Blood libel explained

Blood libel or ritual murder libel (also blood accusation)[1] [2] is an antisemitic canard[3] [4] [5] which falsely accuses Jews of murdering Christians in order to use their blood in the performance of religious rituals.[6] Echoing very old myths of secret cultic practices in many prehistoric societies, the claim, as it is leveled against Jews, was rarely attested to in antiquity. According to Tertullian, it originally emerged in late antiquity as an accusation made against members of the early Christian community of the Roman Empire.[7] Once this accusation had been dismissed, it was revived a millennium later as a Christian slander against Jews in the medieval period.[8] [9] The first examples of medieval blood libel emerged in England in the mid 1100s before spreading into other parts of Europe, especially France and Germany. This libel, alongside those of well poisoning and host desecration, became a major theme of the persecution of Jews in Europe from that period down to modern times.[4]

Blood libels often claim that Jews require human blood for the baking of matzos, an unleavened flatbread which is eaten during Passover. Earlier versions of the blood libel accused Jews of ritually re-enacting the crucifixion.[10] The accusations often assert that the blood of Christian children is especially coveted, and historically, blood libel claims have been made in order to account for the otherwise unexplained deaths of children. In some cases, the alleged victims of human sacrifice have become venerated as Christian martyrs. Many of these most prominently William of Norwich (1144), Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln (1255), and Simon of Trent (1475) became objects of local cults and veneration; the cult of Hugh of Lincoln gained the support of Henry III and his son Edward I, giving it official credibility and helping it to be particularly well remembered. Although he was never canonized, the veneration of Simon was added to the General Roman Calendar. One child who was allegedly murdered by Jews, Gabriel of Białystok, was canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church.

In Jewish lore, blood libels served as the impetus for the creation of the Golem of Prague by Rabbi Judah Loew ben Bezalel in the 16th century.[11] The term 'blood libel' has also been used in reference to any unpleasant or damaging false accusation, and as a result, it has acquired a broader metaphoric meaning. However, this wider usage of the term remains controversial, because Jewish groups object to it.[12] [13] [14]

History

The earliest versions of the accusations involving Jews supposedly crucifying Christian children on Easter/Passover is said to be because of a prophecy. There is no reference to the use of blood in unleavened matzo bread at this time yet, which develops later as a major motivation for the crime.[15]

Possible precursors

The earliest known antecedent is tenth century, from Damocritus (not Democritus the philosopher) mentioned in the Suda,[16] who alleged that "every seven years the Jews captured a stranger, brought him to the temple in Jerusalem, and sacrificed him, cutting his flesh into bits."[17] The Greco-Egyptian author Apion claimed that the Jews sacrificed Greek victims in their temple. Here, the writer states that when Antiochus Epiphanes entered the temple in Jerusalem, he discovered a Greek captive, who told him that he was being fattened for sacrifice. Every year, Apion claimed, the Jews would sacrifice a Greek and consume his flesh, at the same time swearing eternal hatred towards the Greeks.[18] Apion's claim likely reflects already circulating attitudes towards Jews as similar claims are made by Posidonius and Apollonius Molon in the 1st century BCE.[19] This idea is exampled later in history, when Socrates Scholasticus (5th century) reported that in a drunken frolic, a group of Jews bound a Christian child to a cross in mockery of the death of Christ and scourged him until he died.[20]

Medieval context

The blood libels emerged at a time when the church and particularly the Crusades were driving increasingly anti-Judaic discourses. These were later reinforced through the Church council Lateran IV which mandated the segregation of Christian and Jewish society, and built an apparatus of enforcement across Europe. At a local context, many of the English examples may have included an element of church competition for saintly cults, with the income that veneration produced.

Israel Yuval proposed that the blood libel may have originated in the 12th century due to Christian views on Jewish behavior during the First Crusade. Some Jews committed suicide and killed their own children rather than exposing them to forced conversion to Christianity. Yuval wrote that Christians may have argued that if Jews could kill their own children, they could also kill Christian children.[21] [22]

Origins in England

See main article: Harold of Gloucester, Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln, Robert of Bury and William of Norwich.

In England in 1144, the Jews of Norwich were falsely accused of ritual murder after a boy, William of Norwich, was found dead in the woods with stab wounds. William's hagiographer, Thomas of Monmouth, falsely claimed that every year there is an international council of Jews at which they choose the country in which a child will be killed during Easter, because of a Jewish prophecy that states that the killing of a Christian child each year will ensure that the Jews will be restored to the Holy Land. According to Monmouth, England was chosen in 1144, and the leaders of the Jewish community delegated the Jews of Norwich to perform the killing, after which they abducted and crucified William.[23] The legend was turned into a cult, with William acquiring the status of a martyr and pilgrims bringing offerings to the local church.

This was followed by similar accusations in Gloucester (1168), Bury St Edmunds (1181) and Bristol (1183). In 1189, the Jewish deputation attending the coronation of Richard the Lionheart was attacked by the crowd. Massacres of Jews at London and York soon followed. In 1190 on 16 March 150 Jews were attacked in York and then massacred when they took refuge in the royal castle, where Clifford's Tower now stands, with some committing suicide rather than being taken by the mob.[24] The remains of 17 bodies thrown in a well in Norwich between the 12th and 13th century (five that were shown by DNA testing to likely be members of a single Jewish family) were very possibly killed as part of one of these pogroms.[25]

After the death of Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln, there were trials and executions of Jews.[26] The case was described by Matthew Paris and later by Chaucer, and formed the basis of the Sir Hugh ballads which have circulated to the present day. Its notoriety sprang from the intervention of the Crown, the first time an accusation of ritual killing had been given royal credibility.

The eight-year-old Hugh disappeared at Lincoln on 31 July 1255. His body was probably discovered on 29 August, in a well. A Jew named Copin or Koppin confessed to involvement. He confessed to John of Lexington, a servant of the crown, and relative of the Bishop of Lincoln. He confessed that the boy had been crucified by the Jews, who had assembled at Lincoln for that purpose. King Henry III, who had reached Lincoln at the beginning of October, had Copin executed and 91 of the Jews of Lincoln seized and sent up to London, where 18 of them were executed. The rest were pardoned at the intercession of the Franciscans or Dominicans.[27]

Within a few decades, Jews would be expelled from all of England in 1290 and not allowed to return until 1657, although it is likely that some Jews lived there during this period and kept their religion secret.[28] After the expulsion, Edward I renovated "Little Saint Hugh's" shrine and decorated it with his Royal insignia, as part of his efforts to justify his actions. As Stacey notes: "A more explicit identification of the crown with the ritual crucifixion charge can hardly be imagined."

Continental Europe

Much like the blood libel of England, the history of blood libel in continental Europe consists of unsubstantiated claims made about the corpses of Christian children. There were frequently associated supernatural events speculated about these discoveries and corpses, events which were often attributed by contemporaries to miracles. Also, just as in England, these accusations in continental Europe typically resulted in the execution of numerous Jews – sometimes even all, or close to all, the Jews in one town. These accusations and their effects also, in some cases, led to royal interference on behalf of the Jews.

Thomas of Monmouth's story of the annual Jewish meeting to decide which local community would kill a Christian child also quickly spread to the continent. An early version appears in Bonum Universale de Apibus ii. 29, § 23, by Thomas of Cantimpré (a monastery near Cambray). Thomas wrote, in around 1260, "It is quite certain that the Jews of every province annually decide by lot which congregation or city is to send Christian blood to the other congregations." Thomas of Cantimpré also believed that since the time when the Jews called out to Pontius Pilate, "His blood be on us, and on our children" (Matthew 27:25), they have been afflicted with hemorrhages, a condition equated with male menstruation:[29]

A very learned Jew, who in our day has been converted to the (Christian) faith, informs us that one enjoying the reputation of a prophet among them, toward the close of his life, made the following prediction: 'Be assured that relief from this secret ailment, to which you are exposed, can only be obtained through Christian blood ("solo sanguine Christiano").' This suggestion was followed by the ever-blind and impious Jews, who instituted the custom of annually shedding Christian blood in every province, in order that they might recover from their malady.

Thomas added that the Jews had misunderstood the words of their prophet, who by his expression "solo sanguine Christiano" had meant not the blood of any Christian, but that of Jesus the only true remedy for all physical and spiritual suffering. Thomas did not mention the name of the "very learned" proselyte, but it may have been Nicholas Donin of La Rochelle, who, in 1240, had a disputation on the Talmud with Yechiel of Paris, and who in 1242 caused the burning of numerous Talmudic manuscripts in Paris. It is known that Thomas was personally acquainted with Nicholas. Nicholas Donin and another Jewish convert, Theobald of Cambridge, are greatly credited with the adoption and the belief of the blood libel myth in Europe.[30]

The first known case outside England was in Blois, France, in 1171. This was the site of a blood libel accusation against the town's entire Jewish community that led to around 31–33 Jews (with 17 women making up this total)[31] [32] being burned to death[33] on 29 May of that year, or the 20th of Sivan of 4931.[31] The blood libel revolved around R. Isaac, a Jew whom a Christian servant reported had deposited a murdered Christian in the Loire.[34] The child's body was never found. The count had about 40 adult Blois Jews arrested and they were eventually to be burned. The surviving members of the Blois Jewish community, as well as surviving holy texts, were ransomed. As a result of this case, the Jews garnered new promises from the king. The burned bodies of the sentenced Jews were supposedly maintained unblemished through the burning, a claim which is a well-known miracle, martyr myth for both Jews and Christians.[34] There is significant primary source material from this case including a letter revealing moves for Jewish protection with King Louis VII.[35] Responding to the mass execution, the Twentieth of Sivan was declared a fast day by Rabbenu Tam.[36] In this case in Blois, there was not yet the myth proclaimed that Jews needed the blood of Christians.[36]

In 1235, after the dead bodies of five boys were found on Christmas day in Fulda, the inhabitants of the town claimed the Jews had killed them to consume their blood, and burned 34 Jews to death with the help of Crusaders assembled at the time. Even though emperor Frederick II cleared the Jews of any wrongdoing after an investigation, blood libel accusations persisted in Germany.[37] [38] At Pforzheim, Baden, in 1267, a woman supposedly sold a girl to Jews who, according to the myth, then cut her open and dumped her in the Enz River, where boatmen found her; the girl cried for vengeance, and then died. The body was said to have bled as the Jews were brought to it. The woman and the Jews allegedly confessed and were subsequently killed.[39] That a judicial execution was summarily committed in consequence of the accusation is evident from the manner in which the Nuremberg "Memorbuch" and the synagogal poems refer to the incident.[40]

In 1270, at Weissenburg, of Alsace,[41] a supposed miracle alone decided the charge against the Jews. A child's body had shown up in the Lauter River; it was claimed that Jews had cut into the child to acquire his blood, and that the child continued bleeding for five days.[41]

At Oberwesel, near Easter of 1287,[42] alleged miracles again constituted the only evidence against the Jews. In this case, it was claimed that the corpse of the 16-year-old Werner of Oberwesel (also referred to as "Good Werner") landed at Bacharach and the body performed miracles, particularly medicinal miracles.[43] Light was also said to have been emitted by the body.[44] Reportedly, the child was hung upside down, forced to throw up the host and was cut open.[43] In consequence, the Jews of Oberwesel and many other adjacent localities were severely persecuted during the years 1286-89. The Jews of Oberwesel were particularly targeted because there were no Jews remaining in Bacharach following a 1283 pogrom. Additionally, there were pogroms following this case as well at and around Oberwesel.[45] Rudolph of Habsburg, to whom the Jews had appealed for protection, in order to manage the miracle story, had the archbishop of Mainz declare great wrong had been done to the Jew. This apparent declaration was very limited in effectiveness.[45]

A statement was made, in the Chronicle of Konrad Justinger of 1423, that at Bern in 1293[46] or 1294 the Jews tortured and murdered a boy called Rudolph (sometimes also referred to as Ruff, or Ruof). The body was reportedly found by the house of Jöly, a Jew. The Jewish community was then implicated. The penalties imposed upon the Jews included torture, execution, expulsion, and steep financial fines. Justinger argued Jews were out to harm Christianity.[46] The historical impossibility of this widely credited story was demonstrated by Jakob Stammler, pastor of Bern, in 1888.[47]

There have been several explanations put forth as to why these blood libel accusations were made and perpetuated. For example, it has been argued Thomas of Monmouth's account and other similar false accusations, as well as their perpetuation, largely had to do with the economic and political interests of leaders perpetuating these myths.[48] The use of blood and other human products for medicinal or magical purposes was an established concept in medieval Europe.[49] As such illegal ways of accessing these item were ascribed (in 1507) by Franciscans to Dominicans, by others to sorcerers and devil worshippers as well as Jews.[49]

Renaissance and Baroque

19th century

One of the child-saints in the Russian Orthodox Church is the six-year-old boy Gavriil Belostoksky from the village Zverki. According to the legend supported by the church, the boy was kidnapped from his home during the holiday of Passover while his parents were away. Shutko, who was a Jew from Białystok, was accused of bringing the boy to Białystok, piercing him with sharp objects and draining his blood for nine days, then bringing the body back to Zverki and dumping it at a local field. A cult developed, and the boy was canonized in 1820. His relics are still the object of pilgrimage. On All Saints Day, 27 July 1997, the Belarusian state TV showed a film alleging the story is true.[57] The revival of the cult in Belarus was cited as a dangerous expression of antisemitism in international reports on human rights and religious freedoms[58] [59] [60] [61] [62] which were passed to the UNHCR.[63]

20th and 21st centuries

Views of the Catholic Church

The attitude of the Catholic Church towards these accusations and the cults venerating children supposedly killed by Jews has varied over time. The Papacy generally opposed them, although it had problems in enforcing its opposition.

In 1911, the Dictionnaire apologétique de la foi catholique, an important French Catholic encyclopedia, published an analysis of the blood libel accusations.[110] This may be taken as being broadly representative of educated Catholic opinion in continental Europe at that time. The article noted that the popes had generally refrained from endorsing the blood libel, and it concluded that the accusations were unproven in a general sense, but it left open the possibility that some Jews had committed ritual murders of Christians. Other contemporary Catholic sources (notably the Jesuit periodical La Civiltà Cattolica) promoted the blood libel as truth.[111]

Today, the accusations are rarer in Catholic circles. While Simon of Trent's local status as a saint was removed in 1965, several towns in Spain still commemorate the blood libel.[112]

Papal pronouncements

Blood libels in Muslim lands

In late 1553 or 1554, Suleiman the Magnificent, the reigning sultan of the Ottoman Empire, issued a firman (royal decree) which formally denounced blood libels against the Jews.[116]

In 1840, following the Western outrage arising from the Damascus affair, British politician and leader of the British Jewish community, Sir Moses Montefiore, backed by other influential westerners including Britain's Lord Palmerston and Damascus consul Charles Henry Churchill, the French lawyer Adolphe Crémieux, Austrian consul Giovanni Gasparo Merlato, Danish missionary John Nicolayson,[117] and Solomon Munk, persuaded Sultan Abdulmejid I in Constantinople, to issue a firman on 6 November 1840 intended to halt the spread of blood libel accusations in the Ottoman Empire. The edict declared that blood libel accusations were a slander against Jews and they would be prohibited throughout the Ottoman Empire, and read in part:

... and for the love we bear to our subjects, we cannot permit the Jewish nation, whose innocence for the crime alleged against them is evident, to be worried and tormented as a consequence of accusations which have not the least foundation in truth...

In the remainder of the 19th century and into the 20th century, there were many instances of the blood libel in Ottoman lands,[118] such as the 1881 Fornaraki affair. However the libel almost always came from the Christian community, sometimes with the connivance of Greek or French diplomats.[118] The Jews could usually count on the goodwill of the Ottoman authorities and increasingly on the support of British, Prussian and Austrian representatives.[118]

In the 1910 Shiraz blood libel, the Jews of Shiraz, Iran, were falsely accused of murdering a Muslim girl. The entire Jewish quarter was pillaged, with the pogrom leaving 12 Jews dead and about 50 injured.

In 1983, Mustafa Tlass, the Syrian Minister of Defense, wrote and published The Matzah of Zion, which is a treatment of the Damascus affair of 1840 that repeats the ancient "blood libel", that Jews use the blood of murdered non-Jews in religious rituals such as baking Matza bread.[119] In this book, he argues that the true religious beliefs of Jews are "black hatred against all humans and religions", and no Arab country should ever sign a peace treaty with Israel.[120] Tlass re-printed the book several times. Following the book's publication, Tlass told Der Spiegel, that this accusation against Jews was valid and he also claimed that his book is "an historical study ... based on documents from France, Vienna and the American University in Beirut."[120] [121]

In 2003, the Egyptian newspaper Al-Ahram published a series of articles by Osama El-Baz, a senior advisor to the then Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak. Among other things, Osama El-Baz explained the origins of the blood libel against the Jews. He said that Arabs and Muslims have never been antisemitic, as a group, but he accepted the fact that a few Arab writers and media figures attack Jews "on the basis of the racist fallacies and myths that originated in Europe". He urged people not to succumb to "myths" such as the blood libel.[122]

Nevertheless, on many occasions in modern times, blood libel stories have appeared in the state-sponsored media of a number of Arab and Muslim nations, as well as on their television shows and websites, and books which allege instances of Jewish blood libels are not uncommon there.[123] The blood libel was featured in a scene in the Syrian TV series Ash-Shatat, shown in 2003.[124] [125]

In 2007, Lebanese poet Marwan Chamoun, in an interview aired on Télé Liban, referred to the "... slaughter of the priest Tomaso de Camangiano ... in 1840... in the presence of two rabbis in the heart of Damascus, in the home of a close friend of this priest, Daud Al-Harari, the head of the Jewish community of Damascus. After he was slaughtered, his blood was collected, and the two rabbis took it."[126] A novel, Death of a Monk, based on the Damascus affair, was published in 2004.

See also

References

Notes

Further reading

. Kieval . Hillel J.. Hillel J. Kieval. Blood Inscriptions: Science, Modernity, and Ritual Murder at Europe's Fin de Siecle . 2022 . University of Pennsylvania Press . 978-0-8122-9838-3 . en.

Notes and References

  1. Encyclopedia: Gottheil . Richard . Strack . Hermann L. . Jacobs . Joseph . Jewish Encyclopedia . Blood Accusation . 1901–1906 . New York . Funk & Wagnalls .
  2. Book: Dundes . Alan . 1991 . The Blood Libel Legend: A Casebook in Anti-Semitic Folklore . University of Wisconsin Press . 978-0-299-13114-2 . registration .
  3. Turvey, Brent E. Criminal Profiling: An Introduction to Behavioral Evidence Analysis, Academic Press, 2008, p. 3. "Blood libel: An accusation of ritual murder made against one or more persons, typically of the Jewish faith".
  4. Chanes, Jerome A. Antisemitism: A Reference Handbook, ABC-CLIO, 2004, pp. 34–45. "Among the most serious of these [anti-Jewish] manifestations, which reverberate to the present day, were those of the libels: the leveling of charges against Jews, particularly the blood libel and the libel of desecrating the host."
  5. Goldish, Matt. Jewish Questions: Responsa on Sephardic Life in the Early Modern Period, Princeton University Press, 2008, p. 8. "In the period from the twelfth to the twentieth centuries, Jews were regularly charged with blood libel or ritual murder that Jews kidnapped and murdered non-Jews as part of a Jewish religious ritual."
  6. Zeitlin, S "The Blood Accusation" Vigiliae Christianae, Vol. 50, No. 2 (1996), pp. 117–124
  7. Emanuele D'Antonio, Jewish Self-Defense against the Blood Libel in Mid-Nineteenth Century Italy: the Badia Affair and Proceedings of the Castilliero Trial (1855-56), Quest. Issues in Contemporary Jewish History volume 14, 1 pp. 23–47
  8. [Norman Cohn]
  9. Albert Ehrman, 'The Origins of the Ritual Murder Accusation and Blood Libel,' Tradition vol.14, No.4 Spring 1976 p.83
  10. Web site: The life and miracles of St. William of Norwich . 1896 .
  11. Web site: Angelo S. Rappoport The Folklore of the Jews (London: Soncino Press, 1937), pp. 195–203. https://web.archive.org/web/20110418003740/http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/golem.html. dead. 18 April 2011.
  12. News: What does 'blood libel' mean?. 12 January 2011. 16 April 2018. BBC.
  13. The Term 'Blood Libel': More Common Than You Might Think. Jim Geraghty. 12 January 2011. National Review. 16 April 2018.
  14. Web site: Sarah Palin Is Right About 'Blood Libel'. Shmuley. Boteach. 14 January 2011. The Wall Street Journal.
  15. Paul R. Bartrop, Samuel Totten, Dictionary of Genocide, ABC-CLIO, 2007, p. 45.
  16. http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/3408-blood-accusation#3489 Blood Accusation
  17. Book: David Patterson. Anti-Semitism and Its Metaphysical Origins. 2015. Cambridge University Press. 978-1-107-04074-8. 1.
  18. Louis H. Feldman, Jew and Gentile in the Ancient World: Attitudes and Interactions from Alexander to Justinian, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1993. pp. 126–27.
  19. Feldman, Louis H. Studies in Hellenistic Judaism, Brill, 1996, p. 293.
  20. Web site: Blood libel in Syria . Jewishvirtuallibrary.org . 2010-01-23.
  21. Web site: And if it's not good for the Jews? . Lily Galili . Haaretz . 18 February 2007 . 2007-02-18.
  22. Two Nations in Your Womb: Perceptions of Jews and Christians in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages by Israel J. Yuval; translated by Barbara Harshav and Jonathan Chipman, University of California Press, 2006
  23. Web site: Langham . Raphael . William of Norwich . . 1 July 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110718203040/http://www.jhse.org/node/44?page=0%2C0 . 18 July 2011 . 10 March 2008.
    Langmuir, Gavin I (1996), Toward a Definition of Antisemitism, University of California Press, pp. 216ff.
  24. Web site: The 1190 Massacre: History of York. SUMO. Design. historyofyork.org.uk.
  25. News: Jewish bodies found in medieval well in Norwich . BBC News . 23 June 2011.
  26. "The Knight's Tale of Young Hugh of Lincoln", Gavin I. Langmuir, Speculum, Vol. 47, No. 3 (July 1972), pp. 459–482.
  27. See Langmuir (1972), p479; Jacobs, Jewish Ideals, pp. 192–224
  28. Web site: Jews in England 1290 . National Archives. 3 July 2024.
  29. Albert Ehrman, "The Origins of the Ritual Murder Accusation and Blood Libel," Tradition: A Journal of Orthodox Jewish Thought, Vol. 15, No. 4 (Spring 1976): 86
  30. Albert Ehrman, "The Origins of the Ritual Murder Accusation and Blood Libel," Tradition: A Journal of Orthodox Jewish Thought, Vol. 15, No. 4 (Spring 1976): 88.
  31. Susan L. Einbinder "Pucellina of Blois: Romantic Myths and Narrative Conventions," Jewish History, Vol. 12, No. 1 (Spring 1998): 29
  32. Book: Heritage: Civilization and the Jews: Source Reader . Hallo . William W. . William W. Hallo . Ruderman . David B. . David B. Ruderman . Stanislawski . Michael . Michael Stanislawski . Praeger Special Studies . 1984 . 978-0275916084 . Santa Barbara, California . 134 .
  33. Book: Trachtenberg . Joshua . 1943 . The Devil and the Jews, The Medieval Conception of the Jew and its Relation to Modern Anti-Semitism . Yale University Press . 0-8276-0227-8.
  34. Susan L. Einbinder "Pucellina of Blois: Romantic Myths and Narrative Conventions," Jewish History, Vol. 12, No. 1 (Spring 1998): 30-31.
  35. Susan L. Einbinder "Pucellina of Blois: Romantic Myths and Narrative Conventions," Jewish History, Vol. 12, No. 1 (Spring 1998): 31.
  36. Albert Ehrman, "The Origins of the Ritual Murder Accusation and Blood Libel," Tradition: A Journal of Orthodox Jewish Thought, Vol. 15, No. 4 (Spring 1976): 85.
  37. News: 1235: 34 Jews Burned to Death in First 'Blood Cannibalism' Case . Haaretz . 2014-12-28 . 2020-06-22.
  38. Web site: Middle Ages section of Encyclopaedia Judaica article . Blood Libel . 25 February 2023 . Encyclopedia.com.
  39. Steven K. Baum, "When Fairy Tales Kill," Journal for the Study of Antisemitism, Vol. 1, No. 2 (2009): 190-191.
  40. [Siegmund Salfeld]
  41. "Blood Libel," Zionism and Israel – Encyclopedic Dictionary, n.d. http://www.zionism-israel.com/dic/blood_libel.htm.
  42. Jörg R. Müller, "Ereẓ gezerah—'Land of Persecution': Pogroms against the Jews in the regnum Teutonicum from c. 1280 to 1350," The Jews of Europe in the Middle Ages (Tenth to Fifteenth Centuries): Proceedings of the International Symposium, ed. Christoph Cluse (20–25 October 2002): 249.
  43. Ariel Toaff, Blood Passover, trans. Gian Marco Lucchese and Pietro Gianetti (AAARG, 2007): 64.
  44. Jörg R. Müller, "Ereẓ gezerah—'Land of Persecution': Pogroms against the Jews in the regnum Teutonicum from c. 1280 to 1350," The Jews of Europe in the Middle Ages (Tenth to Fifteenth Centuries): Proceedings of the International Symposium, ed. Christoph Cluse (20–25 October 2002): 249-250.
  45. Jörg R. Müller, "Ereẓ gezerah—'Land of Persecution': Pogroms against the Jews in the regnum Teutonicum from c. 1280 to 1350," The Jews of Europe in the Middle Ages (Tenth to Fifteenth Centuries): Proceedings of the International Symposium, ed. Christoph Cluse (20–25 October 2002): 250.
  46. Albert Winkler, "The Approach of the Black Death in Switzerland and the Persecution of Jews, 1348–1349," Swiss American Historical Society Review, Vol. 43, No. 3 (2007): 14.
  47. "Katholische Schweizer-Blätter", Lucerne, 1888.
  48. Jeffrey Cohen, Review of The Murder of William of Norwich: The Origins of the Blood Libel in Medieval Europe, by E.M. Rose Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol. 47, No. 3 (Winter 2017): 410.
  49. Joshua Trachtenberg, The Devil and the Jews: The Medieval Conception of the Jew and its Relation to Modern Anti-Semitism. (Vardo Books, 2001): 141-143.
  50. Reston, James: "Dogs of God: Columbus, the Inquisition, and the defeat of the Moors", p. 207. Doubleday, 2005.
  51. Web site: Sexing The Jewish Body: Male Menstruation Libel and the Making of Modern Gender . 10.7916/D89Z9CT6. November 2009. Dentler, Jonathan.
  52. Web site: Harvey. Richard S.. 2015-05-27. 27 May 1529 Blood Libel and Burning to Death of 30 Jews in Bazin, Hungary #otdimjh. 2020-09-29. On This Day in Messianic Jewish History. en.
  53. Web site: Jelinek . Yeshayahu . Yeshayahu Jelínek . 2007 . Encyclopaedia Judaica article . Pezinok . 25 February 2023 . . 2.
  54. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/rinn.html Medieval Sourcebook: A Blood Libel Cult: Anderl von Rinn, d. 1462
  55. Edmund Levin, The Exoneration of Raphael Levy, The Wall Street Journal, 2 February 2014. Accessed 10 October 2016.
  56. Web site: Daniel Tilles . The "compelling need for truth": reflections on Sandomierz's blood-libel plaque . 25 February 201 . Notes from Poland . 5 December 2023.
  57. http://www.vestnik.com/issues/97/0902/win/stonov.htm Is the New in the Post-Soviet Space Only the Forgotten Old?
  58. http://www.4humanrights.org/by/eng/reports/relig2003.shtml Belarus. International Religious Freedom Report 2003
  59. https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/37195.htm Belarus. International Religious Freedom Report 2004
  60. https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51542.htm Belarus. International Religious Freedom Report 2005
  61. https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71370.htm Belarus. International Religious Freedom Report 2006
  62. Book: Annual Report on International Religious Freedom for 2004 . . Belarus . 281 . 2010-01-23 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20100106153449/http://foreignaffairs.house.gov/archives/108/91075d.pdf . 6 January 2010 .
  63. Web site: U.S. Department of State Annual Report on International Religious Freedom for 2006 – Belarus . https://web.archive.org/web/20070907060158/http://www.unhcr.org/home/RSDCOI/450fb0b128.html . 7 September 2007 . UNHCR . 10 August 2013.
  64. Book: Avrutin, Eugene . 2017 . The Velizh Affair: Blood Libel in a Russian Town. Oxford . Oxford University Press . 9780190640521.
  65. Ben-Oren . Gershon . Montefiori ve-yehudei gruzia [Montefiore and the Jews of Georgia] ]. Pe'amim: Studies in Oriental Jewry . 1984 . 20 . 69-76 . JSTOR.
  66. Shukian . M.P. . 1940 . Pravovoe polozhenie evreev Gruzii v XIX stoletii . Trudy Istoriko-etnograficheskogo muzeia evreev Gruzii . 1 . 73-74.
  67. Book: Mamistvalishvili, El'dar . Gruzinskie evrei (s epokhi antichnosti do 1921g.) . 2014 . Tbilisi . 210-215 . Georgian Jews: from antiquity to the year 1921.
  68. Emanuele D’Antonio, Il sangue di Giuditta:Antisemitismo e voci ebraiche nell’Italia di metà Ottocento, Carocci 2020 .
  69. Kirmse . Stefan B. . 9 February 2024 . Russian imperial borderlands, Georgian Jews, and the struggle for 'justice' and 'legality': blood libel in Kutaisi, 1878–80 . . 1-25 . 10.1080/02634937.2024.2302581. free . 11188619 .
  70. Effie Ambler, Russian Journalism and Politics: The Career of Aleksei S. Suvorin, 1861–1881 (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1972:), p. 172.
  71. Web site: Littman, David. 1979. Jews Under Muslim Rule: The Case of Persia. https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.dhimmitude.org/archive/littman_jews_under_muslims_case_of_persia.pdf . 2022-10-09 . live. Institute of Contemporary History. 14.
  72. Book: Malamud . Bernard . 1966 . The Fixer . POCKET BOOKS, a Simon & Schuster division of GULF & WESTERN CORPORATION . 0-671-82568-2.
  73. http://research.calvin.edu/german-propaganda-archive/sturmer.htm German propaganda archive Caricatures from Der Stürmer
  74. Book: Bankier, David. The Jews are Coming Back: The Return of the Jews to Their Countries of Origin After WW II. Berghahn Books. 2005-01-01. 9781571815279.
  75. Book: Gerber, Gane S. . Berger . David . History and hate: the dimensions of anti-Semitism . 1986 . . Philadelphia . 0-8276-0267-7 . 13327957 . Anti-Semitism and the Muslim World . 88 . 86002995 .
  76. Frankel, Jonathan. The Damascus Affair: "Ritual Murder", Politics, and the Jews in 1840, pp. 418, 421. Cambridge University Press, 1997.
  77. Book: Jeffrey Goldberg. Prisoners: A Story of Friendship and Terror. 2008. Vintage Books. 978-0-375-72670-5. 250.
  78. Web site: January 9, 2004 . Satellite Network Recycles The Protocols Of The Elders of Zion . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20130115091803/http://www.adl.org/special_reports/protocols/protocols_recycled.asp . January 15, 2013 . Anti-Defamation League.
  79. Web site: Письмо пятисот. Вторая серия. Лучше не стало . Xeno.sova-center.ru . 2010-01-23 . 23 May 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130523024740/http://www.sova-center.ru/racism-xenophobia/news/racism-nationalism/2005/03/d4029 . dead .
  80. Web site: Русская линия / Актуальные темы / "Письмо пятисот": Обращение в Генеральную прокуратуру представителей русской общественности с призывом запретить в России экстремистские еврейские организации . Rusk.ru . 2010-01-23.
  81. Web site: The investigation of the murder of five schoolboys in Krasnoyarsk was extended again (Regnum, 20 August 2007) . Regnum.ru . 2007-08-20 . 2010-01-23.
  82. Web site: "Jewish people were accused with murder of children in Krasnoyarsk" ("Regnum", 12 May 2005) . Regnum.ru . 2005-05-16 . 2010-01-23.
  83. Web site: Russian nationalistic publishers "Russian Idea", the article about the antisemitic movement "Living Without the Fear of the Jews.", June 2007: "...the murder of five children in Krasnoyarsk, which bodies were bloodless. Our layer V. A. Solomatov said that there is undoubtedly a ritual murder..." . Rusidea.org . 2010-01-23.
  84. Web site: В убийстве красноярских детей обвинили евреев и вспомнили дело Бейлиса. 16 May 2005. regnum.ru. Hasids were accused in Krasnoyarsk children murder, the Beilis Affair was reanimated.
  85. http://www.haaretz.com/news/islamic-movement-head-charged-with-incitement-to-racism-violence-1.238209 "Islamic Movement head charged with incitement to racism, violence"
  86. Web site: Joanna Tokarska-Bakir, Legendy o krwi, antropologia przesądu (Anthropology of Prejudice: Blood Libel Myths) Warsaw, WAB, 2008, 796 pp, 89 złotys, reviewed here by Jean-Yves Potel.
  87. Web site: Legendy o krwi. Antropologia przesądu. Lubimyczytać.pl. pl. 2019-07-13.
  88. Web site: Legendy o krwi. Jaskułowski. Krzysztof. 2010-04-21. Miesięcznik Znak. pl. 2019-07-13.
  89. "Egyptian extremists an ill wind in Arab Spring" by Harry Sterling, Calgary Herald, 2 September 2011. p. A13
  90. http://www.memri.org/report/en/print4099.htm Blood Libel on Hamas' Al-Aqsa TV – American Center for Islamic Research President Dr. Sallah Sultan: Jews Murder Non-Jews and Use Their Blood for Passover Matzos
  91. http://www.memritv.org/clip_transcript/en/2443.htm Blood Libel on Hamas TV – President of the American Center for Islamic Research Dr. Sallah Sultan: Jews Murder Non-Jews and Use Their Blood to Knead Passover Matzos
  92. http://www.thelocal.se/32806/20110325/ Islamic group invited anti-Semitic speaker
  93. http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/147288 Egypt: More Calls to Murder Israelis
  94. http://antisemitism.org.il/article/64564/why-muslim-association-doesn%E2%80%99t-expresses-reservations-towards-antisemitism Why the Muslim Association doesn’t express reservations towards Antisemitism
  95. http://www.memritv.org/clip_transcript/en/3536.htm Saudi Cleric Salman Al-Odeh: Jews Use Human Blood for Passover Matzos
  96. http://www.timesofisrael.com/saudi-cleric-accuses-jewish-people-of-genocide-drinking-human-blood/ Saudi cleric accuses Jewish people of genocide, drinking human blood
  97. Web site: Palestinian non-profit belatedly apologizes for blood libel article. https://web.archive.org/web/20130406011957/http://www.jta.org/news/article/2013/04/02/3123361/palestinian-non-profit-belatedly-apologizes-for-blood-libel-article. dead. 6 April 2013.
  98. http://www.memritv.org/clip_transcript/en/3873.htm Egyptian Politician Khaled Zaafrani: Jews Use Human Blood for Passover Matzos
  99. http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/169004#.Ub6MqHFza-8 Egyptian Politician: Jews Use Human Blood for Passover Matzos
  100. http://www.timesofisrael.com/egyptian-politician-revives-passover-blood-libel/ Egyptian politician revives Passover blood libel
  101. http://www.memritv.org/clip_transcript/en/4384.htm Top Hamas Official Osama Hamdan: Jews Use Blood for Passover Matzos
  102. http://religion.blogs.cnn.com/2014/08/06/blood-libel-the-short-history-of-a-dangerous-myth/ Blood libel: the myth that fuels anti-Semitism
  103. http://www.memritv.org/clip_transcript/en/4454.htm Friday Sermon by Former Jordanian Minister: Jews Use Children's Blood for Their Holiday Matzos
  104. Book: Nelson . Cary . Israel Denial: Anti-Zionism, Anti-Semitism, & The Faculty Campaign Against the Jewish State . 7 June 2009 . . 978-0253045089.
  105. News: Fandos . Nicholas . 11 November 2023 . Two Young Democratic Stars Collide Over Israel and Their Party's Future . en-US . . 11 November 2023 . 0362-4331 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231118155151/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/11/nyregion/aoc-torres-israel-gaza.html . 18 November 2023.
  106. Web site: Italian artist accused of antisemitism for new painting of blood libel. 2020-03-27. 2020-04-12. The Jerusalem Post. Reich. Aaron.
  107. Web site: Italian painter unveils depiction of 1475 blood libel. 2020-03-28. 2020-04-12. Israel National News. Liphshiz. Cnaan.
  108. Book: Rothschild . Mike . The Storm Is Upon Us: How QAnon Became a Movement, Cult, and Conspiracy Theory of Everything . 22 June 2021 . Octopus . 978-1-80096-046-6 . 5861 .
  109. News: Lee . Ella . Fact check: Sculpture is evidence of antisemitic 'blood libel,' not false QAnon theory . 6 February 2022 . USA Today . 3 February 2022.
  110. English translation here http://counterenlightenment.blogspot.com/2011/04/blood-libel-view-from-1911.html.
  111. As shown by David Kertzer in The Popes Against the Jews (New York, 2001), pp. 161–63.
  112. Web site: 2022-08-11 . Spanish Catholic church to investigate antisemitic rituals . 2022-08-28 . The Guardian . en.
  113. https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08017a.htm Pope Innocent IV
  114. Web site: Medieval Sourcebook: Gregory X: Letter on Jews, (1271-76) – Against the Blood Libel . . 2007-05-07 .
  115. Marina Caffiero, Forced Baptisms: Histories of Jews, Christians, and Converts in Papal Rome, translated by Lydia G. Cochrane (University of California Press, 2012), pp. 34-36.
  116. Book: Mansel, Philip . Philip Mansel. . 1998. St. Martin's Griffin . New York . 978-0-312-18708-8 . 124.
  117. Book: Lewis, Donald . The Origins of Christian Zionism: Lord Shaftesbury And Evangelical Support for a Jewish Homeland . Cambridge University Press . 2 January 2014 . Cambridge . 380 . 9781107631960.
  118. Book: . The Jews of Islam . Princeton University Press . 1984 . 158–159.
  119. https://www.nytimes.com/1986/07/15/world/an-anti-jewish-book-linked-to-syrian-aide.html An Anti-Jewish Book Linked to Syrian Aide
  120. Web site: Literature Based on Mixed Sources – Classic Blood Libel: Mustafa Tlas' Matzah of Zion . . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110413063812/http://www.adl.org/css/mix_blood_libel.asp . 13 April 2011 . 5 July 2012.
  121. http://hnn.us/articles/664.html Blood Libel
  122. Web site: Osama El-Baz . Al-Ahram Weekly Online, 2–8 January 2003 (Issue No. 619) . Weekly.ahram.org.eg . 2010-01-23 . 19 September 2009 . https://web.archive.org/web/20090919022746/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2003/619/focus.htm . dead.
  123. Antisemitic blood libel in the modern world:
    • In 1986, the Defense Minister of Syria Mustafa Tlass authored the book The Matzah of Zion. The book renews the anti-Jewish ritual murder accusations of 1840 Damascus affair and alleges that The Protocols of the Elders of Zion is a factual document. (Frankel, Jonathan. The Damascus Affair: "Ritual Murder", Politics, and the Jews in 1840, pp. 418, 421. Cambridge University Press, 1997.)
    • In 2001 an Egyptian film company produced and aired a film titled Horseman Without a Horse, partly based on Tlass's book.
    • The Syrian TV series Ash-Shatat ("The Diaspora") depicts Jews engaging in a conspiracy to rule the world, murder Christian children, and use their blood to bake matzah.
    • Iranian TV Blood Libel 22 December 2005
    • King Faisal of Saudi Arabia accused Jews of a blood libel in Paris. Gane S. Gerber (1986): History and hate: the dimensions of anti-Semitism. Jewish Publication Society of America p. 88
  124. http://archive.adl.org/special_reports/protocols/protocols_recycled.html#.VhNkrPlVgoI Anti-Semitic Series airs on Arab Television
  125. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KHqXt_JNSt8 Clip
  126. http://memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=archives&Area=sd&ID=SP145307 Lebanese Poet Marwan Chamoun: Jews Slaughtered Christian Priest in Damascus in 1840 and Used His Blood for Matzos

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