Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion explained

See also: Boiler explosion and Steam explosion. A boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE,) is an explosion caused by the rupture of a vessel containing a pressurized liquid that is or has reached a temperature sufficiently higher than its boiling point at atmospheric pressure.^{[1] [2]} Because the boiling point of a liquid rises with pressure, the contents of the pressurized vessel can remain a liquid as long as the vessel is intact. If the vessel's integrity is compromised, the loss of pressure drops the boiling point, which can cause the liquid to convert to gas expanding rapidly. BLEVEs are manifestations of explosive boiling.

If the gas is flammable, as is the case with e.g., hydrocarbons and alcohols, further damage can be caused by the ensuing fire. However, BLEVEs do not necessarily involve fire.

Name

On 24 April 1957, a process reactor at a Factory Mutual (FM) facility underwent a powerful explosion as a consequence of a rapid depressurization. It contained formalin mixed with phenol. The burst damaged the plant. However, no fire developed, as the mixture was not flammable. In the wake of the accident, researchers James B. Smith, William S. Marsh, and Wilbur L. Walls, who were employed with FM, came up with the terms "boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion" and its acronym "BLEVE".^{[3] [4]} The expressions did not become of common use until the early 1970s, when the National Fire Protection Association's (NFPA) Fire Command and Fire Journal magazines started publishing articles using them.^[5]

Mechanism

There are three key elements in the formation of a BLEVE:^[6]

1. A material in liquid form at a temperature sufficiently above its normal atmospheric pressure boiling point.
2. A containment vessel maintaining the pressure that keeps the substance in liquid form.
3. A sudden loss of containment that rapidly drops the pressure.

Typically, a BLEVE starts with a vessel containing liquid held above its atmospheric-pressure boiling temperature. Many substances normally stored as liquids, such as carbon dioxide, propane, and other industrial gases have boiling temperatures below room temperature when at atmospheric pressure. In the case of water, a BLEVE could occur if a pressure vessel is heated beyond 100C. That container, because the boiling water pressurizes it, must be capable of holding liquid water at very high temperatures.If the pressurized vessel ruptures, the pressure which prevents the liquid from boiling is lost. If the rupture is catastrophic, i.e., the vessel becomes suddenly no longer capable of holding any pressure, then the liquid will find itself at a temperature far above its boiling point. This causes a portion of the liquid to instantaneously vaporize with extremely rapid expansion. Depending on temperatures, pressures and the material involved, the expansion may be so rapid that it can be classified as an explosion, fully capable of inflicting severe damage on its surroundings.

For example, a tank of pressurized liquid water held at 350C might be pressurized to 10MPa above atmospheric (or gauge) pressure. If the tank containing the water were to rupture, there would for a brief moment exist a volume of liquid water which would be at:

• Atmospheric pressure
• Temperature of 350C.

At atmospheric pressure the boiling point of water is 100C. Liquid water at atmospheric pressure does not exist at temperatures higher than 100C. At that moment, the water would boil and turn to vapor explosively, and the 350C liquid water turned to gas would take up significantly more volume (≈ 1,600-fold) than it did as liquid, causing a vapor explosion. Such explosions can happen when the superheated water of a boiler escapes through a crack in a boiler, causing a boiler explosion.

The vaporization of liquid resulting in a BLEVE typically occurs within 1 millisecond after a catastrophic loss of containment.

Superheat limit theory

For a BLEVE to occur, the boiling liquid must be sufficiently superheated upon loss of containment. For example, at a pressure of approximately 1MPa, water boils at 177C. Superheated water released from a closed container at these conditions will not generate a BLEVE, as homogeneous nucleation of vapor bubbles is not possible. There is no consensus about the minimal temperature above which a BLEVE will occur. A formula proposed by Robert Reid to predict it is:

T _{min,BLEVE} =0 . 895 T _{C}

where T_C is the critical temperature of the fluid (expressed in kelvin). The minimum BLEVE temperatures of some fluids, based on this formula, are as follows:^[7]

Substance	Tmin,BLEVE
	K	°C	°F
Water	579	306	583
n-Octane	509	236	457
n-Heptane	483	210	410
n-Hexane	454	181	358
n-Pentane	421	148	298
Ethyl eter	418	145	293
Phosgene	407	134	273
n-Butane	381	108	226
Chlorine	375	102	216
Ammonia	363	90	194
Propane	331	58	136
Propylene	327	54	129
Ethane	273	0	32
Carbon dioxide	272	–1	30
Ethylene	253	–20	–4
Methane	171	–102	–152

According to Reid, BLEVE will occur, more in general, if the expansion crosses a "superheat-limit locus". In Reid's model, this curve is essentially the fluid's spinodal curve as represented in a pressure–temperature diagram, and the BLEVE onset is a manifestation of explosive boiling, where the spinodal is crossed "from above", i.e., via sudden depressurization. However, direct correspondence between the superheat limit and the spinodal has not been proven experimentally. In practical BLEVEs, the way the pressure vessel fails may influence decisively the way the expansion takes place, for example causing pressure waves and non-uniformities. Additionally, there may be stratification in the liquid, due to local temperature variations. Because of this, it is possible for BLEVEs to occur at temperatures less than those predicted with Reid's formula.^[8]

Physical BLEVEs

The term BLEVE is often associated to explosive fires from pressure vessels containing a flammable liquid. However, a BLEVE can occur even with a non-flammable substance such as water,^[9] liquid nitrogen, liquid helium or other refrigerants or cryogenics. Such materials can go through purely physical BLEVEs, not entailing flames or other chemical reactions. In the case of unignited BLEVEs of liquefied gases, rapid cooling due to the absorption of the enthalpy of vaporization is a hazard that can cause frostbite. Asphyxiation from the expanding vapors is also possible, if the vapor cloud is not rapidly dispersed, as can be the case inside a building, or in a trough in the case of heavier-than-air gasses. The vapors can also be toxic, in which case harm and possibly death can occur at relatively low concentrations and, therefore, even far from the source.

BLEVE–fireball

If a flammable substance, however, is subject to a BLEVE, it can ignite upon release, either due to friction, mechanical spark or other point sources, or from a pre-existing fire that had engulfed the pressure vessel and caused it to fail in the first place. In such a case, the burning vapors will further expand, adding to the force of the explosion. Furthermore, a very significant amount of the escaped fluid will burn in a matter of seconds in a raising fireball, which will generate extremely high levels of thermal radiation. While the blast effects can be devastating, a flammable substance BLEVE typically causes more damage due to the fireball thermal radiation than the blast overpressure.

Effect of impinging fires

BLEVEs are often caused by an external fire near the storage vessel causing heating of the contents and pressure build-up. While tanks are often designed to withstand great pressure, constant heating can cause the metal to weaken and eventually fail. If the tank is being heated in an area where there is no liquid (such as near its top), it may rupture faster because the boiling liquid does not afford cooling in that area. Pressure vessels are usually equipped with relief valves that vent off excess pressure, but the tank can still fail if the pressure is not released quickly enough. A pressure vessel is designed to withstand the set pressure of its relief valves, but only if its mechanical integrity is not weakened as it can be in the case of an impinging fire. In an impinging fire scenario, flammable vapors released in the BLEVE will ignite upon release, forming a fireball. The origin of the impinging fire may be from a release of flammable fluid from the vessel itself, or from an external source, including releases from nearby tanks and equipment. For example, rail tank cars have BLEVEd under the effect of a jet fire from the open relief valve of another derailed tank car.

Hazards

The main damaging effects of a BLEVE are three: the blast wave from the explosion; the projection of fragments, or missiles, from the pressure vessel; and the thermal radiation from the fireball, where one occurs.

Horizontal cylindrical ("bullet") tanks tend to rupture longitudinally. This causes the failed tank and its fragments to get propelled like rockets and travel long distances. At Feyzin, three of the propelled fragments weighed in excess of 100 tons and were thrown 150–350 meters (490–1150 ft) from the source of the explosion. One bullet tank at San Juanico travelled 1200m (3,900feet) in the air before landing, possibly the farthest ever for a BLEVE missile. Fragments can impact on other tanks or equipment, which may result in a domino effect propagation of the accidental sequence.

Fireballs can rise to significant heights above ground. They are spheroidal when developed and rise from the ground in a mushroom shape. The diameter of fireballs at San Juanico was estimated at 200–300 meters (660–980 ft), with a duration of around 20 seconds. Such massive fires can injure people at distances of hundreds of meters (e.g., 300 m (980 ft) at Feyzin and 400 m (1310 ft) at San Juanico).

An additional hazard from BLEVE-fireball events is the formation of secondary fires, by direct exposure to the fireball thermal radiation, as pool fires from fuel that does not get combusted in the fireball, or from the scattering of blazing tank fragments. Another secondary effect of importance is the dispersion of a toxic gas cloud, if the vapors involved are toxic and do not catch fire upon release. Chlorine, ammonia and phosgene are example of toxic gases that underwent BLEVE in past accidents and produced toxic clouds as a consequence.

Safety measures

• Maintenance of pressure tanks to avoid damage or corrosion^[10]
• Emergency depressurization
• Pressure relief valves^[11]
• Passive fire protection
• Water spray cooling

Notable accidents

See main article: article and List of boiling liquid expanding vapor explosions.

Notable BLEVE accidents include:

• 13 December 1926, Saint-Auban, France – A 25 ton chlorine BLEVE killed 19 in the first accident recognized as a boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion.^{[12] [13]}
• 24 December 1939, Zărnești, Romania – A rail tank car containing a butadiene (80%) and butene (20%) mixture BLEVEd and caused a fireball. It killed 60 people.
• 29 July 1943, Ludwigshafen, Germany – A chlorine tank car exploded at a BASF plant, killing 57.
• 28 July 1948, Ludwigshafen, Germany – Another tank car in the same plant, this time containing diethyl ether, exploded killing 209.^[14]
• 7 July 1951, Newark, New Jersey, U.S. – Seventy tanks of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), for a total of 2600 tons, exploded at Port Newark. There were no fatalities.
• 8 January 1957, Montreal, Quebec, Canada – At a Shell refinery, 5100 tons of LPG stored in several tanks exploded, causing one fatality.^{[15] [16] [17]}
• 28 June 1959, Meldrim, Georgia, U.S. – The Meldrim Trestle Disaster: An LPG rail tank car disaster killed 23.
• 28 March 1960, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom – The Cheapside Street whisky bond fire: A warehouse storing 3900 tons of whisky experienced a fire in which several casks underwent BLEVEs. There were 19 fatalities.^[18]
• 4 January 1966, Feyzin, France – The Feyzin disaster: 1000 tons of LPG exploded at an Elf refinery, causing 18 fatalities.
• 30 March 1972, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil – : 1000 tons of LPG exploded at a refinery, killing 28.^[19]
• 5 July 1973, Kingman, Arizona, U.S. – The Kingman explosion: An LPG-laden tank car BLEVEd, causing 13 fatalities.^[20]
• 8 December 1977, Cartagena, Colombia – A process reactor burst in an ammonia BLEVE that killed 30.^[21]
• 23 February 1978, Waverly, Tennessee, U.S. – The Waverly tank car explosion: An LPG tank car exploded, killing 16.
• 11 July 1978, Alcanar, Spain – The Los Alfaques disaster: In the worst ever tank truck BLEVE and road accident involving hazardous materials, a vehicle laden with 25 tons of propylene suffered a mechanical failure next to a crowded camping site. The BLEVE killed 216 people.
• 30 May 1978, Texas City, Texas, U.S. – Multiple storage tanks holding 1500 tons of LPG exploded, killing seven people.^[22]
• 30 August 1972, Good Hope, Louisiana, U.S. – A BLEVE developed after a ship collision between MV Inca Tupac Yupanqui and butane-laden barge TB Panama City. There were 12 fatalities.^[23]
• 1 August 1981, Cerritos, San Luis Potosí, Mexico – A rail tank car carrying chlorine exploded, causing 29 fatalities.^[24]
• 23 July 1984, Romeoville, Illinois, U.S. – The Romeoville petroleum refinery disaster killed 15 people.
• 19 November 1984, San Juan Ixhuatepec, Mexico – The San Juanico disaster: In the worst ever BLEVE accident, as well as one the deadliest industrial disasters ever occurred, more than 500 people died when a series of BLEVEs hit a Pemex LPG storage terminal.^[25]
• 28 January 1986, above Merritt Island, Florida, U.S. – The Space Shuttle Challenger disaster: The disintegration of the spacecraft was caused by the BLEVE of the liquid hydrogen and oxygen external tank compartments.^[26]
• 23 December 1988, Memphis, Tennessee, U.S. – The Memphis LPG tank truck disaster killed nine people.^[27]
• 19 April 1993, Waco, Texas, U.S. – A contributor to the aftermath of the Waco siege was the BLEVE of an LPG tank caused by the intervention of the military.^[28]
• 4 March 1994, Weyauwega, Wisconsin, U.S. – The Weyauwega derailment, no fatalities.
• 22 June 2002, Tivissa, Spain – In the first ever reported liquefied natural gas (LNG) BLEVE, a tank truck exploded. Only the driver perished.^[29]
• 10 August 2008, Toronto, Ontario, Canada – The Toronto propane explosion at the Sunrise Propane Industrial Gases killed two people.^[30]
• 27 August 2012, Chala, India – The Chala LPG tank truck disaster: An LPG tank truck road accident in the state of Kerala caused 20 fatalities among the bystanders.
• 13 June 2013, Geismar, Louisiana, U.S. – The Williams Olefins explosion killed two plant operators when a propane heat exchanger burst open.^[31]
• 21 July 2014, Lice, Turkey – An LPG tank truck explosion caused the death of 34 people.^[32]
• 6 August 2018, Bologna, Italy – Two people perished in the Borgo Panigale explosion, an LPG tank truck blast caused by a road accident.^[33]
• 21 June 2019, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S. – The 2019 Philadelphia refinery explosion: Following a fire, a process vessel containing a butene, isobutane and n-butane suffered a massive BLEVE.
• 24 December 2022, Boksburg, South Africa – The Boksburg explosion, an LPG tank truck BLEVE that killed 41.

See also

• Boiler explosion
• Steam explosion
• Deflagration
• Explosive boiling
• Rapid phase transition

References

Sources

• Book: Lees, Frank P. . Loss Prevention in the Process Industries . . 1996 . 0-7506-1547-8 . 2nd . Oxford, England . Frank Lees.
• Book: Mannan, Sam . Lees' Loss Prevention in the Process Industries . . 2012 . 978-0-12-397189-0 . 4th . Kidlington, England and Waltham, Mass. . M. Sam Mannan.

Further reading

Web site: Roberts . Michael W. . 2000 . Analysis of Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion (BLEVE) Events at DOE Sites . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20121020191049/http://www.efcog.org/wg/sa/docs/minutes/archive/2000%20Conference/papers_pdf/roberts.pdf . October 20, 2012 . Energy Facility Contractors Group (EFCOG).

External links

• Exploding Propane Tanks – Description of circumstances required to cause a propane tank BLEVE.
• – Controlled BLEVE demo
• – Video of propane and isobutane BLEVEs from a train derailment at Murdock, Illinois (3 September 1983)
• – BLEVEs of dozens of LPG canisters after a road accident in Moscow
• – BLEVE from the Toronto propane depot fire
• Training video for emergency response personnel (archived) by Transport Canada.

Notes and References

1. Book: Kletz, Trevor . Critical Aspects of Safety and Loss Prevention . . 1990 . 0-408-04429-2 . London, England . 43–45 . Trevor Kletz.
2. Web site: 2020-07-23 . What Firefighters Need to Know About BLEVEs . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20200726205027/https://www.firerescue1.com/firefighter-training/articles/what-firefighters-need-to-know-about-bleves-EwLDAJRkauiIfaDR/ . 2020-07-26 . 8 February 2024 . FireRescue1 . en.
3. Web site: Peterson . David F. . April 1, 2002 . BLEVE: Facts, Risk Factors, and Fallacies . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120224074700/http://www.fireengineering.com/articles/print/volume-155/issue-4/features/bleve-facts-risk-factors-and-fallacies.html . February 24, 2012 . Fire Engineering.
4. Walls . W.L. . November 1978 . Just What Is a BLEVE? . February 9, 2024 . . . 46–47 . 0015-2617.
5. Abbasi . Tasneem . Abbasi . S.A. . July 2008 . The Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion (BLEVE) Is Fifty... and Lives On! . . 21 . 4 . 485–487 . 10.1016/j.jlp.2008.02.002 . 0950-4230 . 1873-3352.
6. Book: CCPS . Guidelines for Vapor Cloud Explosion, Pressure Vessel Burst, BLEVE, and Flash Fire Hazards . . 2010 . 978-0-470-25147-8 . 2nd . New York, N.Y. and Hoboken, N.J. . American Institute of Chemical Engineers.
7. Book: Casal . J. . The Handbook of Hazardous Materials Spills Technology . Arnaldos . J. . Montiel . H. . Planas-Cuchi . E. . Vílchez . J.A. . . 2001 . 0-07-135171-X . Fingas . Merv . New York, N.Y. . 22.6–22.10 . Modeling and Understanding BLEVEs.
8. Heymes . Frederic . Eyssette . Roland . Lauret . Pierre . Hoorelbeke . Pol . September 2020 . An Experimental Study of Water BLEVE . . 141 . 49–60 . 10.1016/j.psep.2020.04.029 . 0957-5820 . 1744-3598.
9. Web site: Guide to Hot Water Heater Temperature Pressure Relief Valves . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120801064302/http://inspectapedia.com/plumbing/Water_Heater_Relief_Valves.htm . 1 August 2012 . 12 July 2011 . InspectAPedia .
10. Web site: 26 November 2018 . BLEVE – Response and Prevention . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20200717011729/https://tc.canada.ca/en/dangerous-goods/transportation-dangerous-goods/bleve-response-prevention . July 17, 2020 . February 8, 2020 . .
11. Web site: 2016 . BLEVE Safety Precautions . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20190422212922/https://cameochemicals.noaa.gov/erg_guides/Page_368.pdf . 22 April 2019 . July 16, 2020 . .
12. Prugh . Richard W. . 1991 . Quantitative Evaluation of 'BLEVE' Hazards . . 3 . 1 . 9–24 . 10.1177/104239159100300102 . 8 February 2024 . 1042-3915 . 1532-172X.
13. News: 13 December 2015 . 13 décembre 1926, 11 h 55 : L'explosion mortelle . 13 December 1926, 11:55am: The Deadly Explosion . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20240207054901/https://www.laprovence.com/article/edition-alpes/3712644/13-decembre-1926-11-h-55-lexplosion-mortelle.html . 7 February 2024 . 7 February 2024 . . fr.
14. Web site: The Explosion of 1948 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20240207065019/https://www.basf.com/global/en/who-we-are/history/explosions-1943-48/explosion1948.html . 7 February 2024 . 7 February 2024 . BASF.
15. Abbasi . Tasneem . Abbasi . S.A. . 27 September 2006 . The Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion (BLEVE): Mechanism, Consequence Assessment, Management . . 141 . 3 . 489–519 . 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.09.056 . 17113225 . 0304-3894 . 1873-3336.
16. News: Dubuc . André . 18 November 2015 . Plusieurs projets compromis près de Suncor . Several Projects Compromised Next to Suncor . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20151119141342/https://www.lapresse.ca/actualites/montreal/201511/18/01-4922133-plusieurs-projets-compromis-pres-de-suncor.php . 19 November 2015 . 9 February 2024 . . fr.
17. News: Selwood . Brian . 8 January 1957 . Feu et explosions dans une raffinerie . Fire and Explosions at a Refinery . 9 February 2024 . . 1 . fr . 47e année . 273 . 0832-3194.
18. Web site: Cheapside Street fire, Glasgow – 28th March 1960 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20201024041535/https://www.fbu.org.uk/history/cheapside-street-fire-glasgow . October 24, 2020 . February 8, 2024 . Fire Brigades Union.
19. Web site: Costa . Pierre . O maior acidente da Refinaria Duque de Caxias (RJ) – Brasil: um estudo geográfico-histórico . The Largest Accident at the Duque de Caxias Refinery (RJ), Brazil: A Geographical-historical Study . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20160504001626/http://observatoriogeograficoamericalatina.org.mx/egal13/Procesosambientales/Impactoambiental/39.pdf . 4 May 2016 . observatoriogeograficoamericalatina.org.mx . pt.
20. Web site: July 26, 2021 . Memorial Monday – Kingman Explosion (AZ) . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20230321175453/https://www.firehero.org/2021/07/26/memorial-monday-kingman-explosion/ . March 21, 2023 . February 8, 2024 . National Fallen Firefighters Foundation.
21. Emergencias de la historia reciente en el distrito de Cartagena 1965–2021 . Oficina Asesora para la Gestión del Riesgo de Desastres de Cartagena . 2nd . es. Emergencies in Recent History in the Cartagena District 1965–2021 . 9 February 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230615225641/https://www.cartagena.gov.co/sites/default/files/2023-06/Emergencias%20Recientes%20en%20la%20historia%20de%20Cartagena%201965-2021%20v2.pdf . 15 June 2023 . live.
22. The 100 Largest Losses 1978–2017: Large Property Damage Losses in the Hydrocarbon Industry . March 2018 . . 25th . 15 . 9 February 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220121055735/https://www.marsh.com/content/dam/marsh/Documents/PDF/UK-en/100-largest-losses.pdf . 21 January 2022 . live.
23. Marine Casualty Report: MV Inca Tupac Yupanqui, TB Panama City, Tug Capt. Norman; Collision in The Lower Mississippi River on 30 August 1979 with Loss of Life . 10 May 1983 . . Report no. USCG 16732/01281 . Washington, D.C. . 9 February 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220302042555/http://www.dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/DCO%20Documents/5p/CG-5PC/INV/docs/boards/incatupac.pdf . 2 March 2022 . live.
24. News: Valero . Francisco . 3 August 2021 . Estación Montaña, a 40 años de la tragedia . Montaña Train Station, 40 Years On from the Tragedy . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20240209044201/https://www.plurinominal.com.mx/?p=14032 . 9 February 2024 . 9 February 2024 . Plurinominal . es.
25. Web site: 19 November 1984 . PEMEX LPG Terminal, Mexico City, Mexico. 19th November 1984 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20230924050629/https://www.hse.gov.uk/comah/sragtech/casepemex84.htm . September 24, 2023 . February 8, 2024 . Health and Safety Executive.
26. Book: Leiber, Carl-Otto . Assessment of Safety and Risk with a Microscopic Model of Detonation . . 2003 . 978-0-444-51332-8 . Amsterdam, The Netherlands . 305 . 10.1016/B978-0-444-51332-8.X5000-9.
27. Railroad Accident Report: Derailment of Louisville & Nashville Railroad Company's Train No. 584 and Subsequent Rupture of Tank Car Containing Liquefied Petroleum Gas – Waverly, Tennessee – February 22, 1978 . 8 February 1979 . . Report no. NTSB-RAR-79-1 . Washington, D.C. . 10.21949/1510178 . February 8, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230731224501/https://rosap.ntl.bts.gov/view/dot/45828/dot_45828_DS1.pdf . 31 July 2023 . live . free . United States. Interstate Commerce Commission .
28. Analysis of Flammability Hazards Associated with the Use of Tear Gas at the Branch Davidian Complex – Waco, Texas – April 19, 1993 . Havens . Jerry . 12 September 2000 . Fayetteville, Ark. . 10 February 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190623172237/http://www.apologeticsindex.org/pdf/havens.pdf . 23 June 2019 . live.
29. Planas-Cuchi . Eulàlia . Gasulla . Núria . Ventosa . Albert . Casal . Joaquim . 2004 . Explosion of a Road Tanker Containing Liquified Natural Gas . . 17 . 4 . 315–321 . 10.1016/j.jlp.2004.05.005 . 0950-4230 . 1873-3352.
30. News: Lawlor . Maureen . August 10, 2018 . 10-year Anniversary of the Sunrise Propane Explosion . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20180811113518/https://toronto.citynews.ca/2018/08/10/10-year-anniversary-sunrise-propane-explosion/ . August 11, 2018 . February 8, 2024 . CityNews.
31. Williams Geismar Olefins Plant: Reboiler Rupture and Fire – Geismar, Louisiana . October 2016 . . Washington, D.C. . 22 February 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210331064851/http://www.csb.gov/file.aspx?DocumentId=6004 . 31 March 2021 . live . Report no. 2013-03-I-LA.
32. Durmuş . Ahmet . Çetinyokuş . Saliha . 2022 . Modeling the Physical Effects of the LPG Tanker Accident That Occurred in Diyarbakır Lice . . tr . 10 . 4 . 748‒764 . 10.29109/gujsc.1147339 . 2147-9526 . free.
33. Cocchi . Giovanni . June 19–24, 2022 . The Bologna LPG BLEVE . 28th International Colloquium on the Dynamics of Explosions and Reactive Systems (ICDERS) . Paper 197 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240206070248/http://www.icders.org/ICDERS2022/abstracts/ICDERS2022-197.pdf . 6 February 2024 . 6 February 2024 . http://www.icders.org/ICDERS2022/index.html.