Battle of San Pasqual explained

Conflict:Battle of San Pasqual
Partof:the Conquest of California
Mexican–American War
Date:December 6–7, 1846
Place:San Pasqual Pueblo, Alta California
Modern Day: San Pasqual Valley, San Diego, California
Result:See assessment[1] [2] [3] [4] [5]
Combatant1:
Combatant2: Mexico
Commander1: Stephen Kearny Archibald H. Gillespie
Commander2: Andrés Pico
Strength1:150
Strength2:75
Casualties1:18 killed
13 wounded
Casualties2:12 wounded
1 captured
Map Type:USA West
Map Relief:1
Map Size:290

The Battle of San Pasqual, also spelled San Pascual, was a military encounter that occurred during the Mexican–American War in what is now the San Pasqual Valley community of the city of San Diego, California. The series of military skirmishes ended with both sides claiming victory, and the victor of the battle is still debated. On December 6 and 7, 1846, General Stephen W. Kearny's US Army of the West, along with a small detachment of the California Battalion led by Archibald H. Gillespie, engaged a small contingent of Californios and their Presidial Lancers Los Galgos (The Greyhounds), led by Major Andrés Pico. After U.S. reinforcements arrived, Kearny's troops were able to reach San Diego.

Background

Following a clash of U.S. forces with Mexican forces near the Rio Grande, Colonel Stephen Watts Kearny was promoted to a brigadier general and tasked with multiple objectives to include the seizure of New Mexico and California, establish civilian government within seized territories, disrupt trade, and to "act in such a manner as best to conciliate the inhabitants, and render them friendly to the United States". Kearny's initial force consisted of 300 regular army soldiers, 1,000 volunteers from Missouri, and the Mormon Battalion. From Fort Leavenworth, via Bent's Fort, Kearny had New Mexico capitulate without violent conflict.[6] While in Santa Fe, Kearny established Fort Marcy, named after the Secretary of War William L. Marcy, who had ordered Kearny's force westward.

En route from New Mexico, Kearny's force interacted with the Apache and Maricopa tribes, and captured a Mexican courier with news of American activities in California, with the news stating the Californios had capitulated. Forces under Commodore Sloat had taken control a significant portion of Alta California. Kearny had orders to assume command of U.S. forces in California with his, but sent back most of his force after meeting up with Kit Carson near Socorro on Oct 6 and hearing of the seizure of California by Commodore Robert F. Stockton, Kearny keeping only Companies C & K, 1st Dragoons, about 100 men. Kearny, at that time with a force of 300 men, learning of escalating issues with the Navajo, and with the belief a smaller force could move faster, ordered 200 back to Santa Fe. Kearny's force, guided by Carson, reached Warner's Ranch in California on Dec 2, in a greatly weakened condition.[7] They had just completed a 2,000 mile march; the longest march in U.S. Army history;[8] the force was travel weary and mounted mules and half-broken horses which were rounded up around Warner Ranch that were owned by California Capt. Jose Maria Flores.

General Kearny's Army, most originating from Fort Scott:[9] [10] [11] [12]

Captains Johnston, Griffin (Surgeon),[27] and Turner[28] kept journals during their journey from Santa Fe. Lieutenant W. H. Emory of the Topographical Engineers kept the official designated U.S. Government diary, or "Military Reconnoissance" from Ft. Leavenworth to California which was published in 1848.[29]

After turning back the Americans trying to recapture Los Angeles in the Battle of Dominguez Rancho, Capt. Jose Maria Flores sent about 100 men to San Luis Obispo to confront Lt. Col. John C. Fremont's 300 men moving south from Monterey, and sent another 100 men to watch Stockton's base at San Diego, but Flores kept the bulk of his men at Los Angeles.

Captain Archibald Gillespie with 39 men,[30] met Kearny on December 5 with a message from Stockton requesting Kearny confront Flores' men outside San Diego.[31] [32] [33] [34] The total American force now amounted to 179 men.[35] [36]

USMC Acting-Captain (Lt.) Gillespie's Mounted Rifle Volunteers 'detachment' of the California Battalion:

Captains Leonardo Cota and Jose Alipaz took a force to San Pasqual Valley with the intention to interdict and keep in check Captain Gillespie after his departure from San Diego. Later, Major Andrés Pico, after a failed search for a detachment of U.S. soldiers, joined forces with the captains and took command. These Californios led a force consisting of landowners, sons of landowners, and vaqueros, many with well known and respected family names in the community:

On the night of December 5, a Native American informed the Californio forces of the presence of Kearny's forces.

Prelude

A dragoon patrol under Lieutenant Thomas C. Hammond, guided by Rafael Machado, the son of Don José Manuel Machado (grantee of Rancho El Rosario and sent by the Machado family to assist Kearny), reconnoitered Capt. Andres Pico's force along the road at San Pasqual.

While Machado sneaked into the camp, Lt. Hammond became suspicious he was being set up for an ambush and rode the dragoons into the camp, where they spoke with an Indian they found sleeping in a hut. In a coincidence that has never been fully explained, a guard under the command of Machado's concuñado, the brother of a brother-in-law and future father-in-law, Captain Jose Alipaz, challenged the dragoons and alerted the camp to their presence. While Machado quickly ran back to Hammond's scouting party, Alipaz sounded the alarm but was dismissed by General Pico, until a U.S. Army blanket and dragoon coat were discovered on the edge of camp by Pablo Véjar. With Capt. Alipaz, Captain Leonardo Cota and José María Ibarra (the Californio standing guard) chased the dragoons to the top of the next ridge with the battle cry of "!Viva California!".[42] [43] Pico was alerted, and the Californio camp prepared for the U.S. Army dragoons and marines to attack.

Kearny had planned a surprise attack at daylight, despite the damp weather wetting down their powder and the extremely poor state of the soldiers' equipment and mounts – mostly mules, as the horses had died on the preceding march.

Battle

Having lost the element of surprise, at midnight Kearny ordered an immediate advance from his camp nine miles away. It had rained that night. Men, muskets, pistols and equipment were wet and cold, but the troops, after over six months without any action, were eager to engage the Californios. Early in the morning of December 6, 1846, the column proceeded by twos across the ridge between Santa Maria (present day Ramona, California) and San Pasqual. During the descent, while it was still dark and with a low-lying fog, Kearny's force became strung out and were caught in a disadvantageous position by General Pico's swift advance. Kearny gave the plan of battle prior to proceeding down into the valley, to keep all casualties to a minimum, to encircle San Pasqual to capture fresh mounts.

Captain Abraham R. Johnston's advance guard, while still three-quarters of a mile (1.2 km) from Pico's forces, was ordered by Kearny to "Trot!", which Johnston misunderstood as "Gallop!".[44] Seeing this Kearny exclaimed "Oh, heavens! I did not mean that!". Forty of the best mounted pulled far ahead of the main body of the force, in violation of the Cavalry Tactics manual of 1841, which instructed a charge to begin at just 40 paces from the enemy "so as to arrive in good order, and without fatiguing the horses." The mules pulling the howitzers bolted, taking one of the guns with them. Pico's mounted force remained ahead of the pursuing U.S. forces. Their fresh horses and superior horsemanship allowed them to outmaneuver and lead the advance group of dragoons away from the main force. The Californios had a distinct advantage over the U.S. soldiers in their knowledge of the terrain. A second separation developed until twenty-eight dragoons, including Kearny, were separated. Damp powder reduced the effectiveness of carbines to clubs and pistols to hammers, as described by Felicita[45] a San Pasqual Indian[46] that witnessed the battle. The Californios were armed with long lances and reatas (braided rawhide lariat), which they used with great effect.[47] As a consequence, Johnston's charge was unsupported and his dragoons were forced to withdraw.As the leading element of the U.S. force's attack drew close to a Kumeyaay village, the Californios wheeled back and fired their few firearms. At this time Captain Johnston was killed by a bullet. Pico then withdrew a half mile to higher ground.

A second charge ordered by Capt. Benjamin D. Moore further separated the Americans, and the Californios met his dragoons with a counter-charge by lancers. The charge was quickly surrounded, and Capt. Moore was killed. Gillespie arrived within fifteen minutes with the artillery. Mules are reluctant to wheel, and the horse-mounted Californios outflanked the Americans and captured one of the unattended howitzers. Gillespie used a sabre to fight off a vicious personal attack made by a group of lancers in revenge for his previous actions during his occupation of Los Angeles and the broken agreement to cease hostilities. He took a lance thrust just over the heart that pierced a lung. Kearny was wounded when he was lanced. Other U.S. dragoons were worked on by pairs of Californios who, with fresh mounts and years of practice, would use a lasso to yank soldiers off their mounts to the ground, where the second rider would lance them. Gillespie's men unlimbered the remaining howitzer – John Sutter's Russian-made bronze four-pounder – and were able to drive the Californio fighters from the field after Midshipman Duncan fired canister into them. Either this action (traditional U.S. view) or the unusual degree of bloodshed (traditional Californio view), prompted Pico to withdraw. The U.S. forces fortified a camp on a low hill north of the valley, initially placing their dead on mules that were unable to transport them before burying them outside of the camp under cover of darkness.[48] The location of this camp is within the modern day San Diego Zoo Safari Park.[49]

Summarizing the battle, historian Owen Coy writes: Coy goes on to write:

After the battle

Six messengers

The next day, December 7, 1846, after assurances by Dr. Griffin that the worst of the injured could be moved, Captain Turner, now in command of the Dragoons, since Kearny was wounded, marched the column toward San Diego. Californio lancers established a blocking position near what is now known as "Mule Hill". Captain Turner ordered Lieutenant William H. Emory and a squad of dragoons to engage and drive off the menacing lancers. With dry powder in their carbines, the dragoons easily forced the lancers away, while inflicting five dead among the fleeing Californios. That evening, Captain Turner, established a strong defensive perimeter and then sent dispatches requesting urgent reinforcements, carried to Commodore Stockton by "Alexis Godey, Thomas Burgess, and one other."[50] On December 8, there still had been no word from the three messengers, when suddenly there appeared a white flag from the Californios. The Lancers wished to trade "four Americans whom [they] wished to exchange for four Californians. This was embarrassing, because the Americans had but one man, Pablo Vejar, as a prisoner."[51] With the trade completed, it was learned from the returned men that Stockton had no horses and therefore could not send a relief party. Prior to capture by the Californios on their return trip, they had hid Stockton's message under a tree, "but when this cache was examined the letters were missing."[52] With Kearny somewhat recovering from his wounds, he regained the command from Turner, and Kearny determined to dispatch another detail to San Diego. On the evening of the 8th, Beale and Carson volunteered for the mission, however General Kearny wanted to retain Carson with the command in case he was needed. Lieut. Beale explained to Kearny that the dispatches might not make it through to San Diego without Kit Carson's experience. That night Lieut. Beale, Scout Carson, and an Indian guide named Pontho moved[53] [54] [55] [56] under cover of darkness, taking different routes to the commodore's headquarters at San Diego, 28 miles (45 km) to the south-southwest. For Kit Carson and Pontho (or Panto) the foot journey to San Diego was "a matter of routine." But "to the young naval officer it was pure torture, and upon his arrival at old town [San Diego], being unable to stand because of his lacerated feet, he had to be carried into Commodore Stockton's headquarters." To insure that at least one messenger would make it through, the three men had separated a few miles from San Diego, Pontho (Panto) was the first to make it, then followed Carson, then later the much suffering naval officer Lieut. Beale.[57]

Reinforcement and casualties

Stockton quickly dispatched a unit of over 200 sailors and marines, whose arrival caused the Californios to disperse. Kearny had already determined the night before (December 9) to continue the march the next morning. Stockton's unit then escorted Kearny's battered troops to San Diego, where they arrived December 12.[58]

Dr. John S. Griffin, Kearny's surgeon, reported that the Americans had lost 17 killed and 18 wounded out of the 50 officers and men who engaged Pico's lancers. When they arrived in San Diego, the wounded survivors were treated by their Californio guide's sister, Nurse Juanita Machado Alipas de Wrightington, known as the Florence Nightingale of San Diego for her charity work for the oppressed native peoples camped outside San Diego.[59]

Killed/Missing in action of U.S. 1st Dragoon & attached forces

1st U.S. Dragoon Officers:

California Lancers at San Pasqual Battle

Reference:[66]

Assessment

General Kearny's official report states:"On the morning of the 7th, having made ambulances for our wounded . . . we proceeded on our march, when the enemy showed himself, occupying the hills in our front, which they left as we approached, till reaching San Bernardo a party of them took possession of a hill near to it and maintained their position until attacked by our advance, who quickly drove them from it, killing and wounding five of their number with no loss on our part."[67] Some time after the battle, General Kearny wrote that the U.S. had achieved victory since the Californios had "fled the field,"[68] but the Californios saw the engagement as their victory.

According to Kit Carson, who was on the battlefield that day, "Kearny chose to press the attack with an eye to capturing Pico's horses."[69]

With the conclusion of the fight at San Pasqual, San Diego and "all of California north of Santa Barbara were in American hands. Only Los Angeles and its immediate environs were still under control of the Californios."[70] The battle is unique, as it was one of the few military battles in the United States that involved elements of the Army, Navy, Marines, and civilian volunteers, all in the same skirmish.[71] During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, historians debated which force won or lost the battle. Clearly, Kearny retained the battle area, the ability to operate and maneuver, and also the initiative, though his losses were significantly higher; however, he did not implement his battle plan, his ammunition was compromised, and he outran his artillery and support. According to Geoffrey Regan:

Historian Lt. Colonel Cory Hollon cited Kearny's misjudgments: the battle was arguably unnecessary; the operating environment disadvantaged Kearny; he was unaware, or possibly misinformed,[72] about the character of the threat; Kearny overestimated or misused his friendly forces; and Kearny culminated at San Pasqual because he had overextended his supply chain, resulting in a poorly prepared force facing an underestimated enemy. Hollon states that Kearny's misjudgments resulted in nearly disastrous consequences for the Army of the West and put the United States’ plans for conquest and empire in peril. Historian Arthur Woodward wrote, "One can only suppose that Kearny, having made one of the longest marches in the history of the United States Army, was spoiling for a fight and intended to have it."[73] In late December 1846, Kearny's force began its march to Los Angeles. It consisted of a mixed force of Army dragoons, Navy sailors, Marines, volunteers and artillery. Although there was contention on leadership of U.S. forces in California, this and Stockton's combined forces went on to engage the Californios at the Battle of Rio San Gabriel, resulting in a Californio retreat. The following day the Battle of La Mesa resulted in another Californio defeat, leading to the surrender of the Pueblo de Los Ángeles and later the signing of the Treaty of Cahuenga. Historian Hollon wrote:

Legacy

See also

Sources

Further reading

External links

Notes and References

  1. Web site: The Shooting of James King . John Wilson . Stanford University School of Medicine and the Predecessor Schools : An Historical Perspective . Stanford University . March 20, 2011 . Although the Californians retreated and the Americans remained in possession of the battlefield, their victory was a pyrrhic one for their attack was ill-conceived and many American lives were recklessly and needlessly sacrificed. . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110722173441/http://elane.stanford.edu/wilson/html/chap11/chap11-sect2.html . July 22, 2011 .
  2. Book: John C. Pinheiro. Manifest Ambition: James K. Polk and Civil-military Relations During the Mexican War. 2007. Greenwood Publishing Group. 978-0-275-98409-0. 120. ... at best must be described as a Pyrrhic victory ....
  3. Book: Dwight Lancelot Clarke. Stephen Watts Kearny: Soldier of the West. 1961. University of Oklahoma Press. 232. ... it was certainly a Pyrrhic victory..
  4. Hollon . LTC Cory S. . April 29, 2013 . Operational Art in the Campaign of Stephen Watts Kearny to Conquer New Mexico and California, 1846-7 . Master's Thesis . U.S. Army Command and General Staff College . https://web.archive.org/web/20170317054224/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a584190.pdf . live . March 17, 2017 . March 15, 2017 . The first battle of the war for Kearny was a Pyrrhic victory at San Pasqual, but Kearny recovered and led a large force in a successful operation against prepared forces of Californios. .
  5. Niderost . Eric . May 26, 2016 . Mexican-American Clash at San Pasqual . Military History . McLean, Virginia . Sovereign Media . March 15, 2017 . The lancers left the field, enabling the Americans to technically claim a victory, albeit a mostly Pyrrhic one. Three officers and 21 men were dead, and another 17 were wounded. . March 16, 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170316114347/http://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/military-history/mexican-american-clash-at-san-pasqual/ . dead .
  6. Hollon . Lt. Col. Cory S. . Winter 2015 . 'A Leap in the Dark' The Campaign to Conquer New Mexico and California, 1846–1847 . Army History . PB 20-15-1 . 94 . 6–25 . Washington, D.C. . June 28, 2018 .
  7. Bauer, K.J., 1974, The Mexican War, 1846–1848, New York:Macmillan,
  8. The Journal of San Diego History. 62 . Your Affectionate Son, Robinson: American Expansionism and the Life of Captain Abraham Robinson Johnston, 1815–1846.
  9. Peet (1949) p. 217, 218
  10. Clarke & Ruhlen (1964) p. 40-42
  11. Journal of the Military Service Institution of the United States. XVI. 73. The First Regiment of Cavalry. 177–196. Wainwright. Capt. R. P. Page. January 1895.
  12. Book: Sabin, Edwin Legrand . Kit Carson Days, 1809–1868: Adventures in the Path of Empire. 2. 525–540, 950. University of Nebraska Press. 1935. 0-8032-9238-4.
  13. Moore. M. J.. 41169602. Annual Publication of the Historical Society of Southern California and of the Pioneers of Los Angeles County. 6. 1. 1903. 10–13. Sketch of Captain Benjamin Daviess Moore. 10.2307/41169602.
  14. Book: Clarke, Dwight L.. Letters of Captain Henry S. Turner on the Kearny-Fremont Controversy. September 1958 . Los Angeles . Roxburghe and Zamorano Clubs . 2027/uc1.31822035076843?urlappend=%3Bseq=5.
  15. Book: Twitchell, Ralph Emerson. The Leading Facts of New Mexican History. 2. 1911. 213. Sunstone Press. 9780865345669.
  16. Book: Notes of a Military Reconnoissance from Fort Leavenworth, in Missouri to San Diego, in California, Including Part of the Arkansas, Del Norte, and Gila Rivers. United States Army. Corps of Topographical Engineers. William Hemsley. Emory. H. Long & Brother. 1848. 143. california..
  17. Web site: California and the Mexican War: The Battle of San Pasqual. California State Military Museums. July 20, 2014.
  18. Web site: The Charge. July 20, 2014. San Pasqual Battlefield Site Location Project.
  19. Web site: George W. Cullum's Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates of the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, since its establishment in 1802. Class of 1842.
  20. Myers p. 4
  21. Web site: Get a Look at the Mighty Pacific: Thomas Swords Dragoon Quartermaster. William. Gorenfeld. October 9, 2007. July 20, 2014. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20140814162946/http://musketoon.blogspot.com/2007/08/thomas-swords-dragoon-quartermaster.html. August 14, 2014.
  22. The Conquest of California: The Battle of San Pasqual. Westerners Los Angeles Corral. 207. Spring 1997.
  23. Book: Bancroft, Hubert Howe. The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft. 22. 1886. History Company. en.
  24. Clarke & Ruhlen p. 40 (M.I.A. & also listed as McCaffrey/not listed as casualty/possibly K.I.A./possibly deserted)
  25. Woodward (1948) p. 57 (Roster: Troop C, 1st Dragoons)
  26. Hayes (1877) "Dunne's Notes on San Pascual" p. 4. "[Captain] Johnston was probably shot first-possibly by one of Kearney's men"
  27. Ames and Lyman p. 1
  28. Clarke (1966) p. vii
  29. Calvin p. 19
  30. Downey p. 170
  31. Web site: Commodore Stockton's Report on the War in California . Robert F. Stockton . February 18, 1848 . . March 15, 2012. Robert F. Stockton .
  32. Johns . Sally Cavell . Fall 1973 . VIVA LOS CALIFORNIOS!: The Battle of San Pasqual . The Journal of San Diego History . 19 . 4 . San Diego History Center . March 15, 2012 . The following day Stockton received the message and immediately sent a detachment of mounted riflemen under the command of Captain Gillespie. The force included Rafael Machado, a native San Diegan, and Navy Lieutenant Edward Fitzgerald Beale in charge of a four-pounder fieldpiece. The company marching to join the Army of the West totaled thirty-nine men..
  33. Cresap . Cap . Spring 2006 . Clearing Up The Confusion About California Cannon Of John Sutter . The Artilleryman . 27 . 2 . March 15, 2012 . July 7, 2012 . https://archive.today/20120707203934/http://artillerymanmagazine.com/Archives/2006/sutter_sp06.html . dead .
  34. Web site: THE USE OF ARTILLERY AT THE BATTLE OF SAN PASQUAL . George . Hruby . September 1996 . San Pasqual Battlefield Site Location Project . March 15, 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110718092456/http://www.sanpasqual.org/use-of-artillery-20100121.pdf . July 18, 2011 . dead .
  35. Book: Sides, Hampton . Blood and Thunder: An Epic of the American West . 2006 . Random House Digital, Inc. . 978-0-7393-2672-5 . 2006 . March 19, 2011.
  36. Web site: THE JOURNALS OF MARINE SECOND LIEUTENANT HENRY BULLS WATSON 1845–1848. 261. March 15, 2012 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20090905221007/http://www.marines.mil/news/publications/Documents/THE%20JOURNALS%20OF%20MARINE%20SECOND%20LIEUTENANT%20HENRY%20BULLS%20WATSON%201845-1848%20%20PCN%2019000400000_3.PDF . September 5, 2009 .
  37. Web site: Battalion of Sailors, from the fleet on the Pacific coast 1847. Togetherweserved.com. July 20, 2014.
  38. Web site: A Brief History of John Sutter and his Bronze Field Cannon. Stephen. Beck. July 20, 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140726015034/http://www.fortrossstatepark.org/stevebeck-sutterpaper.htm. July 26, 2014.
  39. Web site: The biography of William Henry Russell from the Dictionary of American Biography (New York, 1935). William Henry Russell, Callaway, Jackson, Cass Co., MO. USGenWeb Archives.
  40. Web site: An historical sketch of Los Angeles county, California. From the Spanish occupancy, by the founding of the mission San Gabriel Archangel, September 8, 1771, to July 4, 1876. July 21, 2014. L. Lewin & Co.. Los Angeles. Warner. Juan José. Los Angeles Centennial Celebration Literary Committee. 1876. Hayes. Benjamin Ignatius. Widney. Joseph Pomeroy. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304102344/http://www.mocavo.com/An-Historical-Sketch-of-Los-Angeles-County-California-From-the-Spanish-Occupancy-by-the-Founding-of-the-Mission-San-Gabriel-Archangel-September-8-1771-to-July-4-1876/329496/33. March 4, 2016.
  41. Web site: Tomás A. Sanchez: The Californio Sheriff of Los Angeles. Alvaro. Parra . August 22, 2013. July 21, 2014. Public Media Group of Southern California .
  42. Web site: Captain Archibald H.. Gillespie. The Mexican War and California: Captain Archibald Gillespie's Report to Commodore Robert Stockton Concerning The Battle of San Pasqual. California State Military Museums. March 12, 2012. December 25, 1846.
  43. Arthur. Woodward. Lances at San Pasqual (Concluded). California Historical Society Quarterly. 26. 1. March 1947. 32. 10.2307/25156014. 25156014.
  44. Marti p. 96 (1960) "Messenger of Destiny"
  45. Woodward (1948) p. 82: Footnote #110, "poles...to carry the [U.S.] wounded...This is in accord with the tale told Mrs. Judson [Roberts] by Felicita..."
  46. Roberts. (1917) p. 221, 224
  47. Roberts. p, 223, 224
  48. News: Beck . Darrell . December 1, 2009 . Gen. Stephen Watts Kearney And The Battle Of San Pasqual . Ramona Home Journal . June 28, 2018 . June 28, 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180628183614/http://ramonajournal.com/gen-stephen-watts-kearney-and-the-battle-of-san-pasqual-p2404-141.htm . dead .
  49. News: Jones . J. Harry . December 7, 2009 . San Pasqual battle details still disputed . San Diego Union Tribune . June 28, 2018 .
  50. Woodward p. 39
  51. Woodward p. 41
  52. Woodward p. 42
  53. Peet. Uses the names Panto or Pantho. (1949) p. 50
  54. Roberts. Uses the name Pontho. (1917) p. 220
  55. Hayes, Benjamin (Judge). (1877): William Burden Dunne's (Troop C, 1st U.S. Dragoons) notes on San Pasqual (p. 3: "San Pascual Indian") as dictated to Judge Benjamin Hayes
  56. Woodward (1948) p. 57 (Roster: Troop C, 1st Dragoons) & notes on p. 81 uses the name of Panto, along with a brief biography of Panto.
  57. Woodward p. 42, 43
  58. The U.S.-Mexican War in San Diego, 1846–1847: Loyalty and Resistance . Richard Griswold . del Castillo. The Journal of San Diego History. October 18, 2008.
  59. Machado de Wrightington. Juana. Los Tiempos Pasados de la Alta California. Recuerdos de la Sra. D.a Juana Machado de Ridington . January 11, 1878. North San Diego. Thomas Savage. Collection at Bancroft Library (C-D 119), Berkeley, California
  60. Clarke & Ruhlen (1964) p. 40
  61. Note: Woodward (1948) p. 58, "...Troop K, 1st U.S. Dragoons on its arrival in California were transferred to Troop "C", 1st U.S. Dragoons, Dec 6/46, and their names are included in the list of members of that Company except the following: 2d Lieut. T.C. Hammond, 1st Sergt. Otis L. Moore, Corp'l George Ramsdale, Farrier David W. Johnson, Sergt William Whitress, Private[s] W. H. Fiel, W. C. Gholston, Robert Gregory, Hugh McCaffery, William Mink. Woodward(1948) p. 84 notes: #141-"These men, listed as not having been transferred, were killed in action, with the exception of McCaffery, who was posted as missing in action, He and Mink are not listed on the monument."
  62. Clarke and Ruhlen (1964) p. 42, lists "McCaffrey" in company K.
  63. Gorenfeld and Gorenfeld (2016) p. 407, lists "McKaffray" in company K.
  64. Clarke and Ruhlen p. 42
  65. Emory p. 171, which also lists 3 remaining Mountain men Peterson, Londeau, and Perrot
  66. Note: These are the known lancers on the battlefield during the fight at San Pasqual. Woodward (1948). p. 65.
  67. Book: Cooke, Philip St George. The Conquest of New Mexico and California, An Historical and Personal Narrative. 1964. Horn and Wallace. Albuquerque, New Mexico. 259.
  68. Emory p. 145, "We finally beat them off the second time; they fled leaving us in possession of the field."
  69. Briggs and Trudell p. 55
  70. Briggs and Trudell (1983) p.64, 65
  71. Web site: San Pasqual Battlefield Site Location Project. San Pasqual Battlefield Site Location Project. July 9, 2010.
  72. Note-Kearny was misinformed, first by Carson and his dispatches, then later by Capt. Gillespie (USMC), when Kearny linked up with him in California: Near Socorro, New Mexico, General Kearny "met Kit Carson, with an escort of fifteen men, carrying dispatches from Stockton and Fremont in Los Angeles. Carson, who had heard nothing of the [Calif] revolt that broke out immediately after his departure, reported that everything was quiet in California and that American authority was supreme. Kearny there upon decided to retain but 100 of his Dragoons and to send the others back to Santa Fe. As Carson had just travelled the Gila River route, and as Fitzpatrick had never been on it, Kearny ordered the former to return toward the west as guide to the expedition. Carson protested but followed orders. The dispatches carried thus far by Carson were turned over to Fitzpatrick, with orders to take them to Washington." Hafen p. 240
  73. Woodward, Arthur. (1948) p. 25. Lances at San Pascual. San Francisco: California Historical Society.
  74. Cocks . Bert H. . September 1946 . The Quarterly: Historical Society of Southern California . Fort Moore . 41168092 . Historical Society of Southern California . 28 . 3 . 88–98 . 10.2307/41168092. February 7, 2019 .
  75. Book: Federal Writers Project of the Works Progress Administration. Los Angeles in the 1930s: The WPA Guide to the City of Angels. April 5, 2011. University of California Press. 978-0-520-94886-0. 39.
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  77. Web site: 1967 Aerial View of Kearny Mesa, General Dynamics . 2002 . Digital Archives . City of San Diego . February 7, 2019 .
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