Bolitoglossa Explained

Bolitoglossa is a genus of lungless salamanders, also called mushroom-tongued salamanders, tropical climbing salamanders,^[1] or web-footed salamanders,^[2] in the family Plethodontidae. Their range is between northern Mexico through Central America to Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, northeastern Brazil, and central Bolivia. Neotropical salamanders of the Bolitoglossa make up the largest genus in the order Caudata, consisting of approximately one-fifth of all known species of salamanders. Adult salamanders range anywhere from 45mm to 200mm in length depending on their specific species.^[3] They are notorious for their ability to project their tongue at prey items, as indicated from their name. They are also known for their webbed feet, having significantly more webbing than any other species outside their genus with the exception of the cave-dwelling Mexican bolitoglossine Chiropterotriton magnipes.^[4] Although webbed feet are a common characteristic of these salamanders, only about half of the species in this genus contain webbed feet.^[3]

Characteristics

Hand and foot morphology

Hand and foot morphology is strikingly diverse in an otherwise morphologically uniform group. While just under half of these species contain webbing between their fingers and toes, the remaining species experience little to no webbing and undergo elongation of their fingers and toes throughout development. Ultimately, the variation of foot morphology within this genus is primarily due to natural selection. Derived characteristics correspond to arboreal vs. terrestrial salamanders.^[4]

• Webbed fingers – natural selection to improve terrestrial movement through water.
• Elongated fingers – natural selection of increased suction efficiency, favoring a larger surface area of the foot. This also selects for a decreased body size, enabling the salamander to cling trees more easily.

Tail autotomy

Tail autotomy refers to the salamanders' ability to release or lose their tail if necessary. This is a common characteristic of nearly all salamanders and lizards. (See autotomy). It is particularly helpful to the salamander in escaping attacks from its predators. Once the tail has been lost, it can regenerate one time. After this regeneration, the tail is incapable of separation with regeneration.^[5]

Poison

Bolitoglossa rostrata and B. subpalmata are two rare examples of poisonous salamanders within their genus. The poison is secreted through their skin as an antipredator mechanism. It is particularly toxic to certain snake species, rendering them immobile and unresponsive to external stimuli upon initial contact. The common defense tactic of these two species is to remain still in the presence of the snake until it makes initial contact (usually by the flickering of its tongue), and then run away as the paralytic poison begins to take effect in the snake.^[6]

Evolution

Natural selection

Tropical adaptation of the Bolitoglossa is thought to have evolved from North American plethodontids. Natural selection is responsible for morphological changes shifting from those supporting temperate environments to those supporting tropical environments such as Panama and Costa Rica.^[7] Natural selection is thought to have resulted in genetic changes from physical adaptation. The main differences that have developed from natural selection affect the skull and bones of the feet in these salamanders. Due to these primary changes, secondary changes are believed to have followed, including:

• Body size
• Additional ossification of bones
• Webbing
• Ear structure

Phylogeny of this genus is partially dependent on its variations in bone structure due to the effects of natural selection over a long period of time.^[8]

Hybridization

The first documented case of hybridization in tropical salamanders occurred between B. frankini and B. resplendens. This hybridization has taken a pervasive effect on the morphology of B. resplendens, whereas B. frankini seemed to maintain its same physical structure.^[9]

Taxonomy

Derived characteristics of the genus Bolitoglossa has led to their classification based on this specific list of characters:

• Tongue and hypobranchial apparatus
• Epibranchial Number
  • embryos having a single epibranchial
• Tail Autotomy
• Brain stem motor control
• Bone structure of Jaws, Cranial, and inner ear
• Chromosome number
  • diploid number of chromosomes is 26
• Development

Classification of this genus is primarily accomplished through analysis of the salamanders' DNA. This has proven to be the most effective and accurate way of classifying this genus.^[10]

Species

As of January 2024, there are 140 recognised species assigned to this genus.

Binomial Name and author Common name B. "altamazonica" Cusi, Gagliardi-Urrutia, Brcko, Wake, and von May, 2020 B. adspersa Peters, 1863 Peter's climbing salamander B. alberchi García-París, Parra-Olea, Brame & Wake, 2002 Alberch's salamander B. altamazonica Cope, 1874 Nauta salamander B. alvaradoi Taylor, 1954 Alvarado's salamander B. anthracina Brame, Savage, Wake & Hanken, 2001 Coal-black salamander B. aurae Kubicki B, Arias E. 2016^[11] Aura's golden salamander B. aureogularis Boza-Oviedo E, Rovito SM, Chaves G, Garcia-Rodriguez A, Artavia LG, Bolanos F, Wake DB 2012 Yellow-throated web-footed salamander B. awajun Cusi JC, Gagliardi-Urrutia G, Brcko IC, Wake DB, Von May R. 2020 Awajun Salamander B. biseriata Tanner, 1962 Two-lined climbing salamander B. bolanosi Arias, Chaves, and Parra-Olea, 2024 Bolaños’ Web-footed Salamander B. borburata Trapido, 1942 Carabobo climbing salamander B. bramei Wake, Savage & Hanken, 2007 Brame's climbing salamander B. caldwellae Brcko IC, Hoogmoed MS, Neckel-Oliveira S 2013 Caldwell's mushroomtongue salamander B. capitana Brame & Wake, 1963 Orphan salamander B. carri McCranie & Wilson, 1993 Cloud forest salamander B. cathyledecae Ponce M, Navarro D, Morales R, and Batista A., 2022 Chiriquí fire salamander B. cataguana Townsend, Butler, Wilson & Austin, 2009 Cataguana salamander B. celaque McCranie & Wilson, 1993 Celaque climbing salamander B. centenorum Campbell et al., 2010 B. cerroensis Taylor, 1952 Millville climbing salamander B. chica Brame & Wake, 1963 Hotel Zaracay salamander B. chinanteca Rovito, Parra-Olea, Lee & Wake, 2012 Chinanteca salamander B. chucantiensis Batista A, Koehler G, Mebert K, Vesely M 2014 Chucanti salamander B. coaxtlahuacana Palacios-Aguilar R, Cisneros-Bernal AY, Arias-Montiel JD, Parra-Olea G. 2020 Coaxtlahuacán Salamander B. colonnea Dunn, 1924 La Loma salamander B. compacta Wake, Brame & Duellman, 1973 Cerro Pando salamander B. conanti McCranie & Wilson, 1993 Conant's salamander B. copia Wake, Hanken & Ibáñez, 2005 El Cope giant salamander B. copinhorum Itgen MW, Sessions SK, Wilson LD, Townsend JH 2020 Lenca mushroomtongue salamander B. cuchumatana Stuart, 1943 Oak forest salamander B. cuna Wake, Brame, & Duellman, 1973 Camp Sasardi salamander B. daryorum Campbell et al., 2010 B. decora McCranie & Wilson, 1997 Monte Escondido salamander B. diaphora McCranie & Wilson, 1995 El Cusuco salamander B. digitigrada Wake, Brame & Thomas, 1982 Rio Santa Rosa salamander B. diminuta Robinson, 1976 Quebrada Valverde salamander B. dofleini Werner, 1903 Doflein's salamander B. dunni Schmidt, 1933 Dunn's climbing salamander B. engelhardti Schmidt, 1936 Engelhardt's climbing salamander B. epimela Wake & Brame, 1963 Tapanti climbing salamander B. equatoriana Brame & Wake, 1972 Ecuadorian climbing salamander B. eremia Campbell et al., 2010 B. flavimembris Schmidt, 1936 Yellow-legged climbing salamander B. flaviventris Schmidt, 1936 Yellow-belly climbing salamander B. franklini Schmidt, 1936 Franklin's climbing salamander B. gomezi Wake, Savage & Hanken, 2007 Gómez's web-footed salamander B. gracilis Bolaños, Robinson & Wake, 1987 Rio Quiri salamander B. guaneae Acosta-Galvis AR, Gutierrez-Lamus DL 2012 B. guaramacalensis Schargel, García-Pérez & Smith, 2002 Guaramacal salamander B. hartwegi Wake & Brame, 1969 Hartweg's climbing Salamander B. heiroreias Greenbaum, 2004 Holy-Mountain salamander B. helmrichi Schmidt, 1836 Coban climbing salamander B. hermosa Papenfuss, Wake & Adler, 1984 Guerreran climbing salamander B. hiemalis Lynch, 2001 Winter climbing salamander B. huehuetenanguensis Campbell et al., 2010 B. hypacra Brame & Wake, 1962 Paramo Frontino salamander B. indio Wake, et al., 2008 Rio Indio Webfoot Salamander B. insularis Wake, et al., 2008 B. jacksoni Elias, 1984 Jackson's climbing salamander B. jugivagans Hertz A, Lotzkat S, Koehler G 2013 Continental divide salamander B. kamuk Boza-Oviedo, Rovito, Chaves, García-Rodríguez, Artavia, Bolaños, and Wake, 2012 Kamuk Web-footed Salamander B. kaqchikelorum Campbell et al., 2010 B. la Campbell et al., 2010 B. leandrae Acevedo AA, Wake DB, Marquez R, Silva K, Franco R, Amezquita A 2013 Leandra salamander B. lignicolor Peters, 1873 Camron climbing salamander B. lincolni Stuart, 1943 Lincoln's climbing salamander B. longissima McCranie & Cruz, 1996 Longest climbing salamander B. lozanoi Acosta-Galvis & Restrepo, 2001 Lozano's salamander B. macrinii Lafrentz, 1930 Oaxacan climbing salamander

Binomial Name and Author Common Name B. madeira Brcko IC, Hoogmoed MS, Neckel-Oliveira S 2013 B. magnifica Hanken, Wake & Savage, 2005 Magnificent web-footed salamander B. marmorea Tanner & Brame, 1961 Crater salamander B. medemi Brame & Wake, 1972 Finca Chibigui salamander B. meliana Wake & Lynch, 1982 Meliana climbing salamander B. mexicana Duméril, Bibron & Duméril, 1854 Mexican climbing salamander B. minutula Wake, Brame & Duellman, 1973 Dwarf climbing salamander B. mombachoensis Köhler & McCranie, 1999 Mombacho salamander B. morio Cope, 1869 Cope's climbing salamander B. mucuyensis Garcia-Gutierrez J, Escalona M, Mora A, Diaz de Pascual A, Fermin G. 2013 La Mucuy salamander B. muisca López-Perilla, Fernández-Roldán, Meza-Joya, and Medina-Rangel, 2023 Muisca salamander B. mulleri Brocchi, 1883 Muller's climbing salamander B. nicefori Brame & Wake, 1963 San Gil climbing salamander B. nigrescens Taylor, 1949 Cordillera central salamander B. ninadormida Campbell et al., 2010 B. nussbaumi Campbell et al., 2010 B. nympha Campbell et al., 2010 B. oaxacensis Parra-Olea, Garcia-Paris & Wake, 2002 Atoyac web-footed salamander B. obscura Hanken, Wake & Savage, 2005 Tapantí giant salamander B. occidentalis Taylor, 1941 Southern banana salamander B. odonnelli Stuart, 1943 O'Donnell's climbing salamander B. omniumsanctorum Stuart, 1952 Todos Santos Salamander B. oresbia McCranie, Espinal & Wilson, 2005 Zarciadero web-footed salamander B. orestes Brame & Wake, 1962 Culata climbing salamander B. pacaya Campbell et al., 2010 B. palmata Werner, 1897 Amazon climbing salamander B. pandi Brame & Wake, 1963 Pandi climbing salamander B. paraensis Unterstein, 1930 Para climbing salamander B. peruviana Boulenger, 1883 Peruvian climbing salamander B. pesrubra Taylor, 1952 Red-footed climbing salamander B. phalarosoma Wake & Brame, 1962 Medellin climbing salamander B. platydactyla Gray in Cuvier, 1831 Broadfoot climbing salamander B. porrasorum McCranie & Wilson, 1995 Pijol salamander B. psephena Campbell et al., 2010 B. pygmaea Bolaños & Wake, 2009 Pygmy web-footed salamander B. qeqom Hellen D-B, Serrano MJ, Alonso-Ascencio M, Cruz-Font JJ, Rosito-Prado I, Ruiz-Villanueva KJA, Vásquez-Almazán JR, Ariano-Sánchez D. 2021 B. ramosi Brame & Wake, 1972 Ramos' climbing salamander B. riletti Holman, 1964 Rilett's climbing salamander B. robinsoni Bolaños & Wake, 2009 Robinson's web-footed salamander B. robusta Cope, 1894 Robust climbing salamander B. rostrata Brocchi, 1883 Long-nosed climbing salamander B. rufescens Cope, 1869 Northern banana Salamander B. salvinii Gray, 1868 Salvin's salamander B. savagei Brame & Wake, 1963 Savage's salamander B. schizodactyla Wake & Brame, 1966 Cocle salamander B. silverstonei Brame & Wake, 1972 Silverstone's salamander B. sima Vaillant, 1911 Northwestern climbing salamander B. sombra Hanken, Wake & Savage, 2005 Shadowy web-footed salamander B. sooyorum Vial, 1963 Cordillera Talamanca salamander B. spendida Boza-Oviedo, Rovito, Chaves, García-Rodríguez, Artavia, Bolaños, and Wake, 2012 Splendid Web-footed Salamander B. striatula Noble, 1918 Cukra climbing salamander B. stuarti Wake & Brame, 1969 Stuart's salamander B. subpalmata Boulenger, 1896 La Palma salamander B. suchitanensis Campbell et al., 2010 B. synoria McCranie & Köhler, 1999 Cerro Pital salamander B. tamaense Acevedo AA, Wake DB, Marquez R, Silva K, Franco R, Amezquita A 2013 Tama salamander B. tapajonica Brcko IC, Hoogmoed MS, Neckel-Oliveira S 2013 B. tatamae Acosta-Galvis & Hoyos, 2006 Tatama climbing salamander B. taylori Wake, Brame & Myers, 1970 Taylor's salamander B. tenebrosa Vasquez-Almazan CR, Rovito SM 2014 Guatemalan black salamander B. tica García-París, Parra-Olea & Wake, 2008 Tico salamander B. tzultacaj Campbell et al., 2010 B. vallecula Brame & Wake, 1963 Yarumal climbing salamander B. veracrucis Taylor, 1951 Veracruz salamander B. walkeri Brame & Wake, 1972 Walker's salamander B. xibalba Campbell et al., 2010 B. yariguiensis Meza-Joya FL, Hernandez-Jaimes C, Ramos-Pallares E. 2017 Yariguíes salamander B. yucatana Peters, 1882 Yucatán salamander B. zacapensis Rovito, Vásquez-Almazán & Papenfuss, 2010 Zacapa salamander B. zapoteca Parra-Olea, Garcia-Paris & Wake, 2002 Zapotec salamander

External links

• [web application]. 2008. Berkeley, California: Bolitoglossa. AmphibiaWeb, available at http://amphibiaweb.org/. (Accessed: 29 July 2008).

Notes and References

1. Web site: Tropical climbing salamanders Bolitoglossa . HerpMapper . 12 January 2017.
2. Book: Huettmann, Falk. Central American Biodiversity: Conservation, Ecology, and a Sustainable Future. 4 August 2015. Springer. 978-1-4939-2208-6. 289.
3. Alberch. Pere. Convergence and parallelism in foot morphology in the neotropical salamander genus Bolitoglossa. I. Function . Evolution . 1981 . 35 . 1 . 84–100 . 2407944 . 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1981.tb04861.x . 28563463. 34178280. free .
4. Jaekel. M.. Wake. D. B.. Developmental processes underlying the evolution of a derived foot morphology in salamanders . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America . 2007. 104. 51. 20437–20442. 10.1073/pnas.0710216105. 2154449. 18077320. 2007PNAS..10420437J. free.
5. Ducey. Peter K.. Brodie. Edmund D.. Salamanders respond selectively to contacts with snakes: survival advantage of alternative antipredator strategies . Copeia . 1983 . 1983 . 4 . 1036–1041 . 1445106 . 10.2307/1445106.
6. Brodie. Edmund D. Jr.. Ducey. Peter K.. Baness. Elizabeth A.. Antipredator skin secretions of some tropical salamanders (Bolitoglossa) are toxic to snake predators . Biotropica. 1991. 23. 1. 58–62. 2388688. 10.2307/2388688.
7. Ortega. Jesús E.. Monares-Riaño. John Maury. Ramírez-Pinilla. Martha Patricia. Reproductive activity, diet, and microhabitat use in Bolitoglossa nicefori (Caudata: Plethodontidae). Journal of Herpetology. 2009. 43. 1. 1–10. 10.1670/07-250R2.1 . 25599180 . 83945415.
8. Alberch. Pere. Morphological variation in the Neotropical salamander genus Bolitoglossa . Evolution . 1983 . 37 . 5 . 906–919 . 2408406 . 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1983.tb05620.x. 28563544. free .
9. Wake. David B.. Yang. Suh Y.. Papenfuss. Theodore J.. Natural hybridization and its evolutionary implications in Guatemalan plethodontid salamanders of the genus Bolitoglossa . Herpetologica . 1980 . 36 . 4 . 335–345 . 3891875.
10. Web site: Devitt, Tom . David Wake . 2007 . supergenus Bolitoglossa. Version 09 March 2007 (under construction) . The Tree of Life Web Project, tolweb.org . 12 January 2017.
11. Web site: A beautiful new yellow salamander, genus Bolitoglossa (Caudata: Plethodontidae), from the northeastern slopes of the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica. live. 27 December 2021. ResearchGate. https://web.archive.org/web/20211227182208/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309672631_A_beautiful_new_yellow_salamander_genus_Bolitoglossa_Caudata_Plethodontidae_from_the_northeastern_slopes_of_the_Cordillera_de_Talamanca_Costa_Rica . 27 December 2021 .