pronounced as /notice/
This is a list of digraphs used in various Latin alphabets. In the list, letters with diacritics are arranged in alphabetical order according to their base, e.g. is alphabetised with, not at the end of the alphabet, as it would be in Danish, Norwegian and Swedish. Substantially-modified letters, such as (a variant of) and (based on), are placed at the end.
Capitalisation only involves the first letter (becomes) unless otherwise stated (becomes in Dutch, and digraphs marking eclipsis in Irish, are capitalised on the second letter, i.e. becomes).
(ʼb) (capital (ʼB)) is used in Bari for pronounced as //ɓ//. (ʼd) (capital (ʼD)) is used in Bari for pronounced as //ɗ//.
(ʼm) is used in the Wu MiniDict Romanisation for dark or yin tone pronounced as //m//. It is also often written as pronounced as //ʔm//.
(ʼn) is used in the Wu MiniDict Romanisation for dark pronounced as //n//.
(ʼng) is used in the Wu MiniDict Romanisation for dark pronounced as //ŋ//.
(ʼny) is used in the Wu MiniDict Romanisation for dark pronounced as //ȵ//. (ʼy) (capital (ʼY)) is used in Bari and Hausa (in Nigeria) for pronounced as //ʔʲ//, but in Niger, Hausa (ʼy) is replaced with (ƴ).
(aʼ) is used in Taa for the glottalized or creaky-voiced vowel pronounced as //a̰//.
(aa) is used in Dutch, Finnish and other languages with phonemic long vowels for pronounced as //aː//. It was formerly used in Danish and Norwegian (and still is in some proper names) for pronounced as /[ɔ]/ or pronounced as /[ʌ]/ (in Danish), until it was replaced with . There is a ligature . In Cantonese Romanisations such as Jyutping or Yale, it is used for pronounced as //a//, which contrasts with pronounced as //ɐ//.
(ae) is used in Irish for pronounced as //eː// between two "broad" (velarized) consonants, e.g. Irish: Gael pronounced as //ɡeːlˠ// "a Gael".
In Latin, originally represented the diphthong pronounced as //ae//, before it was monophthongized in the Vulgar Latin period to pronounced as //ɛ//; in medieval manuscripts, the digraph was frequently replaced by the ligature (æ).
In Modern English, Latin loanwords with are generally pronounced with pronounced as //iː// (e.g. Caesar), prompting Noah Webster to shorten this to in his 1806 spelling reform for American English.
In German, is a variant of found in some proper names or in contexts where is unavailable.
In Dutch, is an old spelling variant of but now only occurs in names of people or (less often) places and in a few loanwords from Greek and Latin.
In Zhuang, represents pronounced as //a// (represents pronounced as //aː//).
In Revised Romanization of Korean, represents pronounced as //ɛ//.
(ãe) is used in Portuguese for pronounced as //ɐ̃ĩ̯//.
(ah) is used in Taa for breathy or murmured pronounced as //a̤//. In German and English it typically represents a long vowel pronounced as //ɑː//.
(ai) is used in many languages, typically representing the diphthong pronounced as //aɪ//. In English, due to the Great Vowel Shift, it represents pronounced as //eɪ// as in pain and rain, while in unstressed syllables it may represent pronounced as //ə//, e.g. bargain and certain(ly). In French, it represents pronounced as //ɛ//. In Irish and it represents pronounced as //a// between a broad and a slender consonant. In Scottish Gaelic, it represents pronounced as //a// or pronounced as //ɛ// between a broad and a slender consonant, except when preceding word-final or pre-consonant (e.g. Gaelic; Scottish Gaelic: cainnt pronounced as //kʰaiɲtʲ//, or pre-consonant (e.g. Gaelic; Scottish Gaelic: aimhreit pronounced as //ˈaivɾʲɪtʲ//. In the Kernowek Standard orthography of Cornish, it represents pronounced as //eː//, mostly in loanwords from English such as paint.[1]
(aí) is used in Irish for pronounced as //iː// between a broad and a slender consonant.
(aî) is used in French for pronounced as //ɛː//, as in French: aînesse pronounced as //ɛːnɛs// or French: maître pronounced as //mɛːtʁ//.
(ái) is used in Irish for pronounced as //aː// between a broad and a slender consonant.
(ài) is used in Scottish Gaelic for pronounced as //aː// or sometimes pronounced as //ɛː//, between a broad and a slender consonant.
(ãi) is used in Portuguese for pronounced as //ɐ̃ĩ̯//, usually spelt .
(am) is used in Portuguese for pronounced as //ɐ̃ũ̯// word finally, pronounced as //ɐ̃// before a consonant, and pronounced as //am// before a vowel. In French, it represents pronounced as //ɑ̃//.
(âm) is used in Portuguese for a stressed pronounced as //ɐ̃// before a consonant.
(an) is used in many languages to write a nasal vowel. In Portuguese it is used for pronounced as //ɐ̃// before a consonant. In French it represents pronounced as //ɑ̃// (pronounced as //an// before a vowel). In Breton it represents pronounced as //ɑ̃n//.
(aⁿ) is used in Hokkien Pe̍h-ōe-jī for pronounced as //ã//.
(ân) is used in Portuguese for a stressed pronounced as //ɐ̃// before a consonant.
(än) is used in Tibetan Pinyin for pronounced as //ɛ̃//. It is alternately written .
(ån) is used in Walloon, for the nasal vowel pronounced as //ɔ̃//.
(aŋ) is used in Lakhota for the nasal vowel pronounced as //ã//
(ao) is used in many languages, such as Piedmontese and Mandarin Pinyin, to represent pronounced as //au̯//. In Irish, it represents pronounced as //iː// (pronounced as //eː// in Munster) between broad consonants. In Scottish Gaelic, it represents pronounced as //ɯː// between broad consonants. In French, it is found in a few words such as French: paon representing pronounced as //ɑ̃// and as French: paonne representing pronounced as //a//. In Malagasy, it represents pronounced as //o//. In Wymysorys, it represents pronounced as //œʏ̯//.
(ão) is used in Portuguese for pronounced as //ɐ̃ũ̯//.
(aq) is used in Taa, for the pharyngealized vowel pronounced as //aˤ//.
(au) is used in English for pronounced as //ɔː//. It occasionally represents pronounced as //aʊ//, as in flautist. Other pronunciations are pronounced as //æ// or pronounced as //ɑː// (depending on dialect) in aunt and laugh, pronounced as //eɪ// in gauge, pronounced as //oʊ// in gauche and chauffeur, and pronounced as //ə// as in meerschaum and restaurant.
In German and Dutch, it represents pronounced as //au// and pronounced as //ʌu//, respectively (pronounced as //au// in some northern and pronounced as //ɔu// in some southern Dutch and some Flemish dialects).
In French, it represents pronounced as //o// or sometimes pronounced as //ɔ//.
In Icelandic and Norwegian it represents pronounced as //œy// and pronounced as //æʉ//, respectively.
In several Romanizations of Wu Chinese, it represents pronounced as //ɔ//.
In the Cornish Kernowek Standard, it is used for pronounced as //ɔ(ː)//, as in Cornish: caul "cabbage" or Cornish: dauncya "to dance".
(äu) is used in German for the diphthong pronounced as //ɔɪ// in declension of native words with ; elsewhere, pronounced as //ɔɪ// is written as . In words, mostly of Latin origin, where and are separated by a syllable boundary, it represents pronounced as //ɛ.ʊ//, e.g. German: [[Matthäus (disambiguation)|Matthäus]] (a German form for Matthew).
(aw) is used in English in ways that parallel English, though it appears more often at the end of a word.In Cornish, it represents pronounced as //aʊ// or pronounced as //æʊ//.[2] [3] [4] In Welsh, it represents pronounced as //au//.
(ay) is used in English in ways that parallel (ai), though it appears more often at the end of a word. In French, it represents pronounced as //ɛj// before a vowel (as in French: ayant) and pronounced as //ɛ.i// before a consonant (as in French: pays). In Cornish, it represents pronounced as //aɪ//, pronounced as //əɪ//, pronounced as //ɛː//, or pronounced as //eː//.
(a_e) (a split digraph) is used in English for pronounced as //eɪ//.
(bb) is used in Pinyin for pronounced as //b// in languages such as Yi, where stands for pronounced as //p//. It was used in Portuguese until 1947. It had the same sound as . Was used only for etymological purposes. In Hungarian, it represents geminated pronounced as //bː//. In English, doubling a letter indicates that the previous vowel is short (so represents pronounced as //b//). In ISO romanized Korean, it is used for the fortis sound pronounced as //p͈//, otherwise spelled ; e.g. hobbang. In Hadza it represents the ejective pronounced as //pʼ//. In several African languages it is implosive pronounced as //ɓ//. In Cypriot Arabic it is pronounced as //bʱ//.
(bd) is used in English for pronounced as //d// in a few words of Greek origin, such as bdellatomy. When not initial, it represents pronounced as //bd//, as in abdicate.
(bf) is used in Bavarian and several African languages for the pronounced as //b̪͡v//.
(bh) is used in transcriptions of Indo-Aryan languages for a murmured voiced bilabial plosive (pronounced as //bʱ//), and for equivalent sounds in other languages. In Juǀʼhoan, it's used for the similar prevoiced aspirated plosive pronounced as //b͡pʰ//. It is used in Irish to represent pronounced as //w// (beside) and pronounced as //vʲ// (beside), word-initially it marks the lenition of, e.g. Irish: mo bhád pronounced as //mˠə waːd̪ˠ// "my boat", Irish: bheadh pronounced as //vʲɛx// "would be". In Scottish Gaelic, it represents pronounced as //v//, or in a few contexts as pronounced as //w/~/u// between a broad vowel and a broad consonant or between two broad vowels, as in Gaelic; Scottish Gaelic: labhair pronounced as //l̪ˠau.ɪɾʲ//. In the orthography used in Guinea before 1985, was used in Pular (a Fula language) for the voiced bilabial implosive pronounced as //ɓ//, whereas in Xhosa, Zulu, and Shona, represents the implosive and represents the plosive pronounced as //b//. In some orthographies of Dan, is pronounced as //b// and is pronounced as //ɓ//. (bm) is used in Cornish for an optionally pre-occluded pronounced as //m//; that is, it represents either pronounced as //m// or pronounced as //mː// (in any position); pronounced as //ᵇm// (before a consonant or finally); or pronounced as //bm// (before a vowel); examples are Cornish: mabm ('mother') or Cornish: hebma ('this').
(bp) is used in Sandawe and romanized Thai for pronounced as //p//. (capital) is used in Irish, as the eclipsis of, to represent pronounced as //bˠ// (beside) and pronounced as //bʲ// (beside).
(bv) is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for the voiced labiodental affricate pronounced as //b̪͡v//.
(bz) is used in Shona for a whistled sibilant cluster pronounced as //bz͎//.
(cc) is used in Andean Spanish for loanwords from Quechua or Aymara with pronounced as //q//, as in Ccozcco (modern Qusqu) ('Cuzco'). In Italian, before a front vowel represents a geminated pronounced as //tʃ//, as in Italian: lacci pronounced as //ˈlat.tʃi//. In Piedmontese and Lombard, represents the pronounced as //tʃ// sound at the end of a word. In Hadza it is the glottalized click pronounced as //ᵑǀˀ//. In English crip slang, can sometimes replace the letters or at the ends of words, such as with thicc, protecc, succ and fucc.
(cg) was used for pronounced as /[ddʒ]/ or pronounced as /[gg]/ in Old English (English, Old (ca.450-1100);: ecg in Old English sounded like 'edge' in Modern English, while English, Old (ca.450-1100);: frocga sounded like 'froga'), where both are long consonants. It is used for the click pronounced as //ǀχ// in Naro, and in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the voiceless dental click pronounced as //ǀ//.
(ch) is used in several languages. In English, it can represent pronounced as //tʃ//, pronounced as //k//, pronounced as //ʃ//, pronounced as //x// or pronounced as //h//. See article.
(çh) is used in Manx for pronounced as //tʃ//, as a distinction from which is used for pronounced as //x//.
(čh) is used in Romani and the Chechen Latin alphabet for pronounced as //tʃʰ//. In the Ossete Latin alphabet, it was used for pronounced as //tʃʼ//.
(ci) is used in the Italian for pronounced as //tʃ// before the non-front vowel letters . In English, it usually represents pronounced as //ʃ// whenever it precedes any vowel other than . In Polish, it represents pronounced as //t͡ɕ// whenever it precedes a vowel, and pronounced as //t͡ɕi// whenever it precedes a consonant (or in the end of the word), and is considered a graphic variant of appearing in other situations. In Romanian, it represents pronounced as //tʃ//. The digraph is found at the end of a word (deci, atunci, copaci) or before the letters a, o, or u (ciorba, ciuleandra); the pronounced as //tʃ// sound made by the letter c in front of the letters e or i becomes pronounced as //k// in front of the three aforementioned vowels, making the addition of the letter i necessary.
(cj) is used in Friulian for pronounced as //c// such as in words Friulian: cjocolate pronounced as //cokoˈlate//. It's also used in local orthographies of Lombard to represent pronounced as //tʃ// derived from Latin .
(ck) is used in many Germanic languages in lieu of or to indicate either a geminated pronounced as //kː//, or a pronounced as //k// with a preceding (historically) short vowel. The latter is the case with English tack, deck, pick, lock, and buck (compare backer with baker). In German, indicates that the preceding vowel is short. Prior to the German spelling reform of 1996, it was replaced by for syllabification. The new spelling rules allow only syllabification of the as a whole:
Among the modern Germanic languages, is used mainly in Alsatian, English, German, Luxembourgish, Scots, Swedish, and other West Germanic languages in Austria, Germany and Switzerland. Similarly, is used for the same purpose in Afrikaans, Danish, Dutch, Icelandic, Norwegian, and other West Germanic languages in the Netherlands and Belgium. Compare the word nickel, which is the same in many of these languages except for the customary or spelling. The word is nickel in English and Swedish, Nickel in German, and nikkel in Afrikaans, Danish, Dutch, Icelandic and Norwegian.
It was also used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the voiceless dental click pronounced as //ǀ// (equivalent to).
It is also used in Cornish for pronounced as //k// at the end of a syllable after a short vowel; only in loanwords (mostly from English) in the Standard Written Form (SWF), more widely in Kernowek Standard.
(cn) is used in English for pronounced as //n// in a few words of Greek origin, such as cnidarian. When not initial, it represents pronounced as //kn//, as in acne. It is used in Scottish Gaelic for pronounced as //kʰr//, and nasalises the following vowel, as in Gaelic; Scottish Gaelic: cneap pronounced as //kʰrʲɛ̃hb//.
(cö) is used in Seri for a labialized velar plosive, pronounced as //kʷ//. It is placed between and in alphabetical order.
(cr) is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for pronounced as //ʈʂ//.
(cs) is used in the Hungarian for a voiceless postalveolar affricate, pronounced as //tʃ//. It is considered a distinct letter, named Hungarian: csé, and is placed between and in alphabetical order. Examples of words with include Hungarian: csak ('only'), Hungarian: csésze ('cup'), Hungarian: cső ('pipe'), Hungarian: csípős ('peppery').
(ct) is used in English for pronounced as //t// in a few words of Greek origin, such as ctenoid. When not initial, it represents pronounced as //kt//, as in act. Is used in Portuguese for pronounced as //t// in some words, e.g. Portuguese: retrospecto but not in Portuguese: tacto.
(cu) is used in languages such as Nahuatl (that is, based on Spanish or Portuguese orthography) for pronounced as //kʷ//. In Nahuatl, is used before a vowel, whereas is used after a vowel.
(cw) is used in modern scholarly editions of Old English for the sound pronounced as //kw//, which was spelled, or in manuscripts. In Middle English these were all replaced by Latin .
(cx) is used in Esperanto as an unofficial surrogate of, which represents pronounced as //tʃ//.
(cz) is used in Polish for pronounced as //ʈ͡ʂ// as in ('hello'). In Kashubian, represents pronounced as //tʃ//. In French and Catalan, historical contracted to the ligature which represents pronounced as //s//, in French, when followed by . In Hungarian, it was formerly used for the sound pronounced as //ts//, which is now written . In English, is used to represent in the loanwords Czech, and Czechia.
(dc) is used in Naro for the click pronounced as //ᶢǀ//, and in Juǀʼhoan for the prevoiced ejective pronounced as //d͡tʃʼ//.
(dd) is used in English to indicate a pronounced as //d// with a preceding (historically) short vowel (e.g. jaded pronounced as //ˈdʒeɪdɨd// has a "long a" while ladder pronounced as //ˈlædər// has a "short a"). In Welsh, (dd) represents a voiced dental fricative pronounced as //ð//. It is treated as a distinct letter, named Welsh: èdd, and placed between (D) and (E) in alphabetical order. In the ISO romanization of Korean, it is used for the fortis sound pronounced as //t͈//, otherwise spelled (tt); examples are Korean: [[ddeokbokki]] and Korean: [[bindaeddeok]]. In Basque, it represents a voiced palatal plosive pronounced as //ɟ//, as in Basque: onddo "mushroom". In several African languages it is implosive pronounced as //ɗ//. Latin delta (ẟ, lowercase only) is represented by "dd" in Modern Welsh.
(dg) is used in English for pronounced as //dʒ// in certain contexts, such as with judgement and hedge
(dh) is used in the Albanian, Swahili, and revived Cornish for the voiced dental fricative pronounced as //ð//. The first examples of this digraph are from the Oaths of Strasbourg, the earliest French text, where it denotes the same sound pronounced as //ð// developed mainly from intervocalic Latin -t-.[5] In early traditional Cornish (ȝ) (yogh), and later (th), were used for this purpose. Edward Lhuyd is credited for introducing the grapheme to Cornish orthography in 1707 in his Archaeologia Britannica. In Irish it represents pronounced as /link/ (beside) or pronounced as /link/ (beside); at the beginning of a word it shows the lenition of (d), e.g. Irish: mo dhoras pronounced as //mˠə ɣɔɾˠəsˠ// "my door" (cf. Irish: doras pronounced as //d̪ˠɔɾˠəsˠ// "door"). In Scottish Gaelic it represents pronounced as /link/ (beside) or pronounced as /link/ or pronounced as /link/ (beside).
In the pre-1985 orthography of Guinea, (dh) was used for the voiced alveolar implosive pronounced as //ɗ// in Pular. It is currently written (ɗ). In the orthography of Shona it is the opposite: (dh) represents pronounced as //d//, and (d) pronounced as //ɗ//. In the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages, (dh) represents a dental stop, pronounced as //t̪//.
In addition, (dh) is used in various romanization systems. In transcriptions of Indo-Aryan languages, for example, it represents the murmured voiced dental plosive pronounced as //d̪ʱ//, and for equivalent sounds in other languages. In Juǀʼhoan, it's used for the similar prevoiced aspirated plosive pronounced as //d͡tʰ//. In the romanization of Arabic, it denotes (Arabic: [[ﺫ]]), which represents pronounced as //ð// in Modern Standard Arabic.
(dj) is used in Faroese, Portuguese, French and many French-based orthographies for pronounced as //dʒ//. In the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages such as Warlpiri, Arrernte, and Pitjantjatjara, it represents a postalveolar stop such as pronounced as //ṯ// or pronounced as //ḏ//; this sound is also written (dy), (tj), (ty), or (c). It is also formerly used in Indonesian as pronounced as //d͡ʒ//.
(dl) is used in Hmong’s Romanized Popular Alphabet for pronounced as //tˡ//. In Navajo, it represents pronounced as //tɬ//, and in Xhosa it represents pronounced as //ɮ̈//. In Hadza it is ejective pronounced as //cʎʼ//.
(dł) is used in Tlingit for pronounced as //tɬ// (in Alaska, (dl) is used instead).
(dm) is used in Yélî Dnye for doubly articulated and nasally released pronounced as //t͡pn͡m//.
(dn) is used in Yélî Dnye for nasally released pronounced as //tn//. In Cornish, it is used for an optionally pre-occluded pronounced as //n//; that is, it is pronounced either pronounced as //n// or pronounced as //nː// (in any position); pronounced as //ᵈn// (before a consonant or finally); or pronounced as //dn// (before a vowel); examples are Cornish: pedn ('head') or Cornish: pednow ('heads').
(dp) is used in Yélî Dnye for doubly articulated pronounced as //t͡p//.
(dq) is used for the click pronounced as //ᶢǃ// in Naro.
(dr) is used in Malagasy for pronounced as //ɖʐ//. See (tr). It is used in Fijian for 'ndr' nasalized (pronounced as //ɳɖr//).
(ds) is used in Juǀʼhoan for the prevoiced ejective pronounced as //d͡tsʼ//.
(dt) is used in German, Swedish, and Sandawe orthography as well as the romanization of Thai for pronounced as //t//. (capital) is used in Irish, as the eclipsis of, to represent pronounced as //d̪ˠ// (beside) and pronounced as //tʲ// (beside).
(dv) is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for the voiced dental affricate pronounced as //d͡ð//.
(dx) is used in some Zapotecan languages for a voiced postalveolar fricative pronounced as //ʒ//. (It is placed between (D) and (E) in alphabetical order.) In Juǀʼhoan it is used for the prevoiced uvularized plosive pronounced as //d͡tᵡ//.
(dy) is used in Xhosa for pronounced as //dʲʱ//. In Shona, it represents pronounced as //dʒɡ//. In Tagalog it is used for pronounced as //dʒ//. In the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages such as Warlpiri, Arrernte, and Pitjantjatjara, it represents a postalveolar stop such as pronounced as //ṯ// or pronounced as //ḏ//. This sound is also written (tj), (dj), (ty), (c), or (j).
(dz) is used in several languages, often to represent pronounced as //d͡z//. See article.
(dź) is used in the Polish and Sorbian alphabets for pronounced as //d͡ʑ//, the voiced alveolo-palatal affricate, as in Polish: dźwięk pronounced as //d͡ʑvʲɛŋk//. (dź) is never written before a vowel ((dzi) is used instead, as in Polish: dziecko pronounced as //d͡ʑɛt͡skɔ// 'child').
(dż) is used in the Polish for a voiced retroflex affricate pronounced as //d͡ʐ// (e.g. 'jam').
(dž) is used in Serbo-Croatian, Slovak, Lithuanian, and Latvian to represent pronounced as //d͡ʒ//. See article.
(e′) is used in Taa, where it represents the glottalised or creaky vowel pronounced as //ḛ//.
(ea) is used in many languages. In English, (ea) usually represents the monophthong pronounced as //iː// as in meat; due to a sound change that happened in Middle English, it also often represents the vowel pronounced as //ɛ// as in sweat. Rare pronunciations occur, like pronounced as //eɪ// in break, great, steak, and yea, and pronounced as //ɔː// in the archaic ealdorman. When followed by, it can represent the standard outcomes of the previously mentioned three vowels in this environment: pronounced as //ɪər// as in beard, pronounced as //ɜːr// as in heard, and pronounced as //ɛər// as in bear, respectively; as another exception, pronounced as //ɑr// occurs in the words hearken, heart, and hearth. It often represents two independent vowels, like pronounced as //eɪ.ɑː// (seance), pronounced as //i.æ// (reality), pronounced as //i.eɪ// (create), and pronounced as //i.ɪ// or pronounced as //i.ə// (lineage). Unstressed, it may represent pronounced as //jə// (ocean) and pronounced as //ɪ// or pronounced as //ə// (Eleanor). In Romanian, it represents the diphthong pronounced as //e̯a// as in Romanian; Moldavian; Moldovan: beată ('drunk female'). In Irish, (ea) represents pronounced as //a// between a slender and a broad consonant. In Scottish Gaelic, (ea) represents pronounced as //ʲa//, pronounced as //ɛ// or pronounced as //e// between a slender and a broad context, depending on context or dialect. In Old English, it represents the diphthong pronounced as //æɑ̯//. (Ea) is also the transliteration of the (ᛠ) rune of the Anglo-Frisian Futhorc.
(eá) is used in Irish for pronounced as //aː// between a slender and a broad consonant.
(eà) is used in Scottish Gaelic for pronounced as //ʲaː// between a slender and a broad consonant.
(éa) is used in Irish for pronounced as //eː// between a slender and a broad consonant.
(èa) is used in Scottish Gaelic for pronounced as //ia// between a slender and a broad consonant, unless the broad consonant is m, mh, or p, in which case it represents pronounced as //ɛ//.
(ee) represents a long mid vowel in a number of languages. In English, (ee) represents pronounced as //iː// as in teen. In Dutch and German, (ee) represents pronounced as //eː// (though it is pronounced pronounced as /[eɪ]/ in majority of northern Dutch dialects). In the Cantonese Romanisation, it represents pronounced as //iː// as in English, or pronounced as //ei// for characters which might be pronounced as pronounced as //iː// in other dialects. In Bouyei, (ee) is used for plain pronounced as //e//, as (e) stands for pronounced as //ɯ//.
(eh) is used in Taa for the murmured vowel pronounced as //e̤//. In the Wade-Giles transliteration of Mandarin Chinese, it is used for pronounced as //ɛ// after a consonant, as in yeh pronounced as //jɛ//. In German, (eh) represents pronounced as //eː//, as in German: Reh.
(ei) This digraph was taken over from Middle High German, where it represented pronounced as //eɪ//. It usually represents a diphthong. In Modern German, (ei) is predominant in representing pronounced as //aɪ//, as in Einstein, while the equivalent digraph (ai) appears in only a few words. In English, (ei) can represent many sounds, including pronounced as //eɪ//, as in vein, pronounced as //i// as in seize, pronounced as //aɪ// as in heist, pronounced as //ɛ// as in heifer, pronounced as //æ// as in enceinte, and pronounced as //ɪ// or pronounced as //ə// as in forfeit. See also I before e except after c. In southern and western Faroese dialects, it represents the diphthong pronounced as //aɪ//, while in northern and eastern dialects, it represents the diphthong pronounced as //ɔɪ//. In Portuguese, (ei) represents pronounced as //ɐj// in Greater Lisbon, so do (éi) and (êi), but pronounced as //ej ~ e// or pronounced as //ɛj// in Brazil, East Timor, Macau, rest of Portugal, and Portuguese-speaking African countries,
In Welsh, (ei) represents pronounced as //əi//. In Irish and Scottish Gaelic, it represents pronounced as //ɛ// or pronounced as //e//, or pronounced as //ɪ// when unstressed, before a slender consonant. In Dutch and Afrikaans, (ei) represents pronounced as //ɛi//. In French, (ei) represents pronounced as //ɛ//, as in French: seiche.
In Hepburn romanization of the Japanese language it is used to transcribe the sound pronounced as //eː//.
(eî) is used in French for pronounced as //ɛː//, as in French: reître pronounced as //ʁɛːtʁ//.
(éi) is used in Irish for pronounced as //eː// between slender consonants.
(èi) is used in Scottish Gaelic for pronounced as //ɛː// or pronounced as //eː// between slender consonants.
(ej) is used in Swedish in some short words, such as Swedish: leja pronounced as //leːja// or Swedish: nej pronounced as //nɛj//.
(em) is used in Portuguese for pronounced as //ɐĩ̯ ~ ẽĩ̯// at the end of a word and pronounced as //ẽ// before a consonant. In French orthography, it represents a /ɑ̃/ when it is followed by a b or a p.
(ẽm) is used in Portuguese for pronounced as //ẽĩ// at the end of a word.
(ém) is used in Portuguese for pronounced as //ɐĩ̯ ~ ẽĩ̯// at the end of a word.
(êm) is used in Portuguese for pronounced as //ɐĩ̯ ~ ẽĩ̯// at the end of a word and pronounced as //ẽ// before a consonant.
(en) is used in Portuguese for pronounced as //ɐĩ̯ ~ ẽĩ̯// at the end of a word followed or not by an pronounced as //s// as in Portuguese: hífen or Portuguese: hifens; and for pronounced as //ẽ// before a consonant within a word. In French, it represents pronounced as //ɑ̃// or pronounced as //ɛ̃//.
(én) is used in Portuguese for pronounced as //ɐĩ̯ ~ ẽĩ̯// before a consonant.
(ên) is used in Portuguese for pronounced as //ẽ// before a consonant.
(eo) is used in Irish for pronounced as //oː// (pronounced as //ɔ// in 4 words) between a slender and a broad consonant. In Scottish Gaelic it is used for pronounced as //ʲɔ// between a slender and a broad consonant. In the Jyutping romanization of Cantonese, it represents pronounced as //ɵ//, an allophone of pronounced as //œː//, while in the Cantonese Romanisation, it represents pronounced as //œː//. In the Revised Romanization of Korean, (eo) represents the open-mid back unrounded vowel pronounced as //ʌ//, and in Piedmontese it is pronounced as //ɛu̯//. In English (eo) is a rare digraph without a single pronunciation, representing pronounced as //ɛ// in feoff, jeopardy, leopard and the given names Geoffrey and Leonard, pronounced as //iː// in people, pronounced as //oʊ// in yeoman and pronounced as //juː// in the archaic feodary, while in the originally Gaelic name MacLeod it represents pronounced as //aʊ//. However, usually it represents two vowels, like pronounced as //iː.ə// in leotard and galleon, pronounced as //iː.oʊ// in stereo and, pronounced as //iː.ɒ// in geodesy, and, uniquely, pronounced as //uː.iː// in geoduck.
(eò) is used in Scottish Gaelic for pronounced as //jɔː// word-initially, and pronounced as //ɔː// elsewhere.
(eq) is used in Taa for the pharyngealized vowel pronounced as //eˤ//.
(eu) is found in many languages, most commonly for the diphthong pronounced as //eu//. Additionally, in English, (eu) represents pronounced as //juː// as in neuter (pronounced as //uː// in yod-dropping accents); however, the in "maneuver/manoeuvre" always represents pronounced as //uː// even in most non yod-dropping accents. In German, it represents pronounced as //ɔʏ// as in German: Deutsch; and in French, Dutch, Breton, and Piedmontese, it represents pronounced as //ø//. In Cornish, it represents either long pronounced as //øː ~ œː// and short pronounced as //œ// or long pronounced as //eː// and short pronounced as //ɛ//. In Scottish Gaelic it normally represents pronounced as //ia//, as in Gaelic; Scottish Gaelic: beul pronounced as //pial̪ˠ//, except when preceding (e.g. Gaelic; Scottish Gaelic: leum pronounced as //ʎeːm//) and usually, or in certain high-register words such as Gaelic; Scottish Gaelic: treun pronounced as //t̪ʰɾeːn// where it represents pronounced as //eː//, and in southern dialects it is pronounced as //eː// in most contexts. In Yale romanization of Cantonese it represents pronounced as //ɵ ~ œː//, while in the Cantonese Romanisation, it represents pronounced as //œː//. In romanization of Wu Chinese, it represents pronounced as /link/, depending on the lect. In Sundanese and Acehnese, it represents pronounced as //ɤ// as in Achinese: beureum ('red'). In the Revised Romanization of Korean, it represents pronounced as //ɯ//.
(eû) is used in French for pronounced as //ø//, as in French: jeûne pronounced as //ʒøn//.
(ew) is used in English for pronounced as //juː// as in few and flew. An exception is the pronunciation pronounced as //oʊ// in sew, leading to the heteronym sewer,(pronounced as //ˈsuːər//, 'drain') vs sewer (pronounced as //ˈsoʊər//, 'one who sews'). In Cornish, it stands for pronounced as //ɛʊ//.
(êw) is used in the Kernowek Standard orthography of Cornish to refer to a sound that can be either pronounced as //ɛʊ// or pronounced as //oʊ//. This distribution can also be written (ôw).
(ey) is used in English for a variety of sounds, including pronounced as //eɪ// in they, pronounced as //iː// in key, and pronounced as //aɪ// in geyser. In Faroese, it represents the diphthong pronounced as //ɛɪ//. In Cornish, it represents the diphthong pronounced as //ɛɪ// or pronounced as //əɪ//.
(e_e) (a split digraph) indicates an English 'long e', historically pronounced as //e:// but now most commonly realised as pronounced as //i://.
(eⁿ) is used for pronounced as //ẽ// in Hokkien Pe̍h-ōe-jī.
(ff), which may be written as the typographic ligature (ff), is used in English and Cornish for the same sound as single (f), pronounced as //f//. The doubling is used to indicate that the preceding vowel is (historically) short, or for etymological reasons, in latinisms. Very rarely, (ff) may be found word-initially in English, such as in proper names (e.g., Rose ffrench, Jasper Fforde). In Welsh, (ff) represents pronounced as //f//, while (f) represents pronounced as //v//. In Welsh, (ff) is considered a distinct letter, and placed between (f) and (g) in alphabetical order. In medieval Breton, vowel nasalisation was represented by a following (ff). This notation was reformed during the 18th century, though proper names retain the former convention, which leads to occasional mispronunciation.
(fh) is used in Irish and Scottish Gaelic for the lenition of (f). This happens to be silent, so that (fh) in Gaelic corresponds to no sound at all, e.g. the Irish phrase Irish: cá fhad pronounced as //kaː ˈad̪ˠ// "how long", where Irish: fhad is the lenited form of Irish: fad pronounced as //fˠad̪ˠ// "long". However, in three Scottish Gaelic words, Gaelic; Scottish Gaelic: fhèin, Gaelic; Scottish Gaelic: fhuair, and Gaelic; Scottish Gaelic: fhathast, it is pronounced as pronounced as //h//.
(fx) is used in Nambikwara for a glottalized pronounced as //ɸʔ//.
(gʻ) is used in Uzbek to represent pronounced as //ɣ//.
(gb) is used in some African languages for a voiced labial-velar plosive, pronounced as //ɡ͡b//.
(gc) is used in languages, such as Xhosa and Zulu, for the click pronounced as //ᶢǀ//. (capital) is used in Irish, as the eclipsis of, to represent pronounced as //g// (beside) and pronounced as /link/ (beside).
(ge) is used in French for pronounced as //ʒ// before (e, i) as in French: geôle pronounced as //ʒol//.
(gg) is used in English for pronounced as //ɡ// before (y), (i) and (e) (e.g. doggy). It is also used in Pinyin for pronounced as //ɡ// in languages such as Yi. In Central Alaskan Yup'ik, it represents pronounced as //x//. In Greenlandic, it represents pronounced as //çː//. In the ISO romanization of Korean, it is used for the fortis sound pronounced as //k͈//, otherwise spelled (kk) (e.g. ggakdugi). In Hadza it is ejective pronounced as //kxʼ//. In Italian, (gg) before a front vowel represents a geminated pronounced as //dʒ//, as in Italian: legge pronounced as //ˈled.dʒe//. In Piedmontese and Lombard, (gg) is an etymological spelling representing an pronounced as //tʃ// at the end of a word which is the unvoicing of an ancient pronounced as //dʒ//.
(gh) is used in several languages. In English, it can be silent or represent pronounced as //ɡ// or pronounced as //f//. See article.
(gi) is used in Vietnamese for pronounced as //z// in northern dialects and pronounced as //j// in the southern ones. In Italian, it represents pronounced as //dʒ// before the non-front vowel letters (a o u). In Romansh it represents pronounced as //dʑ// before (a o u) (written (g) before front vowels).
(gj) is used in Albanian for the voiced palatal plosive pronounced as //ɟ//, though for Gheg speakers it represents pronounced as //dʒ//. In the Arbëresh dialect, it represents the voiced velar plosive pronounced as //ɡʲ//. In Norwegian and Swedish (gj) represents pronounced as //j// in words like gjorde ('did'). In Faroese, it represents pronounced as //dʒ//. It is also used in the Romanization of Macedonian as a Latin equivalent of Cyrillic (Ѓ). Also, it's used in Friulian to represent pronounced as //ɟ// (whilst pronounced as //dʒ// is one of the pronunciations of the letter ⟨z⟩). It can be found in some local orthographies of Lombard to represent pronounced as //dʒ// derived from Latin ⟨gl⟩. Before the letter Đ was introduced into Gaj's Latin alphabet in 1878, the digraph ⟨gj⟩ had been used instead; and it remained in use till the beginning of the 20th century.
(gk) is used in Sandawe and the romanization of Thai for pronounced as //k//; in Limburgish it represents pronounced as //ɡ//. Modern Greek uses the equivalent digraph γκ for pronounced as //g//, as γ is used for pronounced as //ɣ// ~ pronounced as //ʝ//.
(gl) is used in Italian and some African languages for pronounced as //ʎ//.
(gm) is used in English for pronounced as //m// in a few words of Greek origin, such as phlegm and paradigm. Between vowels, it simply represents pronounced as //ɡm//, as in paradigmatic.
(gn) is used in Latin, where it represented pronounced as //ŋn// in the classical period. Latin velar-coronal sequences like this (and also (cl cr ct gd gl gr x)) underwent a palatal mutation to varying degrees in most Italo-Western Romance languages. For most languages that preserve the (gn) spelling (such as Italian and French), it represents a palatal nasal pronounced as //ɲ// (or more precisely pronounced as //ɲː// in Italian), and is similarly used in Romanization schemes such as Wugniu for pronounced as //ȵ//. This was not the case in Dalmatian and the Eastern Romance languages where a different mutation changed the velar component to a labial consonant as well as the spelling to (mn). In Portuguese, represents pronounced as //n//, as if there was no, e.g. Portuguese: assignatura, Portuguese: signal, Portuguese: impregnado and Portuguese: plurissignificação. It is used in Scottish Gaelic for pronounced as //kr//, and nasalises the following vowel, as in Gaelic; Scottish Gaelic: gnè pronounced as //krʲɛ̃ː//.
In English, (gn) represents pronounced as //n// initially (see /gn/ reduction) and finally (i.e. gnome, gnu, benign, sign). When it appears between two syllables, it represents pronounced as //ɡn// (e.g. signal). In Norwegian and Swedish, (gn) represents pronounced as //ŋn// in monosyllabic words like agn, and between two syllables, tegne. Initially, it represents pronounced as //ɡn//, e.g. Swedish Swedish: gnista pronounced as //ˈɡnɪsta//.
(gñ) was used in several Spanish-derived orthographies of the Pacific for pronounced as //ŋ//. It is one of several variants of the digraph (ñg), and is preserved in the name of the town of Sagñay, Philippines.
(go) is used in Piedmontese for pronounced as //ɡw// (like the “gu” in Guatemala) .
(gq) is used in languages, such as Xhosa and Zulu, for the click pronounced as //ᶢǃ//. In the Taa language, it represents pronounced as //ɢ//.
(gr) is used in Xhosa for pronounced as //ɣ̈//.
(gu) is used in English, Spanish, French, Portuguese and Catalan for pronounced as //ɡ// before front vowels (i e) ((i e y) in English and French) where a "soft g" pronunciation (English pronounced as //dʒ//; Spanish pronounced as //x//; French, Portuguese and Catalan pronounced as //ʒ//) would otherwise occur. In English, it can also be used to represent pronounced as //ɡw//. In the Ossete Latin alphabet, it is used for pronounced as //ɡʷ//.
(gü) is used in Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan for pronounced as //ɡw// before front vowels (i e) where the digraph (gu) would otherwise represent pronounced as //ɡ//.
(gv) is used for pronounced as //kʷ// in Standard Zhuang and in Bouyei. In the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages it is used for the labialized fricative pronounced as //ɣʷ//.
(gw) is used in various languages for pronounced as //ɡʷ//, and in Dene Suline it represents pronounced as //kʷ//.
(ǥw), capital (Ǥw) (or (G̱w)), is used in Tlingit for pronounced as //qʷ// (in Alaska); in Canada, this sound is represented by (ghw).
(gx) is used in languages, such as Xhosa and Zulu, for the click pronounced as //ᶢǁ//. In Esperanto, it is an unofficial surrogate of (ĝ), which represents pronounced as //dʒ//.
(gy) is used in Hungarian for a voiced palatal plosive pronounced as //ɟ//. In Hungarian, the letter's name is Hungarian: gyé. It is considered a single letter, and acronyms keep the digraph intact. The letter appears frequently in Hungarian words, such as the word for "Hungarian" itself: Hungarian: magyar. In the old orthography of Bouyei, it was used for pronounced as //tɕ//.
(gǃ) is used in Juǀʼhoan for the voiced alveolar click pronounced as //ᶢǃ//.
(gǀ) is used in Juǀʼhoan for the voiced dental click pronounced as //ᶢǀ//.
(gǁ) is used in Juǀʼhoan for the voiced lateral click pronounced as //ᶢǁ//.
(gǂ) is used in Juǀʼhoan for the voiced palatal click pronounced as //ᶢǂ//.
(hh) is used in Xhosa to write the murmured glottal fricative pronounced as //ɦ̤//, though this is often written . In the Iraqw language, is the voiceless epiglottal fricative pronounced as //ʜ//, and in Chipewyan it is a velar/uvular pronounced as //χ//. In Esperanto orthography, it is an official surrogate of (ĥ), which represents pronounced as //x//.
(hj) is used in the Italian dialect of Albanian for pronounced as //xʲ//. In Faroese, it represents either pronounced as //tʃ// or pronounced as //j//, and in Swedish, Danish and Norwegian, it represents pronounced as //j//. In Icelandic it is used to denote pronounced as //ç//.
(hl) is used for pronounced as //ɬ// or pronounced as //l̥// in various alphabets, such as the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong (pronounced as //ɬ//) and Icelandic (pronounced as //l̥//). See also reduction of Old English /hl/.
(hm) is used in the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, where it represents the sound pronounced as //m̥//.
(hn) is used in the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, where it represents the sound pronounced as //n̥//. It is also used in Icelandic to denote the same phoneme. See also reduction of Old English /hn/.
(hr) is used for pronounced as //ɣ// in Bouyei. In Icelandic it is used for pronounced as //r̥//. See also reduction of Old English /hr/.
(hs) is used in the Wade-Giles transcription of Mandarin Chinese for the sound pronounced as //ɕ//, equivalent to Pinyin .
(hu) is used primarily in the Classical Nahuatl language, in which it represents the pronounced as //w// sound before a vowel; for example, Wikipedia in Nahuatl is written Nahuatl languages: Huiquipedia. After a vowel, (uh) is used. In the Ossete Latin alphabet, was used for pronounced as //ʁʷ//, similar to French French: roi. The sequence is also found in Spanish words such as Spanish; Castilian: huevo or Spanish; Castilian: hueso; however, in Spanish this is not a digraph but a simple sequence of silent and the vowel .
(hv) is used Faroese and Icelandic for pronounced as //kv// (often pronounced as //kf//), generally in wh-words, but also in other words, such as Faroese Faroese: hvonn. In the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages it is used for the supposed fricative pronounced as //ɣ͜β//.
() is used in modern editions of Old English for pronounced as //hw//, originally spelled (huu) or (hƿ) (the latter with the wynn letter). In its descendants in modern English, it is now spelled (wh) (see there for more details). It is used in some orthographies of Cornish for pronounced as //ʍ//.
(hx) is used in Pinyin for pronounced as //h// in languages such as Yi ((h) alone represents the fricative pronounced as //x//), and in Nambikwara it is a glottalized pronounced as //hʔ//. In Esperanto orthography, it is an unofficial surrogate of (ĥ), which represents pronounced as //x//.
(hy) is used in Hepburn romanization of the Japanese language to transcribe the sound pronounced as //ç//, which is the syllable hi before a y-vowel, such as hya, hyu, and hyo, which appear in Chinese loanwords. Was also used in Portuguese until 1947. It appeared in words like: Hydroginástica and Hypóthese.
(i′) is used in Taa to represent the glottalized or creaky vowel pronounced as //ḭ//.
(ia) is used in Irish and Scottish Gaelic for the diphthong pronounced as //iə//.
(ie) is used in English, where it usually represents the pronounced as //aɪ// sound as in pries and allied or the pronounced as //iː// sound as in priest and rallied. Followed by an, these vowels follow the standard changes to pronounced as //aɪə// and pronounced as //ɪə//, as in brier and bier. Unique pronunciations are pronounced as //ɪ// in sieve, pronounced as //ɛ// in friend, and pronounced as //eɪ// in lingerie. Unstressed it can represent pronounced as //jə//, as in spaniel and conscience, or pronounced as //ɪ// or pronounced as //ə// as in mischief and hurriedly. It also can represent many vowel combinations, including pronounced as //aɪə// in diet and client, pronounced as //aɪɛ// in diester and quiescent, pronounced as //iːə// in alien and skier, pronounced as //iːɛ// in oriental and hygienic, and pronounced as //iː.iː// in British medieval.
In Dutch and Afrikaans, (ie) represents the tense vowel pronounced as //i//. In German, it may represent the lengthened vowel pronounced as //iː// as in German: L'''ie'''be (love) as well as the vowel combination pronounced as //iə// as in German: Belg'''ie'''n (Belgium). In Latvian and Lithuanian, (ie) is considered two letters for all purposes and represents pronounced as //iæ̯//, commonly (although less precisely) transcribed as pronounced as //i̯e//. In Maltese, (ie) is a distinct letter and represents a long close front unrounded vowel, pronounced as //iː// or pronounced as //iɛ//. In Pinyin it is used to write the vowel pronounced as //e// in languages such as Yi, where stands for pronounced as //ɛ//. In Old English (ie) was one of the common diphthongs, the umlauted version of and . Its value is not entirely clear, and in Middle English it had become pronounced as //e//.
(îe) is used in Afrikaans for pronounced as //əːə//.
(ig) is used in Catalan for pronounced as //t͡ʃ// (ch as in cheese) in the coda.
(ih), is used in Taa to represent the breathy or murmured vowel pronounced as //i̤//. It is also used in Tongyong Pinyin and Wade-Giles transcription for the fricative vowels of Mandarin Chinese, which are spelled in Hanyu Pinyin.
(ii) is used in many languages such as Portuguese (e.g. Semiinsinuante, Sacerdócii) and Finnish (e.g. Riikka, Niinistö, Siitala, Riikkeli), Italian (e.g. Riina), Estonian (e.g. Riik), Scots (e.g. Auld Nii, Iisay), with phonemic long vowels for pronounced as //iː//.
(ií) is used in Portuguese for pronounced as //iyi//. In Portuguese, when forming the superlative absolute synthetic form of adjectives that end in "-io," we often end up with "ii" in the spelling. This happens because the "-íssimo(a)" suffix is added directly to the adjective(e.g. feio(a) -> feiíssimo(a), sério(a) -> seriíssimo(a)).
(ij) is used in Dutch for pronounced as //ɛi//. See article.
(il) is used in French for pronounced as //j//, historically pronounced as //ʎ//, as in French: ail pronounced as //aj// (approximately in English) "garlic". Can also be written as (ille) as in French: vieille pronounced as //vjɛj//.
(im) is used in Portuguese for pronounced as //ĩ//.
(ím) is used in Portuguese for pronounced as //ĩ// before a consonant.
(ĩm) is used in Portuguese for the diphthong pronounced as //ĩə//.
(in) is used in many languages to write a nasal vowel. In Portuguese before a consonant, and in many West African languages, it is pronounced as //ĩ//, while in French it is pronounced as //ɛ̃//.
(ín) is used in Portuguese for pronounced as //ĩ// before a consonant.
(în) is used in French to write a vowel sound pronounced as //ɛ̃// that was once followed by a historical, as in French: vous vîntes pronounced as //vu vɛ̃t// "you came".
(iŋ) is used in Lakhota for the nasal vowel pronounced as //ĩ//.
(io) is used in Irish for pronounced as //ɪ//, pronounced as //ʊ//, and pronounced as //iː// between a slender and a broad consonant. In Scottish Gaelic it is used for pronounced as //i// and sometimes pronounced as //(j)ũ(ː)// between a slender and a broad consonant.
(ío) is used in Irish for pronounced as //iː// between a slender and a broad consonant.
(ìo) is used in Scottish Gaelic for pronounced as //iː// and pronounced as //iə// between a slender and a broad consonant.
(iq) is used in Taa to represent the pharyngealized vowel pronounced as //iˤ//.
(iu) is used in Irish for pronounced as //ʊ// between a slender and a broad consonant. In Scottish Gaelic, it is used for pronounced as //(j)u// between a slender and a broad consonant. In Mandarin pinyin, it is pronounced as //i̯ou̯// after a consonant. (In initial position, this is spelled).
(iú) is used in Irish for pronounced as //uː// between a slender and a broad consonant.
(iù) is used in Scottish Gaelic for pronounced as //(j)uː// between a slender and a broad consonant.
(iw) is used in Welsh and Cornish for the diphthong pronounced as //iʊ// or pronounced as //ɪʊ//.
(ix) is used in Catalan for pronounced as //ʃ// (Eastern Catalan) or pronounced as //jʃ// (Western Catalan) after a vowel.
(i_e) (a split digraph) indicates an English 'long i', historically pronounced as //iː// but now most commonly realised as pronounced as //aɪ//.
(jh) is used in Walloon to write a consonant that is variously pronounced as //h//, pronounced as //ʒ// or pronounced as //ç//, depending on the dialect. In Tongyong pinyin, it represents pronounced as //tʂ//, written in standard pinyin. is also the standard transliteration for the Devanāgarī letter झ pronounced as //dʒʱ//.In Esperanto, it is an official surrogate of (ĵ), which represents pronounced as //ʒ//. In Latin American Spanish, it is sometimes used in first names (like Jhon and Jhordan) to represent pronounced as /link/ and distinguish it from the typical sound of in Spanish, pronounced as //x//.
(jj) is used in Pinyin for pronounced as //dʑ// in languages such as Yi. In romanized Korean, it represents the fortis sound pronounced as //tɕ͈//. In Hadza it is ejective pronounced as //tʃʼ//.
(jö) is used as a letter of the Seri alphabet, where it represents a labialized velar fricative, pronounced as //xʷ//. It is placed between J and L in alphabetical order.
(jr) is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for pronounced as //ɖʐ//.
(jx) is used in Esperanto as an unofficial surrogate of (ĵ), which represents pronounced as //ʒ//.
(kg) is used for pronounced as //kχ// in southern African languages such as Setswana and Sotho. For instance, the Kalahari is spelled Tswana: Kgalagadi pronounced as //kχalaχadi// in Setswana.
(kh), in transcriptions of Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages, represents the aspirated voiceless velar plosive (pronounced as //kʰ//). For most other languages, it represents the voiceless velar fricative pronounced as //x//, for example in transcriptions of the letter (Arabic: خ|rtl=yes) in standard Arabic, standard Persian, and Urdu, Cyrillic Х, х (kha), Spanish, as well as the Hebrew letter kaf in instances when it is lenited. When used for transcription of the letter in Sephardic Hebrew, it represents the voiceless pharyngeal fricative pronounced as //ħ//. In Canadian Tlingit it represents pronounced as //qʰ//, which in Alaska is written k. In the Ossete Latin alphabet, it was used for pronounced as //kʼ//.
(kj) is used Swedish and Norwegian for pronounced as //ɕ// or pronounced as //ç//. See also (tj). In Faroese, it represents pronounced as //tʃ//. In the romanization of Macedonian, it represents pronounced as //c//.
(kk) is used in romanized Korean for the fortis sound pronounced as //k͈//, in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) for ejective pronounced as //kʼ//, and in Cypriot Arabic for pronounced as //kʰː//.
(kl) is used in Zulu to write a sound variously realized as pronounced as //kʟ̥ʼ// or pronounced as //kxʼ//.
(km) is used in Yélî Dnye doubly articulated and nasally released pronounced as //k͡pŋ͡m//.
(kn) is used in English to write the word-initial sound pronounced as //n// (formerly pronounced /kn/) in some words of Germanic origin, such as knee and knife. It is used in Yélî Dnye for nasally released pronounced as //kŋ//.
(kp) is used as a letter in some African languages, where it represents a voiceless labial-velar plosive pronounced as //k͡p//.
(kr) is used in Xhosa for pronounced as //kxʼ//.
(ks) is used in Cornish for either pronounced as //ks// or pronounced as //ɡz//.
(ku) is used in Purépecha for pronounced as //kʷ//. It also had that value in the Ossete Latin alphabet.
(kv) is used for pronounced as //kwh// in some dialects of Zhuang.
() is used in various languages for the labialized velar consonant pronounced as //kʷ//, and in Dene Suline (Chipewyan) for pronounced as //kwh//. Used informally in English for phonemic spelling of qu, as in kwik (from quick), ultimately from Proto-Indo-European pronounced as /
(ḵw) is used in Alaskan Tlingit for pronounced as //qwh//, which in Canada is written .
(kx) in used in Nambikwara for a glottalized pronounced as //kʔ//, and in Juǀʼhoan for the ejective pronounced as //kxʼ//.
(ky) is used in Tibetan Pinyin for pronounced as //tʃʰ//.
(lh), in Occitan, Gallo, and Portuguese, represents a palatal lateral approximant pronounced as //ʎ//. In many Indigenous languages of the Americas it represents a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative pronounced as //ɬ//. In the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages it represents a dental lateral, pronounced as //l̪//. In the Gwoyeu Romatzyh romanization of Mandarin Chinese, initial (lh) indicates an even tone on a syllable beginning in pronounced as //l//, which is otherwise spelled (l). In Middle Welsh it was sometimes used to represent the sound pronounced as //ɬ// as well as (ll), in modern Welsh it has been replaced by (ll). In Tibetan, it represents the voiceless alveolar lateral approximant pronounced as //ɬ//, as in Lhasa.
(lj) is a letter in some Slavic languages, such as the Latin orthographies of Serbo-Croatian, where it represents a palatal lateral approximant pronounced as //ʎ//. For example, the word ljiljan is pronounced pronounced as //ʎiʎan//. Ljudevit Gaj first used the digraph (lj) in 1830; he devised it by analogy with a Cyrillic digraph, which developed into the ligature (љ). In Swedish, it represents pronounced as //j// in initial position e.g. Swedish: '''lj'''us.
The sound pronounced as //ʎ// is written (gl) in Italian, in Castilian Spanish and Catalan as (ll), in Portuguese as (lh), in some Hungarian dialects as (lly), and in Latvian as (ļ). In Czech and Slovak, it is often transcribed as (ľ); it is used more frequently in the latter language. While there are dedicated Unicode codepoints, U+01C7 (LJ), U+01C8 (Lj) and U+01C9 (lj), these are included for backwards compatibility (with legacy encodings for Serbo-Croatian which kept a one-to-one correspondence with Cyrillic Љљ) and modern texts use a sequence of Basic Latin characters.
(ll) and (l·l) are used in several languages. See article.
(ḷḷ) is used in Asturian for a sound that was historically pronounced as //ʎ// but which is now an affricate, pronounced as /[t͡s], [t͡ʃ], [d͡ʒ]/.
(lr) is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for pronounced as //ɭ//.
(lv) is used in Yélî Dnye for doubly articulated pronounced as //l͜β//.
(lw) is used for pronounced as //lʷ// in Arrernte.
(lx) in used in Nambikwara for a glottalized pronounced as //ˀl//.
(ly) is used in Hungarian. See article.
(mb), in many African languages, represents pronounced as //mb// or pronounced as //ᵐb//. In English, it represents pronounced as //m// when final, as in lamb (see reduction of /mb/). In Standard Zhuang and in Bouyei, (mb) is used for pronounced as //ɓ//. (capital) is used word initially in Irish, as the eclipsis of (b), to represent pronounced as //mˠ// (beside) and pronounced as //mʲ// (beside); e.g. Irish: ár mbád pronounced as //aːɾˠ mˠaːd̪ˠ// "our boat" (cf. pronounced as //bˠaːd̪ˠ// "boat"), Irish: i mBaile Átha Cliath "in Dublin".
(md) is used in Yélî Dnye for doubly articulated and prenasalized pronounced as //n͡mt͡p//.
(mf), in many African languages, represents pronounced as //mf// or pronounced as //ᵐf//.
(mg) is used in Pinyin for pronounced as //ŋɡ// in languages such as Yi, where the more common digraph (ng) is restricted to pronounced as //ŋ//. It is used in Yélî Dnye for doubly articulated and prenasalized pronounced as //ŋ͡mk͡p//.
(mh) is used in Irish, as the lenition of (m), to represent pronounced as //w// (beside) and pronounced as //vʲ// (beside), e.g. Irish: mo mháthair pronounced as //mˠə ˈwaːhəɾʲ// "my mother" (cf. Irish: máthair pronounced as //ˈmˠaːhəɾʲ// 'mother'). In Scottish Gaelic, it represents pronounced as //v//, or in a few contexts as pronounced as //w/~/u// between a broad vowel and a broad consonant or between two broad vowels, as in Gaelic; Scottish Gaelic: reamhar pronounced as //rˠɛ̃ũ.əɾ//.. In Welsh it stands for the nasal mutation of (p) and represents the voiceless pronounced as //m̥//; for example Welsh: fy mhen pronounced as //və m̥ɛn// 'my head' (cf. Welsh: pen pronounced as //pɛn// 'head'). In both languages it is considered a sequence of the two letters (m) and (h) for purposes of alphabetization. In Shona, Juǀʼhoan and several other languages, it is used for a murmured pronounced as //m̤//. In the Gwoyeu Romatzyh romanization of Mandarin Chinese, initial - indicates an even tone on a syllable beginning in pronounced as //m//, which is otherwise spelled -. In several languages, such as Gogo, it's a voiceless pronounced as //m̥//.
(ml) is used in the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, where it represents the sound pronounced as //mˡ//.
(mm) is used in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) for glottalized pronounced as //ˀm//. It is used in Cornish for an optionally pre-occluded pronounced as //m//; that is, it is pronounced either pronounced as //m// or pronounced as //mː// (in any position); pronounced as //ᵇm// (before a consonant or finally); or pronounced as //bm// (before a vowel); examples are Cornish: mamm ('mother') or Cornish: hemma ('this').
(mn) is used in English to write the word-initial sound pronounced as //n// in a few words of Greek origin, such as mnemonic. When final, it represents pronounced as //m//, as in damn or pronounced as //im// as in hymn, and between vowels it represents pronounced as //m// as in damning, or pronounced as //mn// as in damnation (see /mn/-reduction). In French it represents pronounced as //n//, as in French: automne and French: condamner.
(mp), in many African languages, represents pronounced as //mp// or pronounced as //ᵐp//. Modern Greek uses the equivalent digraph μπ for pronounced as //b//, as β is used for pronounced as //v//. In Mpumpong of Cameroon, (mp) is a plain pronounced as //p//.
(mq) is used in Juǀʼhoan for a pharyngealized or perhaps creaky pronounced as //m̰//.
(mt) is used in Yélî Dnye for doubly articulated and prenasalized pronounced as //n̪͡mt̪͡p//.
(mv), in many African languages, represents pronounced as //mv// or pronounced as //ᵐv//.
(mw) is used for pronounced as //mʷ// in Arrernte.
(mx) is used in Nambikwara for a glottalized pronounced as //ˀm//.
(nʼ) is used in Xhosa and Shona for pronounced as //ŋ//. Since (ʼ) is not a letter in either language, (nʼ) is not technically a digraph.
(nb) is used in Pinyin for pronounced as //mb// in languages such as Yi. It is also used in Fula in Guinea for pronounced as //ᵐb// (written as in other countries).
(nc) is used in various alphabets. In the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, it represents the sound pronounced as //ɲɟ//. In Tharaka it is pronounced as //ntʃ//. In Xhosa and Zulu it represents the click pronounced as //ᵑǀ//.
(nd) (capital) is used in many African languages to represent pronounced as //nd// or pronounced as //ⁿd//. In Standard Zhuang and Bouyei, itrepresents pronounced as //ɗ//. (nd) (capital (nD)) is used word initially in Irish, as the eclipsis of (d), to represent pronounced as //n̪ˠ// (beside) and pronounced as //n̠ʲ// (beside), e.g. Irish: ár ndoras pronounced as //aːɾˠ ˈn̪ˠɔɾˠəsˠ// "our door" (cf. Irish: doras pronounced as //ˈd̪ˠɔɾˠəsˠ// "door"), Irish: i nDoire "in Derry".
(nf), equivalent to (mf) for pronounced as //mf// or pronounced as //ᵐf//. In Rangi is pronounced as //ᵐf// while is pronounced as //m.f//.
(ng), in Sino-Tibetan languages,[6] as in English and several other European and derived orthographies (for example Vietnamese),[7] generally represents the velar nasal pronounced as //ŋ//. It is considered a single letter in many Austronesian languages (Māori, Tagalog, Tongan, Gilbertese, Tuvaluan, Indonesian, Chamorro),[8] Welsh, and Rheinische Dokumenta, for velar nasal pronounced as //ŋ//; and in some African languages (Lingala, Bambara, Wolof) for prenasalized pronounced as /link/ (pronounced as //ⁿɡ//).[9] [10]
For the development of the pronunciation of this digraph in English, see NG-coalescence and G-dropping.
Finnish uses to represent the phonemically long velar nasal pronounced as //ŋː// in contrast to pronounced as //ŋk//, which is its "strong" form under consonant gradation, a type of lenition. Weakening pronounced as //k// produces an archiphonemic "velar fricative", which, as a velar fricative does not exist in Standard Finnish, is assimilated to the preceding pronounced as //ŋ//, producing pronounced as //ŋː//. (No pronounced as //ɡ// is involved at any point, despite the spelling). The digraph is not an independent letter, but it is an exception to the phonemic principle, one of the few in standard Finnish.
(capital) is used word-initially in Irish, as the eclipsis of (g), to represent pronounced as //ŋ// (beside) or pronounced as //ɲ// (beside), e.g. Irish: ár ngalar pronounced as //aːɾˠ ˈŋalˠəɾˠ// "our illness" (cf. pronounced as //ˈɡalˠəɾˠ//), Irish: i nGaillimh "in Galway".
In Tagalog and other Philippine languages, represented the prenasalized sequence pronounced as //ŋɡ// during the Spanish era. The velar nasal, pronounced as //ŋ//, was written in a variety of ways, namely "n͠g", "ñg", "gñ" (as in Sagñay), and—after a vowel—at times "g̃". During the standardization of Tagalog in the early part of the 20th century, became used for the velar nasal pronounced as //ŋ//, while prenasalized pronounced as //ŋɡ// came to be written . Furthermore, is also used for a common genitive particle pronounced pronounced as //naŋ//, to differentiate it from an adverbial particle Tagalog: nang.
In Uzbek, it is considered as a separate letter, being the last (twenty-ninth) letter of the Uzbek alphabet. It is followed by the apostrophe (tutuq belgisi).
(ńg) is used in Central Alaskan Yup'ik to write the voiceless nasal sound pronounced as //ŋ̊//.
(ñg), or more precisely (n͠g), was a digraph in several Spanish-derived orthographies of the Pacific, such as Tagalog[11] and Chamorro,[12] where it represented the sound pronounced as //ŋ//, as opposed to, which originally represented pronounced as //ŋɡ//. An example is Chamorro Chamorro: agan͠gñáijon (modern Chamorro: agangñaihon) "to declare". Besides, variants of include (as in Sagñay),, and a, that is preceded by a vowel (but not a consonant). It has since been replaced by the trigraph (ngg) or (ng) (see above).
(ngʼ) is used for pronounced as //ŋ// in Swahili and languages with Swahili-based orthographies. Since (ʼ) is not a letter in Swahili, (ngʼ) is technically a digraph, not a trigraph.
(nh) is used in several languages. See article.
(ni) in Polish, it usually represents pronounced as /ɲ/ whenever it precedes a vowel, and pronounced as /ɲi/ whenever it precedes a consonant (or in the end of the word), and is considered a graphic variant of ń appearing in other situations. (In some cases it may represent also pronounced as /ɲj/ before a vowel; for a better description, when, see the relevant section in the article on Polish orthography).
(nj) is a letter in the Latin orthographies of Albanian, Slovenian and Serbo-Croatian. Ljudevit Gaj, a Croat, first used this digraph in 1830. In all of these languages, it represents the palatal nasal pronounced as //ɲ//. For example, the Croatian and Serbian word konj "horse" is pronounced pronounced as //koɲ//. The digraph was created in the 19th century by analogy with a digraph of Cyrillic, which developed into the ligature (њ). While there are dedicated Unicode codepoints, U+01CA (NJ), U+01CB (Nj) and U+01CC (nj), these are included for backwards compatibility (with legacy encodings for Serbo-Croatian which kept a one-to-one correspondence with Cyrillic Њњ) and modern texts use a sequence of Basic Latin characters.
In Faroese, it generally represents pronounced as //ɲ//, although in some words it represent pronounced as //nj//, like in banjo. It is also used in some languages of Africa and Oceania where it represents a prenazalized voiced postalveolar affricate or fricative, pronounced as //ⁿdʒ// or pronounced as //ⁿʒ//. In Malagasy, it represents pronounced as //ⁿdz//.
Other letters and digraphs of the Latin alphabet used for spelling this sound are (ń) (in Polish), (ň) (in Czech and Slovakian), (ñ) (in Spanish), (nh) (in Portuguese and Occitan), (gn) (in Italian and French), and (ny) (in Hungarian, among others).
(nk) is used in many Bantu languages like Lingala, Tshiluba, and Kikongo, for pronounced as //ŋk// or pronounced as //ᵑk//.[13] In the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages such as Warlpiri, Arrernte, and Pitjantjatjara, it distinguishes a prenasalized velar stop, pronounced as //ŋ͡k ~ ŋ͡ɡ//, from the nasal pronounced as //ŋ//.
(nm) is used in Yélî Dnye for doubly articulated pronounced as //n͡m//.
(ńm) is used in Yélî Dnye for doubly articulated pronounced as //n̪͡m//.
(nn) is used in Irish to represent the fortis nasals pronounced as //n̪ˠ// (beside) and pronounced as //n̠ʲ// (beside). It is used in Scottish Gaelic to represent pronounced as //n̪ˠ// beside and pronounced as //ɲ// beside . In Spanish historical (nn) has contracted to the ligature (ñ) and represents the sound pronounced as //ɲ//. In the Gwoyeu Romatzyh romanization of Mandarin Chinese, final -nn indicates a falling tone on a syllable ending in pronounced as //n//, which is otherwise spelled -n. It is used in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) for glottalized pronounced as //ˀn//. In Piedmontese, it is pronounced as //ŋn// in the middle of a word, and pronounced as //n// at the end. In Cornish, it is used for an optionally pre-occluded pronounced as //n//; that is, it is pronounced either pronounced as //n// or pronounced as //nː// (in any position); pronounced as //ᵈn// (before a consonant or finally); or pronounced as //dn// (before a vowel); examples are Cornish: penn ('head') or Cornish: pennow ('heads').
(np) is used in the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, where it represents the sound pronounced as //mb//.
(nq) is used in various alphabets. In the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, it represents the sound pronounced as //ɴɢ//. In Xhosa and Zulu it represents the click pronounced as //ᵑǃ//. In the Gwoyeu Romatzyh romanization of Mandarin Chinese, final -nq indicates a falling tone on a syllable ending in pronounced as //ŋ//, which is otherwise spelled -ng.
(nr) is used in the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, where it represents the sound pronounced as //ɳɖ//. In the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages it is pronounced as //ɳ//.
(ns), in many African languages, represents pronounced as //ns// or pronounced as //ⁿs//.
(nt) is a letter present in many African languages where it represents pronounced as //nt// or pronounced as //ⁿt//. Modern Greek uses the equivalent digraph ντ for pronounced as //d//, as δ is used for pronounced as //ð//.
(nv), equivalent to (mv) for pronounced as //mv// or pronounced as //ᵐv//.
(nw) is used in Igbo for pronounced as //ŋʷ//, and in Arrernte for pronounced as //nʷ//.
(nx) is used for the click pronounced as //ᵑǁ// in Xhosa and Zulu, and in Nambikwara for a glottalized pronounced as //ˀn//.
(ny) is used in several languages for pronounced as //ɲ//. See article.
(nz), in many African languages, represents pronounced as //nz// ~ pronounced as //ⁿz//, pronounced as //ndz// ~ pronounced as //ⁿdz//, pronounced as //nʒ// ~ pronounced as //ⁿʒ//, or pronounced as //ndʒ// ~ pronounced as //ⁿdʒ//.
(nǃ) is used in Juǀʼhoan for the alveolar nasal click pronounced as //ᵑǃ//.
(nǀ) is used in Juǀʼhoan for the dental nasal click pronounced as //ᵑǀ//.
(nǁ) is used in Juǀʼhoan for the lateral nasal click pronounced as //ᵑǁ//.
(nǂ) is used in Juǀʼhoan for the palatal nasal click pronounced as //ᵑǂ//.
(n-) is used for medial pronounced as //ŋ// in Piedmontese.
(o′) is used for pronounced as //o// and pronounced as //ø// in Uzbek, with the preferred typographical form being (oʻ) (Cyrillic (ў)). Technically it is not a digraph in Uzbek, since (ʻ) is not a letter of the Uzbek alphabet, but rather a typographic convention for a diacritic. In handwriting the letter is written as (õ).
It is also used in Taa, for the glottalized or creaky vowel pronounced as //o̰//.
(oa) is used in English, where it commonly represents the pronounced as //oʊ// sound as in road, coal, boast, coaxing, etc. In Middle English, where the digraph originated, it represented pronounced as //ɔː//, a pronunciation retained in the word broad and derivatives, and when the digraph is followed by an "r", as in soar and bezoar. The letters also represent two vowels, as in koala pronounced as //oʊ.ɑː//, boas pronounced as //oʊ.ə//, coaxial pronounced as //oʊ.æ//, oasis pronounced as //oʊ.eɪ//, and doable pronounced as //uː.ə//. In Malagasy, it is occasionally used for pronounced as //o//.
(oe) is found in many languages. In English, it represents the pronounced as //oʊ// sound as in hoe and sometimes the pronounced as //uː// sound as in shoe. It may also represent the pronounced as //ɛ// sound in AmE pronunciation of Oedipus, (o)esophagus (also in BrE), and (o)estrogen, pronounced as //eɪ// in boehmite (AmE) and surnames like Boehner and Groening (as if spelled Bayner and Gray/Greyning respectively), and pronounced as //iː// in foetus (BrE and CoE) and some speakers' pronunciation of Oedipus and oestrogen. represents pronounced as //u// in Afrikaans and Dutch, e.g. Dutch; Flemish: doen; it also represented the same phoneme in the Indonesian language before the 1972 spelling reform. Ligatured to (œ) in French, it stands for the vowels pronounced as //œ// (as in French: œil pronounced as //œj//) and pronounced as //e// (as in French: œsophage pronounced as //ezɔfaʒ ~ øzɔfaʒ//). It is an alternative way to write (ö) or (ø) in German or Scandinavian languages when this character is unavailable. In romanization of Wu Chinese and in Royal Thai General System of Transcription, it represents pronounced as /link/.In Cantonese Pinyin it represents the vowel pronounced as //ɵ ~ œː//, while in the Jyutping romanisation of Cantonese it represents pronounced as //œː//, and in Zhuang it is used for pronounced as //o// ((o) is used for pronounced as //oː//). In Piedmontese, it is pronounced as //wɛ//. In the Kernewek Kemmyn orthography of Cornish, it is used for a phoneme which is pronounced as /[oː]/ long, pronounced as /[oˑ]/ mid-length, and pronounced as /[ɤ]/ short.[14]
(oê) is used in French to write the vowel sound pronounced as //wa// in a few words before what had historically been an, mostly in words derived from French: {{linktext|poêle pronounced as //pwal// "stove". The diacriticless variant, (oe), rarely represents this sound except in words related to French: {{linktext|moelle pronounced as //mwal// (rarely spelt French: [[:fr:wikt:moëlle|moëlle]]).
is used in Afrikaans for the vowel pronounced as //ɔː//.
(õe) is used in Portuguese for pronounced as //õĩ̯//. It is used in plural forms of some words ended in (ão), such as anão–anões and campeão–campeões.
(oh) is used in Taa, for the breathy or murmured vowel pronounced as //o̤//.
(oi) is used in various languages. In English, it represents the pronounced as //ɔɪ̯// sound as in coin and join. In French, it represents pronounced as //wa//, which was historically – and still is in some cases – written . In Irish it is used for pronounced as //ɛ/, /ɔ/, /ɪ/, /əi̯/, /iː/, /oː// between a broad and a slender consonant. In Scottish Gaelic it is used for pronounced as //ɔ/, /ɤ//, except before word-finally or pre-consonant, where it is pronounced as //əi//. In Piedmontese, it is pronounced as //ui̯//.
(oí) is used in Irish for pronounced as //iː// between a broad and a slender consonant.
(oî) is used in French to write pronounced as //wa// before what had historically been an, as in French: boîtier or French: cloître.
(ói) is used in Irish for pronounced as //oː// between a broad and a slender consonant. It is also used in Portuguese.
(òi) is used in Piedmontese for pronounced as //oi̯//. It is used in Scottish Gaelic for pronounced as //oː// or pronounced as //ɔː//
(om) is used in Portuguese for pronounced as //õ//, and in French to write pronounced as //ɔ̃//.
(ôm) is used in Brazilian Portuguese for pronounced as //õ// before a consonant.
(on) is used in Portuguese for pronounced as //õ// before a consonant, and in French to write pronounced as //ɔ̃//.
(ôn) is used in Portuguese for pronounced as //õ// before a consonant.
(ön) is used in Tibetan Pinyin for pronounced as //ø̃//. It is alternately written oin.
(oo) is used in many languages. In English, it generally represents sounds which historically descend from the Middle English pronunciation pronounced as //oː//. After the Great Vowel Shift, this came to typically represent pronounced as //uː// as in "moon" and "food". Subsequently, in a handful of common words like "good" and "flood" the vowel was shortened to, and after the Middle English – split, these became pronounced as //ʊ// and pronounced as //ʌ// respectively. Like in Middle English, the digraph's pronunciation is pronounced as //oː// in most other languages. In German and Dutch, the digraph represents pronounced as //oː//. In Cornish, it represents either pronounced as //oː// or pronounced as //uː//.
(oq) Is used in Taa, for the pharyngealized vowel pronounced as //oˤ//.
(or), in Daighi tongiong pingim, represents mid central vowel pronounced as //ə// or close-mid back rounded vowel pronounced as //o// in Taiwanese Hokkien.[15] [16]
(ou) is used in English for the diphthong pronounced as //aʊ//, as in out pronounced as //aʊt//. This spelling is generally used before consonants, with (ow) being used instead before vowels and at the ends of words. Occasionally may also represent other vowels – pronounced as //ʌ// as in trouble, pronounced as //oʊ// as in soul, pronounced as //ʊ// as in would, pronounced as //uː// as in group, or pronounced as //juː// as in the alternate American pronunciation of coupon. The in out originally represented pronounced as //uː//, as in French, and its pronunciation has mostly changed as part of the Great Vowel Shift. However, the pronounced as //uː// sound was kept before .
In Dutch (ou) represents pronounced as //ʌu// in the Netherlands or pronounced as //oʊ// in Flanders. In Cornish, it represents pronounced as /[uː]/, pronounced as /[u]/, or pronounced as /[ʊ]/. In French, it represents the vowel pronounced as //u//, as in French: vous pronounced as //vu// "you", or the approximant consonant pronounced as //w//, as in French: oui pronounced as //wi// "yes".
In Portuguese this digraph stands for the close-mid back rounded vowel pronounced as //o// or for the falling diphthong pronounced as //ou//, according to dialect.
(ou) is used In Hepburn romanization of the Japanese language to transcribe the sound pronounced as //oː//.
(oû) is used in French to write the vowel sound pronounced as //u// before what had historically been an, as in French: soûl pronounced as //su// "drunk" (also spelt French: soul).
(ow), in English, usually represents the pronounced as //aʊ// sound as in coward, sundowner, and now or the pronounced as //oʊ// sound, as in froward, landowner, and know. An exceptional pronunciation is pronounced as //ɒ// in knowledge and rowlock. There are many English heteronyms distinguished only by the pronunciation of this digraph, like: bow (front of ship or weapon), bower (a dwelling or string player), lower (to frown or drop), mow (to grimace or cut), row (a dispute or line-up), shower (rain or presenter), sow (a pig or to seed), tower (a building or towboat). In Cornish, this represents the diphthong pronounced as //ɔʊ// or pronounced as //oʊ//; before vowels, it can also represent pronounced as //uː//.
(ôw) is used in the Kernowek Standard orthography of Cornish to refer to a sound that can be either pronounced as //ɛʊ// or pronounced as //oʊ//. This distribution can also be written (êw).
(oy) is found in many languages. In English and Faroese, represents the diphthong pronounced as //ɔɪ//. Examples in English include toy and annoy. In Cornish, it represents the diphthong pronounced as //oɪ/~/ɔɪ//; in the words Cornish: oy ('egg') and Cornish: moy ('much'), it can also be pronounced pronounced as //uɪ/~/ʊɪ//.
(oŷ) is an obsolete digraph once used in French.
(øy) is used in Norwegian for pronounced as //øʏ//.
(o_e) (a split digraph) indicates an English 'long o', historically pronounced as //ɔ:// but now most commonly realised as pronounced as //oʊ//.
(pf) is used in German for pronounced as //pf//, e.g. German: Pferd "horse", German: Apfel "apple", and German: Knopf "button". In English, usually in recent loan words from German, it generally represents pronounced as //f//, such as in Pfizer.
(ph) in used in English and French for pronounced as //f//, mostly in words derived from Greek, but also some words derived from Vietnamese. In Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Welsh it represents the lenition/Aspirate mutation of . It represents pronounced as //f// in Vietnamese, where is not used.
(pl) is used in the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, for pronounced as //pˡ//.
(pm) is used for pronounced as //ᵖm// in Arrernte.
(pn) is used in English for pronounced as //n// initially in words of Greek origin such as pneumatic.
(pp) is used in romanized Korean for the fortis sound pronounced as //p͈//, and in Cypriot Arabic for pronounced as //pʰː//. It was used in Portuguese until 1947, e.g. Portuguese: guardanappo, Portuguese: appa and Portuguese: mappelido.
(ps) is used in English and Portuguese for pronounced as //s// initially in words of Greek origin such as psyche (English) and Portuguese: Psychòtico (Portuguese). In Shona it represents a whistled sibilant cluster pronounced as //ps͎//.
(pt) is used in several languages for pronounced as //t// in words of Greek origin, where it was pronounced as //pt//, e.g. in English pterosaur pronounced as //ˈtɛrəsɔːr//.
(pw) is used in Arrernte for pronounced as //pʷ//.
(py) is used in Cypriot Arabic for pronounced as //pc//.
(qg) is used in Naro for the click pronounced as //ǃχ//. It was used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the voiceless alveolar click pronounced as //ǃ//.
(qh) is used in various alphabets. In Quechua and the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, it represents pronounced as //qʰ//. In Xhosa, it represents the click pronounced as //ǃʰ//.
(qk) was used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the voiceless alveolar click pronounced as //ǃ// (equivalent to (qg)).
(qq) is used in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) for ejective pronounced as //qʼ//. In Hadza it represents the glottalized click pronounced as //ᵑǃˀ//.
() is used in Aragonese, Asturian, Catalan, French, Galician, Mirandese, Occitan, Portuguese and Spanish for pronounced as //k// before, where represents pronounced as //θ// (Castilian Spanish, Asturian, Aragonese and most of Galicia) or pronounced as //s// (Catalan, French, American Spanish, Occitan and Portuguese). In French, (qu) is also usually pronounced as //k// before . This dates to Latin, and ultimately the Proto-Indo-European labialized velar consonant ; in English this sound instead became written primarily as, due to Grimm's law changing > (written), and Middle English spelling change switching to . In English, it represents pronounced as //k// in words derived from those languages (e.g., quiche), and pronounced as //kw// in other words, including borrowings from Latin (e.g., quantity). In German, it represents pronounced as //kv//. In the Ossetian Latin alphabet, it was used for pronounced as //qʷ//. In Vietnamese it is used to represent pronounced as //kw// or pronounced as //w//. In Cornish, it represents pronounced as //kw//.[17]
(qü) is used in Portuguese and French for pronounced as //kw// before .
(qv) is used in Bouyei for pronounced as //ˀw//.
(qw) is used in some languages for pronounced as //qʷ//. In Mi'kmaq it represents pronounced as //xʷ//. In the Kernowek Standard and Standard Written Form orthographies for Revived Cornish, it represents pronounced as //kw//.
(qy) is used in Bouyei for glottalized pronounced as //ˀj//.
(rd) is used in the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages such as Warlpiri, Arrernte, and Pitjantjatjara for a retroflex stop, pronounced as //ʈ//. In Norwegian and Swedish it represents voiced retroflex plosive, pronounced as /[ɖ]/. In Scottish Gaelic it sometimes represents pronounced as //rˠʃt̪// when broad, or pronounced as //rˠʃtʲ// when slender, though this epenthetic consonant is not found in all dialects.
(rh) is used in English for Greek words transliterated through Latin. Examples include "rhapsody", "rhetoric" and "rhythm". These were pronounced in Ancient Greek with a voiceless "r" sound, pronounced as //r̥//, as in Old English (hr). The digraph may also be found within words, but always at the start of a word component, e.g., "polyrhythmic". German, French, and Interlingua use in the same way. (Rh) is also found in Welsh where it represents a voiceless alveolar trill (pronounced as /r̥/), that is a voiceless "r" sound. It can be found anywhere; the most common occurrence in English from Welsh is in the slightly respelled given name "Rhonda". In Wade-Giles transliteration, (rh) is used for the syllable-final rhotic of Mandarin Chinese. In the Gwoyeu Romatzyh romanization of Mandarin Chinese, initial - indicates an even tone on a syllable beginning in pronounced as //ʐ//, which is otherwise spelled -. In Purépecha, it is a retroflex flap, pronounced as //ɽ//.
(rl) is used in the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages such as Warlpiri, Arrernte, and Pitjantjatjara, as well in Norwegian and Swedish, for a retroflex lateral, written pronounced as //ɭ// in the IPA. In Greenlandic, it represents pronounced as //ɬː// as the result of an assimilation of a consonant cluster with a uvular consonant as the first component.
(rm) is used in Inuktitut for pronounced as //ɴm//.
(rn) represents the retroflex nasal pronounced as //ɳ// in Warlpiri, Arrernte, and Pitjantjatjara (see transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages), as well in Norwegian and Swedish. In Greenlandic, it represents pronounced as //ɴ//. In Inuktitut, it represents pronounced as //ɴn//.
(rp) is used in Greenlandic for pronounced as //pː// as the result of an assimilation of a consonant cluster with a uvular consonant as the first component.
(rr) is used in English for (r). It normally appears in words of Latin or Romance origin, and in words of ancient Greek origin. It is quite a common digraph. Some words with are relatively recent loanwords from other languages; examples include burro from Spanish. It is often used in impromptu pronunciation guides to denote either an alveolar tap or an alveolar trill. It is a letter in the Albanian alphabet.
In several European languages, such as Catalan, Spanish, Portuguese, Basque or Albanian, "rr" represents the alveolar trill pronounced as //r// (or the voiced uvular fricative pronounced as //ʁ// in Portuguese) and contrasts with the single "r", which represents the alveolar tap pronounced as //ɾ// (in Catalan and Spanish a single "r" also represents the alveolar trill at the beginning of words or syllables). In Italian and Finnish, "rr" is a geminated (long) consonant pronounced as //rː//. In Central Alaskan Yup'ik it is used for pronounced as //χ//. In Cornish, it can represent either pronounced as //rː//, pronounced as //ɾʰ//, or pronounced as //ɹ//. In Scottish Gaelic, it represents pronounced as //rˠ//.
(rs) was equivalent to (rz) and stood for pronounced as //r̝// (modern ř) in medieval Czech. In Greenlandic, it represents pronounced as //sː// as the result of an assimilation of a consonant cluster with a uvular consonant as the first component. In Norwegian and Swedish, it represents voiceless retroflex fricative, pronounced as /[ʂ]/.
(rt) is used in Australian Aboriginal languages such as Warlpiri, Arrernte, and Pitjantjatjara, as well in Norwegian and Swedish, for a retroflex stop pronounced as //ʈ//. In Scottish Gaelic it often represents pronounced as //rˠʃt̪// when broad, or pronounced as //rˠʃtʲ// when slender, though this epenthetic consonant is not found in all dialects.
(rw) is used for pronounced as //ɻʷ// in Arrernte.
(rz) is used in Polish and Kashubian for a voiced retroflex fricative pronounced as //ʐ//, similar to English as in Zhivago. Examples from Polish are Polish: ma'''rz'''ec pronounced as //ˈma.ʐɛt͡s// "March" and Polish: '''rz'''eka pronounced as //ˈʐɛ.ka// "river". (rz) represents the same sound as (ż), but they have a different origin. (rz) used to be pronounced the same way as Czech (ř) (pronounced as //r̝//) in older Polish, but the sounds merged, and the orthography still follows etymology. When preceded by a voiceless consonant or end of a word, (rz) devoices to pronounced as /link/, as in Polish: p'''rz'''ed|lang=pl pronounced as //ˈpʂɛt// "before".
(sc) is used in Italian for pronounced as //ʃː// before the front vowel letters . It is used for pronounced as //s// in Catalan, Spanish, French, English, Occitan and Brazilian Portuguese (e.g. French/English reminiscence, Spanish Spanish; Castilian: reminiscencia, Brazilian Portuguese Portuguese: reminiscência, Catalan Catalan; Valencian: reminiscència, Occitan Occitan (post 1500);: reminiscéncia); in European Portuguese this changed to pronounced as //ʃ// in the early 20th century, although in careful speech it can be pronounced as //ʃs//. However, it represents pronounced as //z// in modern pronunciations of crescent in British and non-Canadian Commonwealth English. In Old English it usually represented pronounced as //ʃ//.
(sç) is used in French for pronounced as //s// in a few verb forms such as simple past French: acquiesça pronounced as //akjɛsa//. It is also used in Portuguese as in the imperative/conjunctive form of verbs ending with : Portuguese: crescer Portuguese: cresça. Still pronounced pronounced as //s// in Brazilian Portuguese, in European Portuguese this changed to pronounced as //ʃ// in the early 20th century, although in careful speech it can be pronounced as //ʃs//.
(sg) is used in Piedmontese and Corsican for pronounced as //ʒ//.
(sh) is used in several languages. In English, it represents pronounced as //ʃ//. See separate article. See also below, which has the capitalized forms SH and ŞH.
(si) is used in English for pronounced as //ʒ// in words such as fusion (see yod-coalescence). In Polish, it represents pronounced as //ɕ// whenever it precedes a vowel, and pronounced as //ɕi// whenever it precedes a consonant (or at the end of the word), and is considered a graphic variant of appearing in other situations. In Welsh (si) is used for the sound pronounced as //ʃ// as in Welsh: siocled pronounced as //ʃɔklɛd// ('chocolate').
(sj) is used Swedish to write the sje sound pronounced as //ɧ// (see also (sk)) and in Faroese, Danish, Norwegian and Dutch to write Voiceless postalveolar fricative pronounced as //ʃ//.
(sk) is used in Swedish to write the sje sound pronounced as //ɧ//. It takes by rule this sound value before the front vowels word or root initially (as in Norwegian: sked (spoon)), while normally representing pronounced as //sk// in other positions. In Norwegian and Faroese, it is used to write voiceless postalveolar fricative pronounced as //ʃ// (only in front of).
(sl) is used in Iraqw and Bouyei to write the lateral fricative pronounced as //ɬ//. (is used in the French tradition to transcribe pronounced as //ɬ// in other languages as well, as in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages.)
(sp) is used in German for pronounced as //ʃp// as in German: Spaß pronounced as //ʃpaːs// instead of using .
(sr) is used in Kosraean for pronounced as //ʂ//. In northern dialects of Scottish Gaelic it represents pronounced as //s̪t̪ɾ//, as in Gaelic; Scottish Gaelic: sràid pronounced as //s̪t̪ɾaːtʲ//.
(ss) is used in Pinyin for pronounced as //z// in languages such as Yi. For its use in the Wade–Giles system of Romanization of Chinese, see Wade–Giles → Syllabic consonants. In English, (ss) typically represents pronounced as //z// in the first of possess and its derivatives possessed, possesses, possession, possessive and possessor, brassiere, dessert, dissolution and its derivatives dissolved, dissolves and dissolving, Missoula (County), Missouri(an), scissors, and pronunciations of Aussie outside the United States; otherwise, it represents pronounced as //s//. In other languages, such as Catalan, Cornish, French, German, Italian, Occitan, Portuguese and Central Alaskan Yup'ik, where (s) transcribes pronounced as //z// between vowels (and elsewhere in the case of Yup'ik), (ss) is used for pronounced as //s// in that position (pronounced as //sː// in Italian and also in some cases in Cornish); English sometimes also follows this convention. In romanized Korean, it represents the fortis sound pronounced as //s͈//. In Cypriot Arabic it is used for pronounced as //sʰː//.
Also to note, there are spellings of words with (ss) as opposed to them with just one (s), varied in different types of English. For the word focus, in British English the 3rd person singular, the past participle and the present participle are spelled with (ss) (i.e. focusses, focussed and focussing) whereas in American English and usually Canadian and Australian English they are spelled with one (s) (i.e. focuses, focused and focusing).
(st) is used in German for pronounced as //ʃt// as in German: Stadt pronounced as //ʃtat// instead of using (or). In some parts of northern Germany, the pronunciation pronounced as //st// (as in English) is still quite common in the local dialect.
(sv) is used in Shona to write the whistled sibilant pronounced as //s͎//. This was written from 1931 to 1955.
(sx) is used in Nambikwara for a glottalized pronounced as //sʔ//, and in Esperanto orthography it is an unofficial surrogate of (ŝ), that represents pronounced as //ʃ//.
(sy) represents pronounced as //ʃ// in Malay and Tagalog.
(sz) is used in several languages. See article.
(s-c) and (s-cc) are used in Piedmontese for the sequence pronounced as //stʃ//.
(s-g) and (s-gg) are used in Piedmontese for the sequence pronounced as //zdʒ//.
(tc) is used for the palatal click pronounced as //ǂ// in Naro, and to write the affricate pronounced as //tʃ// in Sandawe, Hadza and Juǀʼhoan.
(tf) is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for the voiceless dental affricate pronounced as //t͡θ//
(tg) is used for pronounced as //tχ// in Naro. In Catalan, it represents pronounced as //d͡ʒ//.In Romansh orthographies it represents the Alveolo-palatal consonant pronounced as //tɕ//.
(th) is used in several languages. In English, it can represent pronounced as //ð//, pronounced as //θ// or pronounced as //t//. See article. See also: Pronunciation of English th.
(ti), before a vowel, is usually pronounced pronounced as //sj// in French and pronounced as //tsj// in German and is commonly pronounced as //ʃ// in English, especially in the suffix -tion.
(tj) is used in Norwegian and Faroese words like Norwegian: '''tj'''ære/Faroese: '''tj'''øra ('tar') for pronounced as //ç// (Norwegian) and pronounced as //tʃ// (Faroese). In the closely related Swedish alphabet, it represents pronounced as //ɕ//, as in Swedish: '''tj'''ära pronounced as //ˈɕæːɾa//. It is also the standard written form of the pronounced as //tʃ// sound in Dutch and was likewise used in Dutch-based orthographies that used to apply for languages in Indonesia and Surinam. In the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages such as Warlpiri, Arrernte, and Pitjantjatjara, it represents a postalveolar stop, transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet as pronounced as //ṯ// or pronounced as //ḏ// depending on voicing. This sound is also written (dj), (ty), (dy), (c), or (j). In Catalan it represents pronounced as //d͡ʒ//. In Juǀʼhoan it is used for the ejective affricate pronounced as //tʃʼ//.
(tk) is used in Juǀʼhoan for the uvularized ejective pronounced as //tᵡʼ//.
(tl) is used in various orthographies for the voiceless alveolar lateral affricate pronounced as //tɬ//.
(tł) is used in the transcription of Athabascan languages for a lateral affricate pronounced as //tɬ// or pronounced as //tɬʰ//.
(tm) is used in Yélî Dnye for doubly articulated and nasally released pronounced as //t̪͡pn̪͡m//. In Catalan, it's used to represent pronounced as //mː//, that can result not geminated as well, pronounced as //m//, as in Catalan; Valencian: se'''tm'''ana (pronounced pronounced as //səˈmːanə// in standard Catalan and pronounced as //seˈmana// in Valencian).
(tn) is used for a prestopped nasal pronounced as //ᵗn// in Arrernte, and for the similar pronounced as //t̪n̪// in Yélî Dnye.
(tp) is used in Yélî Dnye for doubly articulated pronounced as //t̪͡p//.
(tr) generally represents a sound like a retroflex version of English "ch" in areas of German influence, such as Truk lagoon, now spelled (chuuk). For instance, in Malagasy it represents pronounced as //tʂ//. In southern dialects of Vietnamese, (tr) represents a voiceless retroflex affricate pronounced as //tʂ//. In the northern dialects, this sound is pronounced pronounced as //tɕ//, just like what (ch) represents. (tr) was formerly considered a distinct letter of the Vietnamese alphabet, but today is not.
(ts) is used in the Basque, where it represents an apical voiceless alveolar affricate pronounced as //t̺s̺//. It contrasts with (tz), which is laminal pronounced as //t̻s̻//. It is mainly used to Latinize the letter Tse (Cyrillic) (ц) In Hausa, (ts) represents an alveolar ejective fricative pronounced as //sʼ// or affricate pronounced as //tsʼ//), depending on dialect. It is considered a distinct letter, and placed between (t) and (u) in alphabetical order. It is also used in Catalan for pronounced as //t͡s//. It is also used in Hausa Boko. In central-western Asturian it's used for pronounced as //t͡s//.
The Wade-Giles and Yale romanizations of Chinese use (ts) for an unaspirated voiceless alveolar affricate pronounced as //ts//. Wade–Giles also uses (ts') for the aspirated equivalent pronounced as //tsʰ//. These are equivalent to Pinyin (z) and (c), respectively. The Hepburn romanization of Japanese uses (ts) for a voiceless alveolar affricate pronounced as //ts//). In native Japanese words, this sound only occurs before (u), but it may occur before other vowels in loanwords. Other romanization systems write pronounced as //tsu// as (tu). (Ts) in Tagalog is used for pronounced as //tʃ//. The sequence (ts) occurs in English, but it has no special function and simply represents a sequence of (t) and (s). It occurs word-initially only in some loanwords, such as tsunami and tsar. Most English-speakers do not pronounce a pronounced as //t// in such words and pronounce them as if they were spelled (sunami) and (sar) or (zar), respectively.
(ts̃) was used in medieval Basque and in Azkue's Basque dictionary[18] for a voiceless postalveolar affricate pronounced as //t͡ʃ//; this is now represented by (tx).
(tt) is used in Basque for pronounced as //c//, and in romanized Kabyle for pronounced as //ts//. In romanized Korean, it represents the fortis sound pronounced as //t͈//, in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) it is ejective pronounced as //tʼ//, and in Cypriot Arabic, it represents pronounced as //tʰː//.
(tw) is used for pronounced as //tʷ// in Arrernte.
(tx) is used in Basque, Catalan and some indigenous languages of South America, for a voiceless postalveolar affricate pronounced as //t͡ʃ//. In Nambikwara it represents a glottalized pronounced as //tʔ//. In Juǀʼhoan it is used for the uvularized-release pronounced as //tᵡ//.
(ty) is used in the Hungarian alphabet for pronounced as //cç//, a voiceless palatal affricate; in Hungarian, digraphs are considered single letters, and acronyms keep them intact. In Xhosa, (ty) represents pronounced as //tʲʼ// and the similar pronounced as //tʲʼ// in the Algonquian Massachusett orthography. In Shona, it represents pronounced as //tʃk//. In Tagalog it represents pronounced as //tʃ//. In the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages such as Warlpiri, and Arrernte, it represents a postalveolar stop, either voiceless pronounced as //ṯ// or voiced pronounced as //ḏ//. (This sound is also written (tj), (dj), (dy), (c), and (j)). In Cypriot Arabic, it represents pronounced as //c//.
(tz) is used in Basque, German and Nahuatl for the voiceless alveolar affricate pronounced as //t͡s//). In Basque, this sound is laminal and contrasts with the apical affricate represented by (ts). It is also used in Catalan to represent the voiced alveolar affricate pronounced as //d͡z//. In Juǀʼhoan it is used for the ejective affricate pronounced as //tsʼ//.For its use in the Wade–Giles system of Romanization of Chinese, see Wade–Giles → Syllabic consonants.
(u′) is used in Taa for the glottalized or creaky vowel pronounced as //ṵ//.
(ua) is used in Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, to represent the diphthong pronounced as //uə//.
(uc) is used in Nahuatl for pronounced as //kʷ// before a consonant. Before a vowel, (cu) is used.
(ue) is found in many languages. In English, it represents pronounced as //juː// or pronounced as //uː// as in cue or true, respectively. In German, it is pronounced as //ʏ// or pronounced as //yː// (equivalent to (ü)), appearing mainly in proper nouns. In Cantonese Romanisation, it represents pronounced as //yː// in a non-initial position.
is used in Afrikaans to represent pronounced as //œː//.
(ug) is used in Central Alaskan Yup'ik for pronounced as //ɣʷ//.
(uh) is used in Taa for the breathy or murmured vowel pronounced as //ṳ//. In Nahuatl, it is used for pronounced as //w// before a consonant. Before a vowel, (hu) is used.
(ui) is used in Dutch for the diphthong pronounced as //œy//. In Irish, it is pronounced as //ɪ// after a broad (velarized) consonant. In Scottish Gaelic it normally represents pronounced as //u//, however before or before preceding a vowel, it represents pronounced as //ɯ//, and before or before word-finally or pre-consonant, it represents pronounced as //ɯi//. In German, it represents the diphthong pronounced as //ʊɪ̯//, which appears only in interjections such as "pfui!". In Mandarin pinyin, it is used for pronounced as //wei̯// after a consonant (spelt (wei) in the initial position). In Cantonese Romanisation, it represents pronounced as //uːy// or pronounced as //ɵy//. In Scots it represents pronounced as //ø//, e.g. Scots: bluid "blood", Scots: duin "done", Scots: muin "moon" and Scots: spuin "spoon". In English, when used as a digraph, it represents pronounced as //uː// in fruit, juice, suit and pursuit. However, after (g), the (u) functions as a modifier (marking (g) as pronounced as //ɡ// rather than pronounced as //dʒ//), e.g. guild, guilty, sanguine, Guinea, guide etc.), it is also used for other sounds, in cases of unusual etymological spelling, e.g. circuit, biscuit, build.
(ũi) is used in Portuguese for pronounced as //ũː//
(uĩ) is used in Portuguese for pronounced as //wĩː//
(uí) is used in Irish for pronounced as //iː// between a broad and a slender consonant.
(úi) is used in Irish for pronounced as //uː// between a broad and a slender consonant.
(ùi) is used in Scottish Gaelic for pronounced as //uː// between a broad and a slender consonant.
(um) is used in Portuguese for pronounced as //ũ//, and in French to write pronounced as //œ̃// (only before a consonant and at the end of a word).
(úm) is used in Portuguese for pronounced as //ũ// before a consonant.
(un) is used in many languages for a nasal vowel. In Portuguese before a consonant, and in many West African languages, it is pronounced as //ũ//, while in French it is pronounced as //œ̃//, or among the younger generation pronounced as //ɛ̃//. In pinyin, pronounced as //u̯ən// is spelled after a consonant, initially.
(ún) is used in Portuguese for pronounced as //ũ// before a consonant.
(ün) is used in Tibetan Pinyin for pronounced as //ỹ//.
(uŋ) is used in Lakhota for the nasal vowel pronounced as //ũ//.
(uo) is used in Pinyin for pronounced as //o// in languages such as Yi, where (o) stands for pronounced as //ɔ//.
(uq) is used in Taa, for the pharyngealized vowel pronounced as //uˤ//.
(ur) is used in Central Alaskan Yup'ik for pronounced as //ʁʷ//, and in Pinyin to write the trilled vowel pronounced as //ʙ̝// in languages such as Yi.
(uu) is used in many languages with phonemic long vowels, for pronounced as //uː//. In Dutch, it is used for pronounced as //y//.
(uw) is used in Dutch for pronounced as //yu̯//, e.g. "yours", "to push". In Cornish it is used for pronounced as //iʊ// or pronounced as //yʊ//.
is used in Afrikaans for pronounced as //œy//.
(ux) is unofficially used in Esperanto, instead of (ŭ), for pronounced as //u̯//.
(u_e) (a split digraph) is used in English for pronounced as //juː// or pronounced as //uː//.
(vb) is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for the labiodental flap pronounced as //ⱱ//.
(vg) was used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the voiceless palatal click pronounced as //ǂ//.
(vh) represents pronounced as //v̤// in Shona. It was also used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the aspirated palatal click pronounced as //ǂʰ//.
(vk) was used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the voiceless palatal click pronounced as //ǂ// (equivalent to (vg)).
(vn) was used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the palatal nasal click pronounced as //ᵑǂ//.
(vv) is used in Central Alaskan Yup'ik for pronounced as //f//.
(vr) is used in Quechua.
() is used in English to represent Proto-Germanic pronounced as //hw//, the continuation of the PIE labiovelar (which became (qu) in Latin and the Romance languages). Most English question words begin with this digraph, hence the terms wh-word and wh-question. In Old English, /hw/ was spelled (huu) or (hƿ), and only the former was retained during the Middle English period, becoming (hw) during the gradual development of the letter (w) during the 14th-17th centuries. In most dialects it is now pronounced pronounced as //w//, but a distinct pronunciation realized as a voiceless w sound, [ʍ], is retained in some areas: Scotland, central and southern Ireland, southeastern United States, and (mostly among older speakers) in New Zealand. In a few words (who, whose, etc.) the pronunciation used among almost all speakers regardless of geography is pronounced as //h//. For details, see Pronunciation of English ⟨wh⟩.
In Māori, (wh) represents pronounced as //ɸ// or more commonly pronounced as //f//, with some regional variations approaching pronounced as //h// or pronounced as //hw//. In the Taranaki region, for some speakers, this represents a glottalized pronounced as //wʼ//. In Xhosa, it represents pronounced as //w̤//, a murmured variant of pronounced as //w// found in loan words. In Cornish, it represents pronounced as //ʍ//.
(wr) is used in English for words which formerly began pronounced as //wr//, now reduced to /r/ in virtually all dialects.
(wu) is used in Mandarin pinyin to write the vowel pronounced as //u// in initial position, as in the name Wuhan. It is sometimes found with this value in Romanized Korean as well, as in hanwu. In Cantonese Romanisation, it is used to represent pronounced as //wuː// in an initial position or pronounced as //uː// in a non-initial position.
(ww) is used in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) for glottalized pronounced as //ˀw//.
(wx) is used in Nambikwara for a glottalized pronounced as //ˀw//.
(xc) is used in the Portuguese for pronounced as //s//.
(xf) is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for the labialized fricative pronounced as //xʷ//. (xg) is used to write the click pronounced as //ǁχ// in Naro. It was used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the voiceless lateral click pronounced as //ǁ//. (xh) is used in Albanian to write the voiced postalveolar affricate pronounced as //dʒ//, as in the surname Albanian: Hoxha pronounced as //ˈhɔdʒa//. In Zulu and Xhosa it represents the voiceless aspirated alveolar lateral click pronounced as //kǁʰ//, e.g. Xhosa: Xhosa pronounced as //ˈkǁʰoːsa//. In Walloon it represents a consonant that is variously pronounced as //h//, pronounced as //ʃ//, pronounced as //ç ~ x//, depending on the dialect. In Canadian Tlingit it represents pronounced as //χ//, which is represented by in Alaska. (xi) is used in English for pronounced as //kʃ// in words such as flexion. (It is equivalent to plus the digraph, as in action.) (xk) was used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the voiceless lateral click pronounced as //ǁ// (equivalent to). (xö) is used as a letter of the Seri alphabet, where it represents a labialized uvular fricative, pronounced as //χʷ//. It is placed between and in alphabetical order. (xs) is used in Portuguese in the word Portuguese: exsudar pronounced as //ˌe.su.ˈda(ʁ)// in Brazilian Portuguese. In European Portuguese this digraph changed to pronounced as //ʃs// in the early 20th century and the word came to be pronounced as pronounced as //ɐjʃ.su.ˈðaɾ// (xu) was used in the Ossete Latin alphabet for pronounced as //χʷ//. (xw) is used in the Kurdish and the Tlingit language for pronounced as //xʷ//. (x̱w) is used in Alaskan Tlingit for pronounced as //χʷ//, which in Canada is written . (xx) is used in Hadza for the glottalized click pronounced as //ᵑǁˀ//, and in Cypriot Arabic for pronounced as //χː//. (xy) is used in the Hmong Romanized Popular Alphabet to write pronounced as //ç//.
(ye) used in various languages. In English it represents pronounced as //aɪ// word finally, e.g. bye or dye.
(yh) was used in the pre-1985 orthography of Guinea, for the "ejective y" or palatalized glottal stop (pronounced as //ʔʲ//) in Pular (a Fula language) and in Hausa to represent a creaky voiced palatal approximant pronounced as /[j̰]/. In the current orthography it is now written . In Xhosa it represents pronounced as //j̤//. In a handful of Australian languages, it represents a "dental semivowel".
(yi) is used in Mandarin pinyin to write pronounced as //i// when it forms an entire syllable.
(yk) is used in Yanyuwa for a pre-velar stop, pronounced as //ɡ̟ ~ k̟//.
(ym) is used in French to write pronounced as //ɛ̃// (pronounced as //im// before another vowel), as in French: thym pronounced as //tɛ̃// "thyme".
(yn) is used in French to write pronounced as //ɛ̃// in some words of Greek origin, such as French: syncope pronounced as //sɛ̃kɔp// "syncope".
(yr) is used in Pinyin to write the trilled vowel pronounced as //r̝// in languages such as Yi.
(yu) is used in romanized Chinese to write the vowel pronounced as //y//. In Mandarin pinyin it is used for pronounced as //y// in initial position, whereas in Cantonese Jyutping it is used for pronounced as //yː// in non-initial position. In the Yale romanization of Cantonese and Cantonese Romanisation, it represents pronounced as //jyː// in an initial position and pronounced as //yː// in a non-initial position.
(yw) is used for pronounced as //jʷ// in Arrernte and for doubly articulated pronounced as //ɥ// in Yélî Dnye. It is used in Cornish for the diphthongs pronounced as //iʊ//, pronounced as //ɪʊ//, or pronounced as //ɛʊ//.
(yx) in used in Nambikwara for a glottalized pronounced as //ˀj//.
(yy) is used in some languages such as Finnish to write the long vowel pronounced as //yː//. In Haida (Bringhurst orthography) it is represents glottalized pronounced as //ˀj//. Used in some Asturian dialects to represent pronounced as //ɟ͡ʝ//.
(y_e) (a split digraph) indicates an English 'long y' (equivalent to (i...e)).
(zh) represents the voiced postalveolar fricative (pronounced as //ʒ//), like the in pleasure, in Albanian and in Native American orthographies such as Navajo. It is used for the same sound in some English-language dictionaries, as well as to transliterate the sound when represented by Cyrillic and Persian into English, but is rarely seen in English words, appearing primarily in foreign borrowings (e.g. muzhik) and slang (e.g. zhoosh). as a digraph is rare in European languages using the Latin alphabet; in addition to Albanian it is found in Breton in words that are pronounced with pronounced as //z// in some dialects and pronounced as //h// in others. In Hanyu Pinyin, represents the voiceless retroflex affricate pronounced as //tʂ//. When Malayalam and Tamil are transliterated into the Latin script, represents a retroflex approximant (Malayalam ഴ and Tamil ழ pronounced as /[ɻ]/).
(zi) in Polish represents pronounced as //ʑ// whenever it precedes a vowel, and pronounced as //ʑi// whenever it precedes a consonant (or in the end of the word), and is considered a graphic variant of appearing in other situations.
(zl) is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for the voiced lateral fricative pronounced as //ɮ//
(zr) is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for pronounced as //ʐ//.
(zs) is the last (forty-fourth) letter of the Hungarian alphabet. Its name is Hungarian: zsé and represents pronounced as //ʒ//, a voiced postalveolar fricative, similar to in Jacques and beside in vision. A few examples are Hungarian: rózsa "rose" and Hungarian: zsír "fat".
(zv) is used in Shona to write the whistled sibilant pronounced as //z͎//. This was written from 1931 to 1955.
(zz) is used in Pinyin for pronounced as //dz// in languages such as Yi. It is also used with that value in romanized Kabyle. In medieval Czech, it stood for pronounced as //s//. In Hadza it is ejective pronounced as //tsʼ//.
(ɛn), capital (Ɛn), is used in many West African languages for the nasal vowel pronounced as //ɛ̃//. is an "open e".
(ɔn), capital (Ɔn), is used in many West African languages for the nasal vowel pronounced as //ɔ̃//. is an "open o".
(œu), capital, is used in French for the vowels pronounced as //œ// and pronounced as //ø//. The first element of the digraph,, is itself is a ligature of and, and may also be written as the trigraph .
(ŋg) is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for pronounced as //ᵑɡ//.
(ŋk) is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for pronounced as //ᵑk//.
(ŋm) is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for the labial-velar nasal pronounced as //ŋ͡m//.
(ŋv), capital, was used for pronounced as //ŋʷ// in the old orthography of Zhuang and Bouyei; this is now spelled with the trigraph (ngv).
(ŋʼ) is used in Adzera for the prenasalized glottal stop pronounced as //ⁿʔ//.
(ſh), capital or sometimes, was a digraph used in the Slovene Bohorič alphabet for pronounced as //ʃ//. The first element,, the long s, is an archaic non-final form of the letter .
(ǃʼ) (ǀʼ) (ǁʼ) (ǂʼ) are used in Juǀʼhoan for its four glottalized nasal clicks, pronounced as //ᵑǃˀ, ᵑǀˀ, ᵑǁˀ, ᵑǂˀ//.
(ǃg) (ǀg) (ǁg) (ǂg) are used in Khoekhoe for its four tenuis clicks, pronounced as //ǃ, ǀ, ǁ, ǂ//.
(ǃh) (ǀh) (ǁh) (ǂh) are used in Khoekhoe for its four aspirated nasal clicks, pronounced as //ᵑ̊ǃʰ, ᵑ̊ǀʰ, ᵑ̊ǁʰ, ᵑ̊ǂʰ//, and in Juǀʼhoan for its plain aspirated clicks, pronounced as //ǃʰ, ǀʰ, ǁʰ, ǂʰ//.
(ǃk) (ǀk) (ǁk) (ǂk) are used in Juǀʼhoan for its four affricate ejective-contour clicks, pronounced as //ǃ͡χʼ, ǀ͡χʼ, ǁ͡χʼ, ǂ͡χʼ//.
(ǃn) (ǀn) (ǁn) (ǂn) are used in Khoekhoe for its four plain nasal clicks, pronounced as //ᵑǃ, ᵑǀ, ᵑǁ, ᵑǂ//.
(ǃx) (ǀx) (ǁx) (ǂx) are used in Juǀʼhoan for its four affricate pulmonic-contour clicks, pronounced as //ǃ͡χ, ǀ͡χ, ǁ͡χ, ǂ͡χ//.
(ьj) was used in Yañalif and some Turkic languages for the diphthong pronounced as //ɤj//.