The traditional Berber religion is the sum of ancient and native set of beliefs and deities adhered to by the Berbers. Many ancient Berber beliefs were developed locally including the cults for local gods such as Atlas,[1] and the goddess Tanit (or more known to the Greeks as Athena[2]) and Ammon,[3] whereas others were influenced over time through contact with others like ancient Egyptian religion such as Isis which was worshipped in eastern Libya, or borrowed during antiquity from the Punic religion such as Eshmun and Baal, Judaism, Iberian mythology, and the Hellenistic religion like the worship of Apollo and Ceres. Some of the ancient Berber beliefs still exist today subtly within the Berber popular culture and tradition. Syncretic influences from the traditional Berber religion can also be found in many other faiths around the Mediterranean.
In Berber, the Moon and the god of the Moon carry the same name in the language: Ayyur. Herodotus mentions that the Berbers in antiquity venerate the Moon and the Sun (Tafukt in Berber), where they offer sacrifices, they venerate especially to the Sun and the Moon above all other gods that all the Libyans make sacrifices to these divinities.[4] Many other authors attest to this cult, not to forget to mention the graffitis, such as «Solo Deo Invicto» found in Thagaste.[5] The first king of Numidia commonly paid tribute to Apollo in 179 B.C, the king Masinissa received a golden crown from the inhabitants of the Greek island Delos as he had offered them several shiploads of grain and barley to the temple of Apollo in Delos the famous birthplace of the sun god and his twin sister Artemis.[6]
Since antiquity, the ancient Libyans (ancestors of Berbers) worshipped a cult of the god Amon,[7] adored by the Ancient Egyptians as well. In Berber beliefs, the mutton was a sacred animal to Amon. In the discussion of Athanase of Alexandrie against the Gentiles, it is said that for the Libyan populations (Berbers), the god Amon is often named Amen and was venerated as a divinity.
According to historians, the cult of the god Amon practiced in Ancient Libya and in Ancient Egypt, had Berber origins before spreading to Egypt.[8] In Siwa Oasis, located Western Egypt, there remained a solitary oracle of Amun near the Libyan Desert.[9] Iarbas, a mythological king of the Massyli in western Libya, whom Queen Dido had met on her trip to North Africa to found Carthage, was also considered a son of Amon. Amon's son Gurzil is considered a war god and worshiped in Western Libya.
The ancient cult of Neith (Ha-nit) or Nit, or Tinnit (that influenced the ancient Egyptians with their goddess Neith, and the Hellenes with their goddess Athena) through the Berber cult of war.[10]
Pausanias writes: "Above the Kerameikos [in Athens] and the portico called the King's Portico is a temple of Hephaistos. I was not surprised that by it stands a statue of Athena, because I knew the story about Erikhthonios. But when I saw that the statue of Athena had blue eyes I found out that the legend about them is Libyan. For the Libyans have a saying that the Goddess is the daughter of Poseidon and Lake Tritonis, and for this reason has blue eyes like Poseidon."The Libyan Amazons are without doubt part of this cult. The cult of Minerva, assimilated to the Greek goddess Athena. Athena, imposed the Amazons of Libya in Troy and in Greece, the Libyan amazons remained in the village of Tenæ at the south of Sfax and Cartenæ (Tenes).[11] The Libyan Amazons were the origin of the cult of the god of the sea Neptune (Libyan in origin according to Herodotus, which the Greeks worshipped under the name of Poseidon)
Herodotus writes: "The Libyans alone have had among them the name of Poseidon from the beginning, and they have always honoured this god"Poseidon is the father of Athena, In mythology, Athena was believed to have been born in Lake Tritonis in North Africa (Modern day Algeria and Tunisia) where she is considered native to the land,[12] in this version of the story she is the daughter of Poseidon and Tritonis a Libyan lake nymph, in another version of the story in the same source, they say that she was daughter of Poseidon and Lake Tritonis, and that, being for some reason angry at her father, she gave herself to Zeus, who made her his own daughter, which explains why both are considered gods of horses.[13]
Archaeological research on prehistoric tombs in the Maghreb shows that the bodies of the dead were painted with ochre. While this practice was known to the Iberomaurusians, this culture seems to have been primarily a Capsian industry. The dead were also sometimes buried with shells of ostrich eggs, jewelry, and weapons. Bodies were usually buried in a fetal position.[14]
Unlike the majority of mainland Berbers, the Guanche Berbers mummified their dead. Additionally, in 1958 University of Rome Professor Fabrizio Mori (1925–2010) discovered a Libyan mummy around 5,500 years old—roughly a thousand years older than any known Ancient Egyptian mummy.[15] [16]
Herodotus in The Histories stated that the cult of the dead of the god Ammon In Siwa Oasis, there remained a solitary oracle of Amun near the Libyan Desert.[3] The worship of Ammon was introduced into Greece at an early period, probably through the medium of the Greek colony in Cyrene, which must have formed a connection with the great oracle of Ammon in the Oasis soon after its establishment. Iarbas, a mythological king of Libya, was also considered a son of Hammon. was one of the distinguishing characteristics of Libya in antiquity.[17] Pomponius Mela Also reported that the Augilae (Modern Awjila in Libya) considered the spirits of their ancestors to be deities. They swore by them and consulted them. After making requests, they slept in their tombs to await responses in dreams.[18]
Herodotus (484 BCE–425 BCE) noted the same practice among the Nasamones, who inhabited the deserts around Siwa and Augila. He wrote:
"They swear by the people among themselves who are reported to have been the most lawful and brave, by these, I say, laying hands upon their tombs; and they divine by visiting the sepulchral mounds of their ancestors and lying down to sleep upon them after having prayed; and whatsoever thing the person sees in their dream, this they accept."[19]The Berbers worshiped their rulers, too.[20] The tombs of the Numidian rulers are among the most notable monuments left by the Classical Berbers. But Gabriel Camps debates whether this is done for worship or for mere love and appreciation of the contributions of the rulers.[21]
The veneration (not worship) of saints which exists among the modern Berbers in the form of Maraboutism—which is widespread in northwest Africa—may or may not contain traces of prior beliefs or customs concerning the dead.
The tombs of the early people and their ancestors indicate that the Berbers and their forebears (the Numidians and Mauretanians) believed in an afterlife. The prehistoric people of northwest Africa buried bodies in little holes. When they realized that bodies buried in unsecured holes were dug up by wild animals, they began to bury them in deeper ones. Later, they buried the dead in caves, tumuli, tombs in rocks, mounds, and other types of tombs.[14]
These tombs evolved from primitive structures to much more elaborate ones, such as the pyramidal tombs spread throughout Northern Africa. The honor of being buried in such a tomb appears to have been reserved for those who were most important to their communities.
These pyramid tombs have attracted the attention of some scholars, such as Mohamed Chafik who wrote a book discussing the history of several of the tombs that have survived into modern times. He tried to relate the pyramidal Berber tombs with the great Egyptian pyramids on the basis of the etymological and historical data.[22] The best known Berber pyramids are the 19m (62feet) pre-Roman Numidian pyramid of the Medracen and the 30m (100feet) ancient Mauretanian pyramid.[23] The Numidian pyramid in Tipaza is also known as Kbour-er-Roumia or Tomb of Juba and Sypax, mistranslated by the French colonists as Tomb of the Christian Woman.[23] The Tomb holds the graves of King Juba II and Queen Cleopatra Selene II, the rulers of Mauretania.
Augustine of Hippo mentioned that the polytheistic Africans worshipped the sun. Apuleius stated as well that Apollo the god of the sun was worshipped in the second century. The megalithic culture may have been part of a cult of the dead or of star-worship.
The monument of Msoura is the best-known megalithic monument in northwest Africa. It is composed of a circle of megaliths surrounding a tumulus. The highest megalith is over 5m (16feet). According to legend, it is the sepulchre of the Greaco-Roman giant Antaeus.[24] Another megalithic monument was discovered in 1926 to the south of Casablanca. The monument was engraved with funerary inscriptions in the Berber script known as Tifinagh.[25]
Herodotus mentioned that the ancient Berbers worshipped the moon and sun and sacrificed to them. He reported:
Tullius Cicero (105–43 BCE) also reported the same cult in On the Republic (Scipio's Dream):
There were some Latin inscriptions found in Northwest Africa dedicated to the sun-god. An example is the inscription found in Souk Ahras (the birthplace of Augustine; Thagaste in Algeria) written "Solo Deo Invicto".[26] Samuel the Confessor appears to have suffered from the sun-worshiping Berbers who tried unsuccessfully to force him to worship the sun.
The Berber pantheon also contained multiple deities, known by the Romans as the Dii Mauri (lit. the Moorish gods), represented on reliefs and also the subject of dedications.[27] During the Roman period, Saturn and Ops was the focus of an important cult, subsuming that of Baal Hammon and Tanit, two deities of Punic origin.
The Ancient Egyptians were the neighbors of the Berbers, as such traces of the worship of ancient Egyptian deities by the Berbers was found, and it has been theorized that both cultures shared at least some of these gods:
The cult Isis and Set by the Berbers was reported by Herodotus when saying:
"However, none of these Libyan tribes ever taste cattle's flesh, but abstain from it for the same reason as the Egyptians do, neither do they breed swine. Even at Cyrene, the women and men think it wrong to eat the flesh of the cattle, honoring Isis, the Egyptian goddess whom they worship both with fasts and festivals. Additionally the Barcaean women and men abstain also from the flesh of swine."[28]
Those Libyans did not eat the flesh of swine, because it was associated with Set, while they did not eat the cattle's flesh, because it was associated with Isis.
The most remarkable common god of the Berbers and the Egyptians was Amun and Amunet.[29] These deities are hard to attribute to only one pantheon, he and she were two of the greatest ancient Berber deities.[30] He and She was honored by the Ancient Greeks in Cyrenaica, and was united with the Phoenician god Baal and goddess Anat due to Libyan influence.[31] Early depictions of rams and ewes (related possibly to an early form of the cult of these deities) across North Africa have been dated to between 9600 BCE and 7500 BCE.
The most famous temple of Amun and Amunet in Ancient Libya was the augural temple at Siwa Oasis in Egypt, an oasis still inhabited by Berbers.
The Egyptians considered some Egyptian deities to have had a Libyan origin, such as Neith who has been considered by Egyptians to have emigrated from Libya to establish her temple at Sais in the Nile Delta.Some people also believe links between the way Egyptians depicted certain deities and the way they depicted Libyan people exist, such is the case for Ament.
Osiris was also among the Egyptian deities who were venerated in Libya and Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge (in addition to a few other scholars) believed that Osiris was originally a Libyan god saying of him that "Everything which the texts of all periods recorded concerning him goes to show that he was an indigenous god of Northern Africa (modern day Libya), and that his home and origin were possibly Libyan."[32]
Some legends even tell that Athena was born in Lake Tritonis (in modern Libya).
The Phoenicians were originally a Semitic people who inhabited the coast of modern Lebanon, and later came as refugees to Tunisia. The Phoenicians of Lebanon were seafarers and they founded Carthage in 814 BCE. They later gave birth to the so-called Punic culture, which had its roots in the Berber and Phoenician cultures. Some scholars distinguish the relationships between the Phoenicians and the Berbers in two phases:
When Phoenicians settled in Northwest Africa, they stayed in the coastal regions to avoid wars with the Berbers. They maintained their deities which they brought from their homeland. Therefore, early Carthaginians had two important Phoenician deities, Baal and Anat.
Carthage began to ally with the Berber tribes after the Battle of Himera, in which the Carthaginians were defeated by the Greeks. In addition to political changes, the Carthaginians imported some of the Berber deities.
Baal and Anat were the primary deities worshipped in Carthage. Depictions of these deities are found in several sites across Northern Africa. Also, the goddess Tanit and god Baal Hammon were worshipped, As Ammon is a local berber deity,[33] so is Tannit, which she represents the matriarchal aspect of Numidian society,[34] whom the Egyptians identify as Neith and the Greeks identify as Athena.[33] The names themselves, Baal Hammon and Tanit, have Berber linguistic structure. Many Feminine and Masculine names end with "t" and "n" and in the Berber languages. Some scholars believe that the Egyptian goddess Neith and Egyptian god Khnum were similar to the Libyan goddess Tanit and the Libyan god Baal Hammon. There are also Massyle and Phoenician names that apparently contain roots from the god Baal, such as Adherbal and Hannibal and names also derived from Anat.
The ancient Greeks established colonies in Cyrenaica. The Greeks influenced the eastern Libya pantheon, but they were also influenced by Libyan culture and beliefs. Generally, the Libyan-Greek relationships can be divided into two different periods. In the first period, the Greeks had peaceful relationships with the Libyans. Later, there were wars between them. These social relationships were mirrored in their beliefs.
The first notable appearance of Libyan influence on the Cyrenaican-Greek beliefs is the name Cyrenaica itself. This name was originally the name of a legendary Thessalian woman warrior and queen who was known as Cyrene, ruled Thessaly in Greece and later Cyrene in Libya. Cyrene was, according to the legend, a courageous huntress woman and queen who hunted and ate lions and all other animals. She gave her name to the city Cyrene in Libya. The emigrating Greeks made her their protector besides their Greek god Apollo.[35]
The Greeks of Cyrenaica also to have adopted some Berber customs. Herodotus (Book IV 120) reported that the Libyans taught the Greeks how to yoke four horses to a chariot (the Romans used these Libyan chariots later, after they were taught to do so by the Greeks). The Cyrenaican Greeks built temples for the Libyan deities Amun and Amunet instead of their original god Zeus and Hera. They later identified their thunderstorm god and goddess Zeus and Hera with the Libyan Amun and Amunet.[36] Some of them continued worshipping Amun and Amunet themselves. Amun and Amunet's cult was so widespread among the Greeks that even Alexander III of Macedonia decided to be declared as the son of Amun and Amunet in the Siwan temple of Amun and Amunet by the Libyan priests of Amun and Amunet and was declared so.[37]
The ancient historians mentioned that some Greek deities were of Libyan origin. The daughter of Brontes and Metis, Athena was considered by some ancient historians, like Herodotus, to have been of Libyan origin. Those ancient historians stated that she was originally honored by the Libyans in Libya in Lake Tritonis where she had been born from the god Brontes and goddess Metis, according to the Libyan legends. Herodotus wrote that the Aegis and the clothes of Athena were typical for Libyan women.
Herodotus also stated that Poseidon (an important Greek water god) was adopted from the Libyans by the Greeks. He emphasized that no other people worshipped Poseidon from early times apart from the Libyans who spread his cult:
These I think received their naming from the Pelasgians, except Poseidon; but about this god the Hellenes learnt from the Libyans, for no people except the Libyans have had the name of Poseidon from the first and have paid honour to this god always.[38]
Some other Greek deities were related to Libya. The goddess Lamia was believed to have originated in Libya, like Medusa and the Gorgons. The Greeks seem also to have met the god Triton in Libya. The modern day Berbers may have believed that the Hesperides were situated in modern Morocco. The Hesperides were believed to be the daughters of Atlas, a god who is associated with the Atlas Mountains by Herodotus. The Atlas Mountain were worshipped by the Berbers and the Canary Islands represented the daughters of Atlas.
The Greeks and the Libyans began to break their harmony in the period of Battus II of Cyrene. Battus II began secretly to invite other Greek groups to Libya, Tunisia and East Algeria. The Libyans and Massyle considered that as a danger that had to be stopped. The Berbers began to fight against the Greeks, sometimes in alliance with the Egyptians and other times with the Carthaginians. Nevertheless, the Greeks were the victors.Some historians believe that the myth of Antaeus and Heracles was a reflection of those wars between the Libyans and Greeks.
The Romans allied firstly with the Massyli against Carthage. They defeated Carthage in 146 BCE. But later, they also annexed Massyle to the Roman Empire.
According to Pliny the Elder, the Libyans honored the war goddess Ifri, who was considered to be the protector of her worshipers (and seemed to have been an influential goddess in North Africa) and depicted her on the Berber coins. This goddess was represented in diverse ways on Numidian coins from the first century BCE. When the Romans conquered Northern Africa, she appeared in sculpture and on the coins of the Roman states in North Africa.
The Roman pantheon seems to have been adopted generally, although the cult of Saturn and Ops, as mentioned above, was perhaps the most important.
A new god appears in later texts, identified with tribes such as the Austuriani outside the Roman frontiers of Libya. Gurzil was a war god who identified with the son of Amun and Amunet. He was taken by the Berbers to their battles against the Byzantines. Corippus mentioned that the chiefs of the Laguata took their god Gurzil into battle against the Byzantines and Arabs. It is very likely that the sanctuary of Gurzil was located in Ghirza, in Libya, where remarkable reliefs show a noble Libyan receiving tribute while seated on a curule chair.[39]