| Brokpa | |
| Nativename: | Brokpa kay |
| Familycolor: | Sino-Tibetan |
| Speakers: | 5,000 |
| Date: | 2006 |
| Ref: | e18 |
| Fam2: | Tibeto-Kanauri ? |
| Fam5: | Dzongkha–Lhokä |
| Iso3: | sgt |
| Glotto: | brok1248 |
| Glottorefname: | Brokpake |
The Brokpa language (Brokpa: Brokpakæ;[1] Dzongkha: དྲོག་པ་ཁ།, དྲོགཔ་ཁ།) is a Tibetic language spoken by around 5,000 people.[2] It is spoken by descendants of pastoral yakherd communities.
The Tibetan word `brog pa refers to a multitude of nomadic or partially nomadic pastoral yak herd communities of the Himalaya region.
Due to their distribution Brokpa of Merak and Sakteng are sometimes also referred to as mera-sakteng-pa (‘people of Merak and Sakteng’) and their language as mera-sakteng-kha (‘language of Merak and Sakteng’).[3]
Brokpa is generally considered to be part of the Tibetic sub-cluster of the Sino-Tibetan language family. The internal classification within Tibetic has hitherto not been conclusively determined, which makes the exact position of Brokpa unclear.[4]
Based on the classification by Shafer (1955), Brokpa would be considered as part of the Central Bodish branch, together with, among others, Dzongkha, Chocangacakha and Classical Tibetan.[5]
Tournadre (2014) classifies it as part of the Southern Section of Tibetic. However, it has been noted that Brokpa does not share some phonological innovations made by Dzongkha and can therefore not be grouped together with Dzongkha at the lowest order of the family tree.
The language is mainly spoken in the Bhutanese Gewogs of Merak and Sakteng in the Trashigang District of Eastern Bhutan and in the Indian districts of Tawang and West Kameng in Arunachal Pradesh.[6] [7] [8]
Dondrup (1993: 3) lists the following Brokpa villages.
The 1981 census counted 1,855 Brokpa people in Arunachal Pradesh.
Brokpa is usually described as a more conservative or archaic language, although it has also made some innovations.[10]
The following table shows the inventory of Brokpa consonants as described in Wangdi (2021: 101–125)
| Labial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| pronounced as /p/ pʰ b bʱ | pronounced as /t/ tʰ d dʱ | pronounced as /ʈ/ pronounced as /ʈ/ʰ ɖ ɖʱ | pronounced as /k/ kʰ g gʱ | pronounced as /ʔ/ | |||
| Affricate | t͡s t͡sʰ d͡z | t͡ɕ t͡ɕʰ d͡ʑ | |||||
| Fricative | pronounced as /s/ z | pronounced as /ɕ/ ʑ | pronounced as /h/ ɦ | ||||
| Nasal | pronounced as /m/ | pronounced as /n/ | pronounced as /ɲ/ | pronounced as /ŋ/ | |||
| Trill | r r̥ | ||||||
| Approximant | pronounced as /w/ | l l̥ | pronounced as /j/ |
Additionally, some speakers do not consistently make the distinction between voiced and breathy voiced stops.
Other scholars do not consider the breathy-voiced stops to be distinctive phonemes since they correlate with low register tone. On the other hand, they consider palatal stops pronounced as //c, cʰ, ɟ// to be phonemic rather than palatalization of a velar consonant followed by the glide pronounced as //j// as Wangdi (2021) does. Additionally, pronounced as //r̥// has also been analysed as pronounced as //ʂ// with free alternation pronounced as /[ʂ ~ r̥]/, based on historical evidence.[11] [12]
The vowel phonemes of Brokpa, according to Wangdi (2021), are as follows:
| Front | Central | Back | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| pronounced as /i/ yː | pronounced as /u/ | |||
| pronounced as /e/ øː | ||||
| æ pronounced as /ɛː/ | pronounced as /ɐ/ | |||
| Open | a |
All vowels contrast in vowel-length in open syllables except for pronounced as //ü, ö, æ// which are always realised as long. Length does not contrast in closed syllables, as long vowels may be realised as short before a syllable-final consonant.[13]
Nasalisation occurs phonemically due to assimilation to adjacent nasal consonants but is not considered phonetically distinctive.[14]
Brokpa has eight of diphthongs in monomorphemic roots, usually in open syllables: pronounced as //iu, ui, au, ai, ou, oi, eu, ea//.[15]
Brokpa has two contrasting register tones, high and low.[16] Some scholars mention the possible existence of a third tone, a falling contour tone.[17]
Phonemic tone in Brokpa seems to have emerged due to the loss of voicing contrast in syllable-initial obstruents.[18] Initial obstruents always correlate with certain pitch: Voiced obstruents and breathy-voiced stops are followed by low tone on the vowel, voiceless obstruents are followed by high tone. Tone is only contrasting in sonorant-initial syllables.
There are five possible syllable types in Brokpa according to Wangdi (2021: 148–149):
The most frequent syllable structures are (i) and (iii). All consonants are allowed in the initial C1 position. C2 only may be filled by /r, l, w, j/. C3 may be filled by unaspirated voiceless and aspirated voiceless stops, nasals, the fricatives /s, z/, the liquids /l, r/, and the glottal stop. The slot C4 is restricted to /s/ and /ɕ/. There is a tendency to reduce syllable final C3+C4 clusters, especially among younger speakers. Not all possible combinations of C1 and C2 are allowed at the beginning of a syllable. The possible combinations are the following: /pr/, /pl/, /pʰr/, /br/, /bl/, /kr/, /ky/, /kʰy/, /gl/, /gy/.[19]
Brokpa personal numbers distinguish between first, second and third person in singular and plural. The third person singular pronouns distinguish between masculine and feminine gender. The Brokpa pronouns according to Wangdi (2021: 328–332) are as follows:
| singular | plural | |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | pronounced as /ŋa/ | pronounced as /ŋi/ |
| 2nd person | pronounced as /kʰyo/ | pronounced as /kʰyi/ |
| 3rd person masculine | pronounced as /kʰo/ | pronounced as /kʰoŋ/ |
| 3rd person feminine | pronounced as /mo/ |
Some scholars also note a distinction between first person plural inclusive pronounced as /ɲeraŋ/ and first person plural exclusive pronounced as /ɲí/ (corresponding to pronounced as /ŋi/ in the table above).[20]
Brokpa marks case with clitics, which are either applied to the head of the noun phrase or its last element.[21] The case markers of Brokpa are the following according to Wangdi (2021: 469–475):
| Morpheme | Case | |
|---|---|---|
| =∅ | Absolutive | |
| =pronounced as /ge/ ~ =pronounced as /gi/ | Ergative | |
| =pronounced as /ge/ ~ =pronounced as /gi/ | Instrumental | |
| -pronounced as /gi/ | Genitive | |
| =pronounced as /la/, =pronounced as /na/, =pronounced as /su/ | Locative | |
| =pronounced as /la/ ~ =pronounced as /lu/ | Dative | |
| =pronounced as /læ/, =pronounced as /næ/ | Ablative | |
| =pronounced as /la/, =pronounced as /te/ | Allative | |
| =pronounced as /daŋ/ | Associate/Comitative |
Note that Wangdi (2021) does not consider the genitive -gi a case marker. Other scholars consider the ergative and the instrumental to be a single case marker.[22]
The ergative/instrumental free variation for =pronounced as /ge/ ~ =pronounced as /gi/ and three additional allomorphs: =pronounced as /ge/ following a sonorant consonant; =pronounced as /ke/ ~ =pronounced as /kʰe/ following an obstruent; =pronounced as /e/ following a vowel. However, these allomorphic variations are not consistently maintained – the noted environments are but tendencies.
The absolutive case marks intransitive subjects and transitive objects.The ergative case marks transitive subjects.The locative marks spatial and/or temporal peripheral arguments. The ablative also marks such arguments if movement away from the referent is present. It may also mark peripheral arguments unrelated to spatial and temporal location. The instrumental case marks arguments in instrumental function.The dative marks benefactive, recipient and purpose, as well as indirect objects.The allative indicates temporal or spatial movement the referent of a noun phrase.The comitative/associative is used for comitative case marking as well as coordination within a noun phrase, clause coordination and clause-linking.
Number marking is realised by enclitics and quantifying words, such as pronounced as /maŋbo/ ‘many’, or number words. However, number marking is not strictly necessary, if it is clear from context.[23]
Phonologically bound plural markers of Brokpa are:[24]
The plural markers =pronounced as /baʔ/ and =pronounced as /tsʰu/ only differ insofar that =pronounced as /tsʰu/ may follow the definitive marker and is usually only attested following the definitive, while =pronounced as /baʔ/ always precedes the definitive marker.
The morpheme =pronounced as /tsʰan/ on the other hand is used to denote ‘X and associates’ (associative plural).
The Brokpa numbers from one to ten are:[24]
| Numeral | Ordinal number word | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | pronounced as /tɕʰik/, pronounced as /gaŋ/ | |
| 2 | pronounced as /ɲi/, pronounced as /dʱó/ | |
| 3 | pronounced as /sum/ | |
| 4 | pronounced as /ʑi/ | |
| 5 | pronounced as /ŋá/ | |
| 6 | pronounced as /ɖuk/ | |
| 7 | pronounced as /dün/ | |
| 8 | pronounced as /gyæ/ | |
| 9 | pronounced as /gu/ | |
| 10 | pronounced as /tɕu/(pronounced as /tʰam/(pronounced as /ba/)) |
Note that in the word for 10 both elements pronounced as /tʰam/ and pronounced as /ba/ are optinal.
Cardinal numbers are formed by suffixing -pronounced as /pa/ to the ordinal form, with exception to 1, which is pronounced as /daŋba/ ‘first’. Frequentative numerals are formed with the bond base pronounced as /kʰuɕ/ ‘times’, such as pronounced as /kʰuɕsum/ ‘three times’. Distributives are formed by adding -pronounced as /re/ to the reduplicated cardinal number.[25]
Numerals from 10 to 19 are formed by adding the cardinal numbers of the ones to the cardinal pronounced as /tɕu/ ‘10’, as shown in the following table. Note that in some cases, a preradical from an earlier stage of the language has been retained, which can be seen in the Written Tibetan form.[26] [27]
| Numeral | Ordinal number word | Written Tibetan ones | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 11 | pronounced as /tɕuktɕʰi/ | ‘1’ | |
| 12 | pronounced as /tɕuŋɲí/ | ‘2’ | |
| 13 | pronounced as /tɕuksum/ | ‘3’ | |
| 14 | pronounced as /tɕuiʑi/ | ‘4’ | |
| 15 | pronounced as /tɕeŋa/ | ‘5’ | |
| 16 | pronounced as /tɕuiɖuk/ | ‘6’ | |
| 17 | pronounced as /tɕupdün/ | ‘7’ | |
| 18 | pronounced as /tɕapgyæ/ | ‘8’ | |
| 19 | pronounced as /tɕurgu/ | ‘9’ |
Higher numerals can be formed in a decimal or in a vigesimal system with the base word pronounced as /kʰaː/ ‘score, twenty’.
Brokpa does not class nouns by grammatical gender but may mark biological gender of animates. Masculine gender is marked with -pronounced as /pʰo/ ~ -pronounced as /po/ ~ -pronounced as /bo/ and female gender with -pronounced as /mo/ ~ -pronounced as /mu/ ~ -pronounced as /ma/. These morphemes are suffixed to the root of the respective noun such as pronounced as /ɕa/ ‘deer’, pronounced as /ɕa/-pronounced as /pʰo/ ‘male deer, hart’, pronounced as /ɕa/-pronounced as /mo/ ‘female deer, doe’. The morphemes pronounced as /pʰo/ and pronounced as /mo/ may occur in isolation when functioning as an adjective meaning ‘male’ and ‘female’ respectively.[28]
Some inanimate nouns may take gender marking in some contexts, usually poetic expressions or songs.[29]
Definite noun phrases are marked with =pronounced as /di/ in Brokpa.[30] Indefiniteness is marked with =pronounced as /tɕiʔ/ ~ =pronounced as /ʑiʔ/ ~ =pronounced as /ɕiʔ/, where =pronounced as /ɕiʔ/ follows an open syllable and =pronounced as /tɕiʔ/ ~ =pronounced as /ʑiʔ/ follow closed syllables.[31]
An augmentative of a noun can be formed by suffixing the morpheme -pronounced as /tɕʰen/, which historically derives from pronounced as /tɕʰenpo/ ‘big’. It may indicate bigger size, more power and similar meanings.[32]
Diminutives are formed by suffixing -pronounced as /pʰruʔ/ ~ -pronounced as /ʈuʔ/ ~ -pronounced as /ruʔ/ to a noun. Historically, the form may come from the word pronounced as /pʰrugu/ ‘baby’. It is mostly used to indicate an animal of young age or for endearment.[33]