Global warming potential explained

Global warming potential (GWP) is an index to measure how much infrared thermal radiation a greenhouse gas would absorb over a given time frame after it has been added to the atmosphere (or emitted to the atmosphere). The GWP makes different greenhouse gases comparable with regard to their "effectiveness in causing radiative forcing". It is expressed as a multiple of the radiation that would be absorbed by the same mass of added carbon dioxide, which is taken as a reference gas. Therefore, the GWP has a value of 1 for . For other gases it depends on how strongly the gas absorbs infrared thermal radiation, how quickly the gas leaves the atmosphere, and the time frame being considered.

For example, methane has a GWP over 20 years (GWP-20) of 81.2^[1] meaning that, for example, a leak of a tonne of methane is equivalent to emitting 81.2 tonnes of carbon dioxide measured over 20 years. As methane has a much shorter atmospheric lifetime than carbon dioxide, its GWP is much less over longer time periods, with a GWP-100 of 27.9 and a GWP-500 of 7.95.

The carbon dioxide equivalent (e or eq or -e or -eq) can be calculated from the GWP. For any gas, it is the mass of that would warm the earth as much as the mass of that gas. Thus it provides a common scale for measuring the climate effects of different gases. It is calculated as GWP times mass of the other gas.

Definition

See also: Radiative forcing.

The global warming potential (GWP) is defined as an "index measuring the radiative forcing following an emission of a unit mass of a given substance, accumulated over a chosen time horizon, relative to that of the reference substance, carbon dioxide (CO₂). The GWP thus represents the combined effect of the differing times these substances remain in the atmosphere and their effectiveness in causing radiative forcing."^[2]

In turn, radiative forcing is a scientific concept used to quantify and compare the external drivers of change to Earth's energy balance.^[3] Radiative forcing is the change in energy flux in the atmosphere caused by natural or anthropogenic factors of climate change as measured in watts per meter squared.^[4]

Calculated values

Current values (IPCC Sixth Assessment Report from 2021)

The global warming potential (GWP) depends on both the efficiency of the molecule as a greenhouse gas and its atmospheric lifetime. GWP is measured relative to the same mass of and evaluated for a specific timescale.^[5] Thus, if a gas has a high (positive) radiative forcing but also a short lifetime, it will have a large GWP on a 20-year scale but a small one on a 100-year scale. Conversely, if a molecule has a longer atmospheric lifetime than its GWP will increase when the timescale is considered. Carbon dioxide is defined to have a GWP of 1 over all time periods.

Methane has an atmospheric lifetime of 12 ± 2 years. The 2021 IPCC report lists the GWP as 83 over a time scale of 20 years, 30 over 100 years and 10 over 500 years. A 2014 analysis, however, states that although methane's initial impact is about 100 times greater than that of, because of the shorter atmospheric lifetime, after six or seven decades, the impact of the two gases is about equal, and from then on methane's relative role continues to decline.^[6] The decrease in GWP at longer times is because methane decomposes to water and through chemical reactions in the atmosphere. Similarly the third most important GHG, nitrous oxide (N₂O), is a common gas emitted through the denitrification part of the nitrogen cycle.^[7] It has a lifetime of 109 years and an even higher GWP level running at 273 over 20 and 100 years.

Examples of the atmospheric lifetime and GWP relative to for several greenhouse gases are given in the following table:

Gas name! rowspan="2"

Chemical formula	Lifetime (years)^[8]	Radiative Efficiency (Wmppb, molar basis).	Global warming potential (GWP) for given time horizon
20-yr.			100-yr.	500-yr.^[9]
Carbon dioxide		^(A)		1	1	1
Methane (fossil)		12		83	30	10
Methane (non-fossil)		12		81	27	7.3
Nitrous oxide		109		273	273	130
CFC-11		52		8 321	6 226	2 093
CFC-12		100		10 800	10 200	5 200
HCFC-22 (=R22)		12		5 280	1 760	549
HFC-32 (= R32)		5		2 693	771	220
HFC-134a		14		4 144	1 526	436
Tetrafluoromethane (R14)		50 000		5 301	7 380	10 587
Hexafluoroethane		10 000		8 210	11 100	18 200
Sulfur hexafluoride		3 200		17 500	23 500	32 600
Nitrogen trifluoride		500		12 800	16 100	20 700
^(A) No single lifetime for atmospheric can be given.

Estimates of GWP values over 20, 100 and 500 years are periodically compiled and revised in reports from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. The most recent report is the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (Working Group I) from 2023.^[10]

The IPCC lists many other substances not shown here.^[11] Some have high GWP but only a low concentration in the atmosphere.

The values given in the table assume the same mass of compound is analyzed; different ratios will result from the conversion of one substance to another. For instance, burning methane to carbon dioxide would reduce the global warming impact, but by a smaller factor than 25:1 because the mass of methane burned is less than the mass of carbon dioxide released (ratio 1:2.74).^[12] For a starting amount of 1 tonne of methane, which has a GWP of 25, after combustion there would be 2.74 tonnes of, each tonne of which has a GWP of 1. This is a net reduction of 22.26 tonnes of GWP, reducing the global warming effect by a ratio of 25:2.74 (approximately 9 times).

Greenhouse gas	Lifetime (years)	Global warming potential, GWP
		data-sort-type="number"	20 years	data-sort-type="number"	100 years	data-sort-type="number"	500 years
Hydrogen (H2)	4–7^[13]	data-sort-value="33"	33 (20-44)	data-sort-value="11"	11 (6–16)
Methane	11.8	data-sort-value="70"	56^[14] 72^[15] 84 / 86f 96^[16] 80.8 (biogenic) 82.5 (fossil)	data-sort-value="30"	21 25 28 / 34f 32^[17] 39 (biogenic)^[18] 40 (fossil)	data-sort-value="7"	6.5 7.6
Nitrous oxide	109	data-sort-value="270"	280 289 264 / 268f 273	data-sort-value="300"	310 298 265 / 298f 273	data-sort-value="160"	170 153 130
HFC-134a (hydrofluorocarbon)	14.0	data-sort-value="4000"	3,710 / 3,790f 4,144	data-sort-value="1500"	1,300 / 1,550f 1,526	data-sort-value="435"	435 436
CFC-11 (chlorofluorocarbon)	52.0	data-sort-value="7000"	6,900 / 7,020f 8,321	data-sort-value="5000"	4,660 / 5,350f 6,226	data-sort-value="2000"	1,620 2,093
Carbon tetrafluoride (CF / PFC-14)	50,000	data-sort-value="5000"	4,880 / 4,950f 5,301	data-sort-value="7000"	6,630 / 7,350f 7,380	data-sort-value="11000"	11,200 10,587
HFC-23 (hydrofluorocarbon)	222	data-sort-value="11000"	12,000 10,800	data-sort-value="13000"	14,800 12,400	data-sort-value="12200"	12,200
	3,200	data-sort-value="17000"	16,300 17,500	data-sort-value="23000"	22,800 23,500	data-sort-value="32600"	32,600

Earlier values from 2007

The values provided in the table below are from 2007 when they were published in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report.^[19] These values are still used (as of 2020) for some comparisons.

Greenhouse gas	Chemical formula	data-sort-type="number"	100-year Global warming potentials (2007 estimates, for 2013–2020 comparisons)
Carbon dioxide	CO2	1
Methane	CH4	25
Nitrous oxide	N2O	298
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
HFC-23	CHF3	14,800
Difluoromethane (HFC-32)	CH2F2	675
Fluoromethane (HFC-41)	CH3F	92
HFC-43-10mee	CF3CHFCHFCF2CF3	1,640
Pentafluoroethane (HFC-125)	C2HF5	3,500
HFC-134	C2H2F4 (CHF2CHF2)	1,100
1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane (HFC-134a)	C2H2F4 (CH2FCF3)	1,430
HFC-143	C2H3F3 (CHF2CH2F)	353
1,1,1-Trifluoroethane (HFC-143a)	C2H3F3 (CF3CH3)	4,470
HFC-152	CH2FCH2F	53
HFC-152a	C2H4F2 (CH3CHF2)	124
HFC-161	CH3CH2F	12
1,1,1,2,3,3,3-Heptafluoropropane (HFC-227ea)	C3HF7	3,220
HFC-236cb	CH2FCF2CF3	1,340
HFC-236ea	CHF2CHFCF3	1,370
HFC-236fa	C3H2F6	9,810
HFC-245ca	C3H3F5	693
HFC-245fa	CHF2CH2CF3	1,030
HFC-365mfc	CH3CF2CH2CF3	794
Perfluorocarbons
Carbon tetrafluoride – PFC-14	CF4	7,390
Hexafluoroethane – PFC-116	C2F6	12,200
Octafluoropropane – PFC-218	C3F8	8,830
Perfluorobutane – PFC-3-1-10	C4F10	8,860
Octafluorocyclobutane – PFC-318	c-C4F8	10,300
Perfluouropentane – PFC-4-1-12	C5F12	9,160
Perfluorohexane – PFC-5-1-14	C6F14	9,300
Perfluorodecalin – PFC-9-1-18b	C10F18	7,500
Perfluorocyclopropane	c-C3F6	17,340
Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)
Sulfur hexafluoride	SF6	22,800
Nitrogen trifluoride (NF3)
Nitrogen trifluoride	NF3	17,200
Fluorinated ethers
HFE-125	CHF2OCF3	14,900
Bis(difluoromethyl) ether (HFE-134)	CHF2OCHF2	6,320
HFE-143a	CH3OCF3	756
HCFE-235da2	CHF2OCHClCF3	350
HFE-245cb2	CH3OCF2CF3	708
HFE-245fa2	CHF2OCH2CF3	659
HFE-254cb2	CH3OCF2CHF2	359
HFE-347mcc3	CH3OCF2CF2CF3	575
HFE-347pcf2	CHF2CF2OCH2CF3	580
HFE-356pcc3	CH3OCF2CF2CHF2	110
HFE-449sl (HFE-7100)	C4F9OCH3	297
HFE-569sf2 (HFE-7200)	C4F9OC2H5	59
HFE-43-10pccc124 (H-Galden 1040x)	CHF2OCF2OC2F4OCHF2	1,870
HFE-236ca12 (HG-10)	CHF2OCF2OCHF2	2,800
HFE-338pcc13 (HG-01)	CHF2OCF2CF2OCHF2	1,500
	(CF3)2CFOCH3	343
	CF3CF2CH2OH	42
	(CF3)2CHOH	195
HFE-227ea	CF3CHFOCF3	1,540
HFE-236ea2	CHF2OCHFCF3	989
HFE-236fa	CF3CH2OCF3	487
HFE-245fa1	CHF2CH2OCF3	286
HFE-263fb2	CF3CH2OCH3	11
HFE-329mcc2	CHF2CF2OCF2CF3	919
HFE-338mcf2	CF3CH2OCF2CF3	552
HFE-347mcf2	CHF2CH2OCF2CF3	374
HFE-356mec3	CH3OCF2CHFCF3	101
HFE-356pcf2	CHF2CH2OCF2CHF2	265
HFE-356pcf3	CHF2OCH2CF2CHF2	502
HFE-365mcfI’ll t3	CF3CF2CH2OCH3	11
HFE-374pc2	CHF2CF2OCH2CH3	557
	– (CF2)4CH (OH) –	73
	(CF3)2CHOCHF2	380
	(CF3)2CHOCH3	27
Perfluoropolyethers
PFPMIE	CF3OCF(CF3)CF2OCF2OCF3	10,300
Trifluoromethyl sulfur pentafluoride	SF5CF3	17,400

Importance of time horizon

A substance's GWP depends on the number of years (denoted by a subscript) over which the potential is calculated. A gas which is quickly removed from the atmosphere may initially have a large effect, but for longer time periods, as it has been removed, it becomes less important. Thus methane has a potential of 25 over 100 years (GWP₁₀₀ = 25) but 86 over 20 years (GWP₂₀ = 86); conversely sulfur hexafluoride has a GWP of 22,800 over 100 years but 16,300 over 20 years (IPCC Third Assessment Report). The GWP value depends on how the gas concentration decays over time in the atmosphere. This is often not precisely known and hence the values should not be considered exact. For this reason when quoting a GWP it is important to give a reference to the calculation.

The GWP for a mixture of gases can be obtained from the mass-fraction-weighted average of the GWPs of the individual gases.^[20]

Commonly, a time horizon of 100 years is used by regulators.^{[21] [22]}

Water vapour

Water vapour does contribute to anthropogenic global warming, but as the GWP is defined, it is negligible for H₂O: an estimate gives a 100-year GWP between -0.001 and 0.0005.^[23]

H₂O can function as a greenhouse gas because it has a profound infrared absorption spectrum with more and broader absorption bands than . Its concentration in the atmosphere is limited by air temperature, so that radiative forcing by water vapour increases with global warming (positive feedback). But the GWP definition excludes indirect effects. GWP definition is also based on emissions, and anthropogenic emissions of water vapour (cooling towers, irrigation) are removed via precipitation within weeks, so its GWP is negligible.

Calculation methods

When calculating the GWP of a greenhouse gas, the value depends on the following factors:

• the absorption of infrared radiation by the given gas
• the time horizon of interest (integration period)
• the atmospheric lifetime of the gas

A high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime. The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated. Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength, this may not affect its GWP much, if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength. A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a "window" of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent. The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph.^[24]

Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum, the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change.

Just as radiative forcing provides a simplified means of comparing the various factors that are believed to influence the climate system to one another, global warming potentials (GWPs) are one type of simplified index based upon radiative properties that can be used to estimate the potential future impacts of emissions of different gases upon the climate system in a relative sense. GWP is based on a number of factors, including the radiative efficiency (infrared-absorbing ability) of each gas relative to that of carbon dioxide, as well as the decay rate of each gas (the amount removed from the atmosphere over a given number of years) relative to that of carbon dioxide.^[25]

The radiative forcing capacity (RF) is the amount of energy per unit area, per unit time, absorbed by the greenhouse gas, that would otherwise be lost to space. It can be expressed by the formula:

$$\backslash mathit\; =\; \backslash sum\_^\; \backslash text\_i\; \backslash cdot\; F\_i\; /\; \backslash left(\backslash text\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash text\backslash right)$$where the subscript i represents a wavenumber interval of 10 inverse centimeters. Abs_i represents the integrated infrared absorbance of the sample in that interval, and F_i represents the RF for that interval.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) provides the generally accepted values for GWP, which changed slightly between 1996 and 2001, except for methane, which had its GWP almost doubled. An exact definition of how GWP is calculated is to be found in the IPCC's 2001 Third Assessment Report.^[26] The GWP is defined as the ratio of the time-integrated radiative forcing from the instantaneous release of 1 kg of a trace substance relative to that of 1 kg of a reference gas:

$$\backslash mathit\; \backslash left(x\backslash right)\; =\; \backslash frac\; \backslash frac$$where TH is the time horizon over which the calculation is considered; a_x is the radiative efficiency due to a unit increase in atmospheric abundance of the substance (i.e., Wm⁻² kg⁻¹) and [x](t) is the time-dependent decay in abundance of the substance following an instantaneous release of it at time t=0. The denominator contains the corresponding quantities for the reference gas (i.e.). The radiative efficiencies a_x and a_r are not necessarily constant over time. While the absorption of infrared radiation by many greenhouse gases varies linearly with their abundance, a few important ones display non-linear behaviour for current and likely future abundances (e.g.,, CH₄, and N₂O). For those gases, the relative radiative forcing will depend upon abundance and hence upon the future scenario adopted.

Since all GWP calculations are a comparison to which is non-linear, all GWP values are affected. Assuming otherwise as is done above will lead to lower GWPs for other gases than a more detailed approach would. Clarifying this, while increasing has less and less effect on radiative absorption as ppm concentrations rise, more powerful greenhouse gases like methane and nitrous oxide have different thermal absorption frequencies to that are not filled up (saturated) as much as, so rising ppms of these gases are far more significant.

Applications

Carbon dioxide equivalent

Carbon dioxide equivalent (e or eq or -e) of a quantity of gas is calculated from its GWP. For any gas, it is the mass of which would warm the earth as much as the mass of that gas.^[27] Thus it provides a common scale for measuring the climate effects of different gases. It is calculated as GWP multiplied by mass of the other gas. For example, if a gas has GWP of 100, two tonnes of the gas have e of 200 tonnes, and 9 tonnes of the gas has e of 900 tonnes.

On a global scale, the warming effects of one or more greenhouse gases in the atmosphere can also be expressed as an equivalent atmospheric concentration of . e can then be the atmospheric concentration of which would warm the earth as much as a particular concentration of some other gas or of all gases and aerosols in the atmosphere. For example, e of 500 parts per million would reflect a mix of atmospheric gases which warm the earth as much as 500 parts per million of would warm it.^{[28] [29]} Calculation of the equivalent atmospheric concentration of of an atmospheric greenhouse gas or aerosol is more complex and involves the atmospheric concentrations of those gases, their GWPs, and the ratios of their molar masses to the molar mass of .

e calculations depend on the time-scale chosen, typically 100 years or 20 years,^{[30] [31]} since gases decay in the atmosphere or are absorbed naturally, at different rates.

The following units are commonly used:

• By the UN climate change panel (IPCC): billion metric tonnes = n×10⁹ tonnes of equivalent (Gteq)^[32]
• In industry: million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalents (MMTCDE)^[33] and MMT eq.^[34]
• For vehicles: grams of carbon dioxide equivalent per mile (ge/mile) or per kilometer (ge/km)^{[35] [36]}

For example, the table above shows GWP for methane over 20 years at 86 and nitrous oxide at 289, so emissions of 1 million tonnes of methane or nitrous oxide are equivalent to emissions of 86 or 289 million tonnes of carbon dioxide, respectively.

Use in Kyoto Protocol and for reporting to UNFCCC

Under the Kyoto Protocol, in 1997 the Conference of the Parties standardized international reporting, by deciding (see decision number 2/CP.3) that the values of GWP calculated for the IPCC Second Assessment Report were to be used for converting the various greenhouse gas emissions into comparable equivalents.^{[37] [38]}

After some intermediate updates, in 2013 this standard was updated by the Warsaw meeting of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, decision number 24/CP.19) to require using a new set of 100-year GWP values. They published these values in Annex III, and they took them from the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, which had been published in 2007. Those 2007 estimates are still used for international comparisons through 2020, although the latest research on warming effects has found other values, as shown in the tables above.

Though recent reports reflect more scientific accuracy, countries and companies continue to use the IPCC Second Assessment Report (SAR) and IPCC Fourth Assessment Report values for reasons of comparison in their emission reports. The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report has skipped the 500-year values but introduced GWP estimations including the climate-carbon feedback (f) with a large amount of uncertainty.

Other metrics to compare greenhouse gases

The Global Temperature change Potential (GTP) is another way to compare gases. While GWP estimates infrared thermal radiation absorbed, GTP estimates the resulting rise in average surface temperature of the world, over the next 20, 50 or 100 years, caused by a greenhouse gas, relative to the temperature rise which the same mass of would cause. Calculation of GTP requires modelling how the world, especially the oceans, will absorb heat. GTP is published in the same IPCC tables with GWP.

GWP* has been proposed to take better account of short-lived climate pollutants (SLCP) such as methane, relating a change in the rate of emissions of SLCPs to a fixed quantity of .^[39] However GWP* has itself been criticised both for its suitability as a metric and for inherent design features which can perpetuate injustices and inequity.^{[40] [41] [42]}

See also

• Carbon accounting
• Carbon footprint
• Emission intensity

References

Sources

• Book: . Chapter 2: Radiative Forcing of Climate Change . https://ipcc.ch/report/ar2/wg1/ . 4 . D. . Schimel . D. . Alves . I. . Enting . M. . Heimann . D. . Albritton . R. . Derwent . I. . Isaksen . M. . Lal . D. . Wuebbles . 1995 . Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change . Contribution of Working Group I to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC SAR WG1) . 65–132 .

• Book: . Chapter 2: Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and Radiative Forcing . https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf . 4 . P. . Forster . V. . Ramaswamy . P. . Artaxo . T. . Berntsen . R. . Betts . D. W. . Fahey . J. . Haywood . J. . Lean . D. C. . Lowe . G. . Myhre . J. . Nganga . R. . Prinn . G. . Raga . M. . Schulz . R. . Van Dorland . 2007 . Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis . Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . 129–234.

• Book: . Chapter 8: Anthropogenic and Natural Radiative Forcing . https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg1/WG1AR5_Chapter08_FINAL.pdf . 4 . G. . Myhre . D. . Shindell . F.-M. . Bréon . W. . Collins . J. . Fuglestvedt . J. . Huang . D. . Koch . J.-F. . Lamarque . D. . Lee . B. . Mendoza . T. . Nakajima . A. . Robock . G. . Stephens . T. . Takemura . H. . Zhang . 2013 . Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis . Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . 659–740.

External links

• List of Global Warming Potentials and Atmospheric Lifetimes from the U.S. EPA
• GWP and the different meanings of e explained

Notes and References

1. .
2. IPCC, 2021: Annex VII: Glossary [Matthews, J.B.R., V. Möller, R. van Diemen, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C.  Méndez, S. Semenov, A. Reisinger (eds.)]. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2215–2256, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.022.
3. Book: National Research Council . Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties . The National Academic Press . 2005 . 978-0-309-09506-8 . 10.17226/11175.
4. Web site: Drew . Shindell . 2013 . Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis – Working Group 1 contribution to the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report: Radiative Forcing in the AR5 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20160304083735/http://climate.envsci.rutgers.edu/climdyn2013/IPCC/IPCC_WGI12-RadiativeForcing.pdf . 4 March 2016 . 15 September 2016 . envsci.rutgers.edu . . Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) . Department of Environmental Sciences, School of Environmental and Biological Sciences.
5. IPCC, 2021: Annex VII: Glossary [Matthews, J.B.R., V. Möller, R. van Diemen, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C.  Méndez, S. Semenov, A. Reisinger (eds.)]. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2215–2256, .
6. News: Chandler . David L. . How to count methane emissions . MIT News . live . 2018-08-20 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150116035714/http://newsoffice.mit.edu/2014/how-count-methane-emissions-0425 . 16 January 2015. Referenced paper is Trancik . Jessika . Edwards . Morgan . 25 April 2014 . Climate impacts of energy technologies depend on emissions timing . Nature Climate Change . 4 . 5 . 347 . 2014NatCC...4..347E . 10.1038/nclimate2204 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150116044523/https://www.see.ed.ac.uk/~shs/Methane/Methane%20and%20time.pdf . 16 January 2015 . 15 January 2015 . free . 1721.1/96138.
7. Yang . Rui . Yuan . Lin-jiang . Wang . Ru . He . Zhi-xian . Lei . Lin . Ma . Yan-chen . 2022 . Analyzing the mechanism of nitrous oxide production in aerobic phase of anoxic/aerobic sequential batch reactor from the perspective of key enzymes . Environmental Science and Pollution Research . en . 29 . 26 . 39877–39887 . 10.1007/s11356-022-18800-3 . 0944-1344.
8. Book: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fifth Assessment Report . 731 . Appendix 8.A . 6 November 2017 . http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg1/WG1AR5_Chapter08_FINAL.pdf . https://web.archive.org/web/20171013100414/http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg1/WG1AR5_Chapter08_FINAL.pdf . 13 October 2017 . live.
9. Book: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . 212 . Table 2.14 . 16 December 2008 . http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf . https://web.archive.org/web/20071215200559/http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf . 15 December 2007 . live.
10. Forster, P., T. Storelvmo, K. Armour, W. Collins, J.-L. Dufresne, D. Frame, D.J. Lunt, T. Mauritsen, M.D. Palmer, M. Watanabe, M. Wild, and H. Zhang, 2021: Chapter 7: The Earth's Energy Budget, Climate Feedbacks, and Climate Sensitivity. In https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/ [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N.  Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 923–1054, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.009.
11. .
12. This is so, because of the reaction formula: CH₄ + 2O₂ → + 2 H₂O. As mentioned in the article, the oxygen and water is not considered for GWP purposes, and one molecule of methane (molar mass = 16.04 g mol⁻¹) will yield one molecule of carbon dioxide (molar mass = 44.01 g mol⁻¹). This gives a mass ratio of 2.74. (44.01/16.04 ≈ 2.74).
13. Atmospheric implications of increased hydrogen use . Warwick . Nicola . Griffiths . Paul . 2022-04-08 . UK Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy (BEIS) . Keeble . James . Archibald . Alexander . John . Pile . .
14. .
15. .
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