Bartonella Explained

Bartonella is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria. It is the only genus in the family Bartonellaceae.[1] [2] Facultative intracellular parasites, Bartonella species can infect healthy people, but are considered especially important as opportunistic pathogens.[3] Bartonella species are transmitted by vectors such as fleas, sand flies, and mosquitoes. At least eight Bartonella species or subspecies are known to infect humans.[4]

Bartonella henselae is the organism responsible for cat scratch disease.

History

Bartonella species have been infecting humans for thousands of years, as demonstrated by Bartonella quintana DNA in a 4000-year-old tooth.[5] The genus is named for Alberto Leonardo Barton Thompson (1871–October 26, 1950), a Peruvian scientist.[6]

Infection cycle

Though some studies have found "no definitive evidence of transmission by a tick to a vertebrate host,"[7] [8] Bartonella species are well-known to be transmissible to both animals and humans through various other vectors, such as fleas, lice, and sand flies.[9] [10] Bartonella bacteria are associated with cat-scratch disease, but a study in 2010 concluded, "Clinicians should be aware that ... a history of an animal scratch or bite is not necessary for disease transmission."[11] All current Bartonella species identified in canines are human pathogens.[12]

Pathophysiology

Bartonella infections are remarkable in the wide range of symptoms they can produce. The course of the diseases (acute or chronic) and the underlying pathologies are highly variable.[13]

Bartonella pathophysiology in humans
Species Human reservoir or
incidental host? 		Animal
reservoir 		Pathophysiology Distribution
B. bacilliformis Reservoir Causes Carrion's disease (Oroya fever, Verruga peruana) Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia
B. quintana Reservoir Japanese macaque Causes trench fever, bacillary angiomatosis, and endocarditisWorldwide
B. clarridgeiae Incidental Domestic cat Cat scratch disease
B. elizabethae Incidental Rat Endocarditis
B. grahamii Incidental Mouse Endocarditis and neuroretinitis
B. henselae Incidental Domestic cat Cat scratch disease, bacillary angiomatosis, peliosis hepatis, endocarditis, bacteremia with fever, neuroretinitis, meningitis, encephalitis Worldwide
B. koehlerae Incidental Domestic cat
B. naantaliensisReservoirMyotis daubentonii
B. vinsonii Incidental Mouse, dog, domestic cat
B. washoensis Incidental Squirrel
B. rochalimae Incidental Unknown Carrion's disease-like symptoms
References:[14] [15] [16] [17]

Treatment

Treatment is dependent on which species or strain of Bartonella is found in a given patient. While Bartonella species are susceptible to a number of standard antibiotics in vitro—macrolides and tetracycline, for example—the efficacy of antibiotic treatment in immunocompetent individuals is uncertain. Immunocompromised patients should be treated with antibiotics because they are particularly susceptible to systemic disease and bacteremia. Drugs of particular effectiveness include trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, gentamicin, ciprofloxacin, and rifampin; B. henselae is generally resistant to penicillin, amoxicillin, and nafcillin.

Epidemiology

Homeless intravenous drug users are at high risk for Bartonella infections, particularly B. elizabethae. B. elizabethae seropositivity rates in this population range from 12.5% in Los Angeles,[18] to 33% in Baltimore, Maryland,[19] 46% in New York City,[20] and 39% in Sweden.[21]

Phylogeny

The currently accepted taxonomy is based on the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN). The phylogeny is based on whole-genome analysis.[22]

External links

Notes and References

  1. Brenner. D. J.. O'Connor. S. P.. Winkler. H. H.. Steigerwalt. A. G.. Proposals To Unify the Genera Bartonella and Rochalimaea, with Descriptions of Bartonella quintana comb. nov., Bartonella vinsonii comb. nov., Bartonella henselae comb. nov., and Bartonella elizabethae comb. nov., and To Remove the Family Bartonellaceae from the Order Rickettsiales. International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology. 43. 4. 1993. 777–786. 0020-7713. 10.1099/00207713-43-4-777. 8240958. free.
  2. Peters. D.. R. Wigand. Bartonellaceae. Bacteriol. Rev.. 1955. 19. 3. 150–159. 10.1128/MMBR.19.3.150-159.1955. 13260099. 180822. free.
  3. Book: Walker DH . Rickettsiae. In: Barron's Medical Microbiology. Baron S. etal. 4th . Univ of Texas Medical Branch . 1996 . https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mmed.section.2138. 978-0-9631172-1-2 . Rickettsiae.
  4. Chomel BB, Boulouis HJ . Zoonoses dues aux bactéries du genre Bartonella: nouveaux réservoirs? nouveaux vecteurs? . Zoonotic diseases caused by bacteria of the genus Bartonella: new reservoirs? new vectors? . fr . Bull. Acad. Natl. Med. . 189 . 3 . 465–77; discussion 477–80 . 2005 . 16149211 .
  5. Drancourt M, Tran-Hung L, Courtin J, Lumley H, Raoult D . Bartonella quintana in a 4000-year-old human tooth . J. Infect. Dis. . 191 . 4 . 607–11 . 2005 . 15655785 . 10.1086/427041. free .
  6. June 2008 . etymologia: Bartonella henselae . Emerging Infectious Diseases . 14 . 6 . 980 . 10.3201/eid1406.080980 . 1080-6040 . 2600307.
  7. Angelakis E, Billeter SA, Breitschwerdt EB, Chomel BB, Raoult D . Potential for tick-borne bartonellosis . Emerg Infect Dis . 16 . 3 . 385–91 . March 2010 . 20202411 . 10.3201/eid1603.091685 . 3322042.
  8. Telford SR III . Wormser GP . Bartonella spp. transmission by ticks not established . Emerg Infect Dis . 16 . 3 . 379–84 . March 2010 . 20202410 . 10.3201/eid1603.090443 . 3322007.
  9. Billeter SA, Levy MG, Chomel BB, Breitschwerdt EB . Vector transmission of Bartonella species with emphasis on the potential for tick transmission . Med Vet Entomol . 22 . 1 . 1–15 . Mar 2008 . 18380649 . 10.1111/j.1365-2915.2008.00713.x. free .
  10. Vilcins I, Kosoy M, Old JM, Deane EM (2009). Bartonella-like DNA detected in Ixodes ticks (Acari: Ixodida) infesting koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) in Victoria, Australia. Vector-Borne & Zoonotic Diseases. 9(5), 499-503. DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2008.0132
  11. Mosbacher M, Elliott SP, Shehab Z, Pinnas JL, Klotz JH, Klotz SA . Cat scratch disease and arthropod vectors: more to it than a scratch? . J Am Board Fam Med . 23 . 5 . 685–6 . Sep–Oct 2010 . 20823366 . 10.3122/jabfm.2010.05.100025. free .
  12. Chomel BB, Boulouis HJ, Maruyama S, Breitschwerdt EB . Bartonella spp. in pets and effect on human health . Emerg Infect Dis . 12 . 3 . 389–94 . Mar 2006 . 16704774 . 10.3201/eid1203.050931 . 3291446.
  13. Rolain JM, Brouqui P, Koehler JE, Maguina C, Dolan MJ, Raoult D . Recommendations for treatment of human infections caused by Bartonella species . Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. . 48 . 6 . 1921–33 . 2004 . 15155180 . 10.1128/AAC.48.6.1921-1933.2004 . 415619.
  14. Zeaiter Z, Liang Z, Raoult D . Genetic classification and differentiation of Bartonella species based on comparison of partial ftsZ gene sequences . J. Clin. Microbiol. . 40 . 10 . 3641–7 . 2002 . 12354859 . 10.1128/JCM.40.10.3641-3647.2002 . 130884 .
  15. Jacomo V, Kelly PJ, Raoult D . Natural history of Bartonella infections (an exception to Koch's postulate) . Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. . 9 . 1 . 8–18 . 2002 . 11777823 . 10.1128/CDLI.9.1.8-18.2002 . 119901 . https://web.archive.org/web/20050526171535/http://cdli.asm.org/cgi/content/full/9/1/8 . 2005-05-26 .
  16. Maco V, Maguiña C, Tirado A, Maco V, Vidal JE . Carrion's disease (Bartonellosis bacilliformis) confirmed by histopathology in the High Forest of Peru . Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Sao Paulo . 46 . 3 . 171–4 . 2004 . 15286824 . 10.1590/S0036-46652004000300010. free .
  17. Bats as Reservoir Hosts of Human Bacterial Pathogen, Bartonella mayotimonensis - Volume 20, Number 6—June 2014 - Emerging Infectious Disease journal - CDC. Emerging Infectious Diseases . 20. 6. 960–7. 10.3201/eid2006.130956. 24856523. 4036794. Pulliainen. Arto T.. Lilley. Thomas M.. Vesterinen. Eero J.. Veikkolainen. Ville. 2014.
  18. Smith HM . Prevalence study of antibody to ratborne pathogens and other agents among patients using a free clinic in downtown Los Angeles . J. Infect. Dis. . 186 . 11 . 1673–6 . 2002 . 12447746 . 10.1086/345377 . Reporter R . Rood MP . 3 . Linscott . Andrea J. . Mascola . Laurene M. . Hogrefe . Wayne . Purcell . Robert H. . free .
  19. Comer JA, Flynn C, Regnery RL, Vlahov D, Childs JE . Antibodies to Bartonella species in inner-city intravenous drug users in Baltimore, Md . Arch. Intern. Med. . 156 . 21 . 2491–5 . 1996 . 8944742 . 10.1001/archinte.156.21.2491 .
  20. Comer JA, Diaz T, Vlahov D, Monterroso E, Childs JE . Evidence of rodent-associated Bartonella and Rickettsia infections among intravenous drug users from Central and East Harlem, New York City . Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. . 65 . 6 . 855–60 . 2001 . 11791987 . 10.4269/ajtmh.2001.65.855. 22138835 .
  21. McGill S, Hjelm E, Rajs J, Lindquist O, Friman G . Bartonella spp. antibodies in forensic samples from Swedish heroin addicts . Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. . 990 . 1. 409–13 . 2003 . 12860665 . 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2003.tb07402.x . 2003NYASA.990..409M . 22712706 .
  22. Hördt A, García López M, Meier-Kolthoff JP, Schleuning M, Weinhold LM, Tindall BJ, Gronow A, Kyrpides NC, Woyke T, Göker M . 2020 . Analysis of 1,000+ Type-Strain Genomes Substantially Improves Taxonomic Classification of Alphaproteobacteria . Front. Microbiol. . 11 . 468 . 10.3389/fmicb.2020.00468. 32373076 . 7179689 . free .

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