| Chiquitano | |
| Nativename: | Besïro |
| States: | Bolivia, Brazil |
| Ethnicity: | perhaps about 100,000 Chiquitano people |
| Date: | 2021 |
| Ref: | [1] |
| Familycolor: | American |
| Family: | Language isolate or Macro-Jê |
| Iso3: | cax |
| Glotto: | chiq1253 |
| Glottoname: | Chiquitano |
| Glotto2: | sans1265 |
| Glottoname2: | Sansimoniano |
| Notice: | IPA |
| Region: | Santa Cruz (Bolivia) |
Chiquitano (also Bésɨro or Tarapecosi) is an indigenous language isolate spoken in the central region of Santa Cruz Department of eastern Bolivia and the state of Mato Grosso in Brazil.
Chiquitano is usually considered to be a language isolate. Joseph Greenberg linked it to the Macro-Jê languages in his proposal,[2] but the results of his study have been later questioned due to methodological flaws.[3] [4]
Kaufman (1994) suggests a relationship with the Bororoan languages.[5] Adelaar (2008) classifies Chiquitano as a Macro-Jê language,[6] while Nikulin (2020) suggests that Chiquitano is rather a sister of Macro-Jê.[7]
According to Čestmír Loukotka (1968), dialects were Tao (Yúnkarirsh), Piñoco, Penoqui, Kusikia, Manasi, San Simoniano, Churapa.[9]
Nikulin (2019) proposes that Camba Spanish has a Piñoco substratum. Camba Spanish was originally spoken in Santa Cruz Department, Bolivia, but is now also spoken in Beni Department and Pando Department.
Some Chiquitano also prefer to call themselves Monkóka (plural form for 'people'; the singular form for 'person' is Monkóxɨ).[1]
Nikulin also tentatively proposes an Eastern subgroup for the varieties spoken in San Ignacio de Velasco, Santiago de Chiquitos, and Brazil.[1]
In Brazil, Chiquitano is spoken in the municipalities of Cáceres, Porto Esperidião, Pontes e Lacerda, and Vila Bela da Santíssima Trindade in the state of Mato Grosso.[13] [14]
The following list of Jesuit and pre-Jesuit-era historical dialect groupings of Chiquitano is from Nikulin (2019), after Matienzo et al. (2011: 427–435)[15] and Hervás y Panduro (1784: 30).[16] The main dialect groups were Tao, Piñoco, and Manasi.
| Aruporé, Bohococa (Bo(h)oca) | Concepción | |
| Bacusone (Basucone, Bucofone, Bucojore) | San Rafael | |
| Boro (Borillo) | San José, San Juan Bautista, Santo Corazón | |
| Chamaru (Chamaro, Xamaru, Samaru, Zamanuca) | San Juan Bautista | |
| Pequica | San Juan Bautista, afterwards San Miguel | |
| Piococa | San Ignacio, Santa Ana | |
| Piquica | east of the Manasicas | |
| Purasi (Puntagica, Punasica, Punajica, Punaxica) | San Javier, Concepción | |
| Subareca (Subarica, Subereca, Subercia, Xubereca) | San Javier | |
| Tabiica (Tabica, Taviquia) | San Rafael, San Javier | |
| Tau (Tao, Caoto) | San Javier, San José, San Miguel, San Rafael, San Juan Bautista, Santo Corazón | |
| Tubasi (Tubacica, Tobasicoci) | San Javier, afterwards Concepción | |
| Quibichoca (Quibicocha, Quiviquica, Quibiquia, Quibichicoci), Tañepica, Bazoroca | unknown |
| Guapa, Piñoca, Piococa | San Javier | |
| Motaquica, Poxisoca, Quimeca, Quitaxica, Zemuquica, Taumoca | ? San Javier, San José, San José de Buenavista or Desposorios (Moxos) |
| Manasica, Yuracareca, Zibaca (Sibaca) | Concepción | |
| Moposica, Souca | east of the Manasicas | |
| Sepe (Sepeseca), Sisooca, (?) Sosiaca | north of the Manasicas | |
| Sounaaca | west of the Manasicas | |
| Obariquica, Obisisioca, Obobisooca, Obobococa, Osaaca, Osonimaca, Otaroso, Otenenema, Otigoma | northern Chiquitanía | |
| Ochisirisa, Omemoquisoo, Omeñosisopa, Otezoo, Oyuri(ca) | northeastern Chiquitanía | |
| Cuzica (Cusica, Cusicoci), Omonomaaca, Pichasica, Quimomeca, Totaica (Totaicoçi), Tunumaaca, Zaruraca | unknown |
Penoquí (Gorgotoqui?), possibly a Bororoan language, was spoken in San José.
| Bilabial | Dental | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plosive | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | |
| Fricative | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | ||||
| Nasal | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | |||
| Rhotic | pronounced as /link/ | ||||||
| Glide | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ |
| Front | Central | Back | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Close | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | |
| Close-mid | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | ||
| Open | pronounced as /link/ |
Chiquitano has regressive assimilation triggered by nasal nuclei pronounced as // ɨ̃ ĩ ũ õ ã ẽ// and targeting consonant onsets within a morpheme.
The language has CV, CVV, and CVC syllables. It does not allow complex onsets or codas. The only codas allowed are nasal consonants.
Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items for different dialects of Chiquito (Chiquitano).[18]
| gloss | Chiquito | Yúnkarirsh | San Simoniano | Churápa | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| tooth | oh-ox | oän | noosh | ||
| tongue | otús | natä | iyúto | ||
| foot | popez | popess | pipín | ípiop | |
| woman | pais | páirsh | paá | páish | |
| water | toʔus | tush | túʔush | ||
| fire | péz | péesh | peés | ||
| sun | suur | suursh | sóu | súush | |
| manioc | tauax | táhuash | tabá | tawásh | |
| tapir | okitapakis | tapakish | oshtápakish | ||
| house | ogox | póosh | ípiosh | ||
| red | kiturixi | kéturuk | kéturikí |
For a vocabulary list of Chiquitano by Santana (2012),[19] see the Portuguese Wiktionary.
Chiquitano has borrowed extensively from an unidentified Tupí-Guaraní variety; one example is Chiquitano takones [takoˈnɛs] ‘sugarcane’, borrowed from a form close to Paraguayan Guaraní takuare'ẽ ‘sugarcane’. There are also numerous Spanish borrowings.
Chiquitano (or an extinct variety close to it) has influenced the Camba variety of Spanish. This is evidenced by the numerous lexical borrowings of Chiquitano origin in local Spanish. Examples include bi ‘genipa’, masi ‘squirrel’, peni ‘lizard’, peta ‘turtle, tortoise’, jachi ‘chicha leftover’, jichi ‘worm; jichi spirit’, among many others.[20]
Otuke, a Bororoan language, was also spoken in some of the missions.
Chiquitano varieties listed by Nikulin (2020):