | 0.10 | ||
| 98.95 | 0.26 | 23.29 | 0.47 | ||
| 94.99 | 0.25 | 2.90 | 0.40 | ||
| 92.78 | 0.24 | 18.55 | 0.67 | ||
| 90.52 | 0.24 | 15.23 | 0.98 | ||
| 89.89 | 0.24 | 4.90 | 0.20 | ||
| 86.55 | 0.23 | 1.74 | 0.12 | ||
| 78.63 | 0.21 | 4.04 | 0.14 | ||
| 73.91 | 0.19 | 2.02 | 0.27 | ||
| 72.36 | 0.19 | 8.25 | 0.14 | ||
| 70.69 | 0.19 | 7.55 | 0.44 | ||
 Israel and | 68.33 | 0.18 | 7.96 | 0.18 | |
| 66.34 | 0.17 | 7.03 | 0.37 | ||
| 65.57 | 0.17 | 5.89 | 0.20 | ||
| 56.29 | 0.15 | 1.71 | 0.13 | ||
| 53.37 | 0.14 | 9.09 | 0.10 | ||
| 53.18 | 0.14 | 5.51 | 0.17 | ||
| 52.05 | 0.14 | 7.92 | 0.51 | ||
| 48.47 | 0.13 | 4.73 | 0.14 | ||
| 48.31 | 0.13 | 0.89 | 0.17 | ||
| 47.99 | 0.13 | 8.89 | 0.14 | ||
| 44.75 | 0.12 | 4.45 | 0.08 | ||
| 44.02 | 0.12 | 5.88 | 0.10 | ||
| 43.41 | 0.11 | 7.81 | 0.16 | ||
| 43.31 | 0.11 | 6.20 | 0.27 | ||
| 42.17 | 0.11 | 1.64 | 0.36 | ||
| 40.70 | 0.11 | 2.38 | 0.21 | ||
| 39.37 | 0.10 | 4.57 | 0.07 | ||
| 38.67 | 0.10 | 8.07 | 0.18 | ||
| 36.55 | 0.10 | 7.54 | 0.09 | ||
| 35.99 | 0.09 | 6.60 | 0.20 | ||
| 35.98 | 0.09 | 3.59 | 0.25 | ||
| 35.93 | 0.09 | 11.35 | 0.91 | ||
| 35.44 | 0.09 | 21.64 | 0.48 | ||
| 33.50 | 0.09 | 9.57 | 0.68 | ||
| 32.74 | 0.09 | 23.81 | 0.90 | ||
| 32.07 | 0.08 | 2.72 | 0.25 | ||
| 31.12 | 0.08 | 5.39 | 0.09 | ||
| 31.04 | 0.08 | 2.70 | 0.11 | ||
| 29.16 | 0.08 | 1.58 | 1.20 | ||
| 28.34 | 0.07 | 2.81 | 0.28 | ||
| 27.57 | 0.07 | 1.31 | 0.10 | ||
| 27.44 | 0.07 | 4.52 | 0.27 | ||
| 27.28 | 0.07 | 2.48 | 0.14 | ||
| 25.82 | 0.07 | 0.81 | 0.12 | ||
| 24.51 | 0.06 | 2.15 | 0.24 | ||
 Sudan and | 22.57 | 0.06 | 0.40 | 0.13 | |
| 21.20 | 0.06 | 1.21 | 0.15 | ||
| 19.81 | 0.05 | 0.38 | 0.09 | ||
| 19.12 | 0.05 | 4.62 | 0.16 | ||
| 18.50 | 0.05 | 14.19 | 0.38 | ||
| 18.25 | 0.05 | 0.17 | 0.07 | ||
| 16.84 | 0.04 | 0.56 | 0.10 | ||
| 16.49 | 0.04 | 1.00 | 0.23 | ||
| 15.66 | 0.04 | 55.25 | 1.67 | ||
| 15.37 | 0.04 | 7.38 | 0.19 | ||
| 15.02 | 0.04 | 0.50 | 0.15 | ||
| 13.77 | 0.04 | 4.81 | 0.13 | ||
| 13.56 | 0.04 | 0.53 | 0.10 | ||
| 13.47 | 0.04 | 3.45 | 0.24 | ||
| 13.34 | 0.04 | 0.22 | 0.09 | ||
| 11.92 | 0.03 | 1.92 | 0.35 | ||
| 11.63 | 0.03 | 2.75 | 0.09 | ||
| 11.00 | 0.03 | 0.30 | 0.13 | ||
| 10.89 | 0.03 | 0.37 | 0.17 | ||
| 10.86 | 0.03 | 0.63 | 0.26 | ||
| 10.36 | 0.03 | 1.08 | 0.19 | ||
| 10.10 | 0.03 | 0.40 | 0.11 | ||
| 9.81 | 0.03 | 0.59 | 0.18 | ||
| 9.74 | 0.03 | 16.31 | 0.14 | ||
| 9.26 | 0.02 | 0.29 | 0.24 | ||
| 9.23 | 0.02 | 2.29 | 0.27 | ||
| 8.98 | 0.02 | 1.80 | 0.09 | ||
| 8.92 | 0.02 | 4.28 | 0.26 | ||
| 8.92 | 0.02 | 0.96 | 0.28 | ||
| 8.47 | 0.02 | 1.21 | 0.09 | ||
| 8.38 | 0.02 | 4.38 | 0.14 | ||
| 8.15 | 0.02 | 0.69 | 0.21 | ||
| 7.66 | 0.02 | 1.64 | 0.33 | ||
| 7.50 | 0.02 | 0.41 | 0.12 | ||
| 7.44 | 0.02 | 2.56 | 0.26 | ||
| 7.41 | 0.02 | 6.19 | 0.21 | ||
| 7.15 | 0.02 | 1.11 | 0.13 | ||
| 7.04 | 0.02 | 2.96 | 0.17 | ||
| 7.02 | 0.02 | 15.98 | 0.26 | ||
| 6.78 | 0.02 | 0.96 | 0.12 | ||
| 6.56 | 0.02 | 1.89 | 0.09 | ||
| 5.92 | 0.02 | 2.02 | 0.15 | ||
| 5.91 | 0.02 | 36.38 | 1.51 | ||
| 5.86 | 0.02 | 0.92 | 0.17 | ||
| 5.80 | 0.02 | 1.05 | 0.33 | ||
| 5.66 | 0.01 | 1.93 | 0.14 | ||
| 5.34 | 0.01 | 0.12 | 0.06 | ||
| 4.40 | 0.01 | 1.67 | 0.18 | ||
| 4.33 | 0.01 | 3.41 | 0.15 | ||
| 4.20 | 0.01 | 0.16 | 0.09 | ||
| 4.07 | 0.01 | 0.47 | 0.11 | ||
| 3.93 | 0.01 | 11.53 | 0.19 | ||
| 3.91 | 0.01 | 1.07 | 0.04 | ||
| 3.83 | 0.01 | 13.34 | 0.85 | ||
| 3.64 | 0.01 | 0.18 | 0.08 | ||
| 3.58 | 0.01 | 0.32 | 0.18 | ||
| 3.48 | 0.01 | 1.65 | 0.11 | ||
| 3.47 | 0.01 | 2.55 | 0.14 | ||
| 3.02 | 0.01 | 3.40 | - | ||
| 2.98 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.03 | ||
| 2.92 | 0.01 | 0.22 | 0.09 | ||
| 2.85 | 0.01 | 0.35 | 0.22 | ||
| 2.45 | 0.01 | 6.08 | 0.18 | ||
| 2.36 | 0.01 | 0.10 | 0.08 | ||
| 2.12 | 0.01 | 2.57 | 0.24 | ||
| 2.06 | 0.01 | 3.59 | 0.22 | ||
| 1.95 | 0.01 | 5.07 | - | ||
| 1.87 | 0.00 | 4.17 | - | ||
| 1.62 | 0.00 | 0.08 | 0.08 | ||
| 1.52 | 0.00 | 1.94 | 0.20 | ||
| 1.40 | 0.00 | 0.18 | 0.10 | ||
| 1.36 | 0.00 | 1.48 | 0.11 | ||
| 1.33 | 0.00 | 59.88 | 4.09 | ||
| 1.27 | 0.00 | 1.98 | 0.02 | ||
| 1.21 | 0.00 | 0.24 | 0.17 | ||
| 1.15 | 0.00 | 0.09 | 0.04 | ||
| 1.14 | 0.00 | 0.81 | 0.11 | ||
| 1.05 | 0.00 | 1.06 | 0.20 | ||
| 1.05 | 0.00 | 10.98 | 0.37 | ||
| 1.04 | 0.00 | 2.41 | 0.05 | ||
| 1.03 | 0.00 | 0.05 | 0.02 | ||
| 1.02 | 0.00 | 1.83 | 0.26 | ||
| 0.97 | 0.00 | 0.06 | 0.57 | ||
| 0.91 | 0.00 | 2.02 | 0.09 | ||
| 0.89 | 0.00 | 0.06 | 0.04 | ||
| 0.78 | 0.00 | 7.39 | 0.19 | ||
| 0.75 | 0.00 | 0.14 | 0.08 | ||
| 0.75 | 0.00 | 0.33 | 0.13 | ||
| 0.69 | 0.00 | 19.88 | 0.45 | ||
| 0.61 | 0.00 | 2.06 | - | ||
| 0.60 | 0.00 | 2.08 | 0.10 | ||
| 0.59 | 0.00 | 0.27 | 0.11 | ||
| 0.54 | 0.00 | 9.47 | 0.19 | ||
| 0.51 | 0.00 | 4.90 | 0.24 | ||
| 0.49 | 0.00 | 0.10 | 0.11 | ||
| 0.44 | 0.00 | 0.22 | 0.11 | ||
| 0.40 | 0.00 | 6.38 | 0.09 | ||
| 0.38 | 0.00 | 0.28 | 0.10 | ||
| 0.37 | 0.00 | 0.95 | 0.14 | ||
| 0.35 | 0.00 | 5.75 | 0.14 | ||
| 0.34 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.04 | ||
| 0.30 | 0.00 | 1.65 | 0.11 | ||
| 0.30 | 0.00 | 0.51 | - | ||
| 0.23 | 0.00 | 2.10 | 0.12 | ||
| 0.21 | 0.00 | 0.25 | 0.08 | ||
| 0.19 | 0.00 | 3.44 | 0.14 | ||
| 0.16 | 0.00 | 0.75 | 0.19 | ||
| 0.15 | 0.00 | 1.32 | 0.11 | ||
| 0.14 | 0.00 | 0.70 | 0.11 | ||
| 0.14 | 0.00 | 0.22 | 0.09 | ||
| 0.13 | 0.00 | 1.16 | 0.20 | ||
| 0.13 | 0.00 | 3.70 | 0.13 | ||
| 0.12 | 0.00 | 3.77 | 0.17 | ||
| 0.10 | 0.00 | 1.38 | 0.12 | ||
| 0.09 | 0.00 | 0.30 | 0.09 | ||
| 0.06 | 0.00 | 9.72 | - | ||
| 0.04 | 0.00 | 2.51 | - | ||
| 0.03 | 0.00 | 10.87 | - | ||
| 0.03 | 0.00 | 0.28 | 0.13 | ||
| 0.02 | 0.00 | 1.54 | 0.12 | ||
| , and | 0.02 | 0.00 | 3.87 | - | |
| 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.00 |
In 2020, carbon dioxide emissions fell by 6.4% or 2.3 billion tonnes globally.[166] In April 2020, emissions fell by up to 30%.[167] In China, lockdowns and other measures resulted in a 26% decrease in coal consumption, and a 50% reduction in nitrogen oxide emissions.[168] Greenhouse gas emissions rebounded later in the pandemic as many countries began lifting restrictions, with the direct impact of pandemic policies having a negligible long-term impact on climate change.[169]